THEORY OF

COMPUTATION

For
COMPUTER SCIENCE
 THEORY OF COMPUTATION

Syllabus
Regular expressions and finite automata. Context-free grammars and push-down
automata. Regular and contex-free languages, pumping lemma. Turing machines and
undecidability.

ANALYSIS OF GATE PAPERS

Exam Year 1 Mark Ques. 2 Mark Ques. Total
2003 3 6 15
2004 1 4 9
2005 - 7 14
2006 2 5 12
2007 2 5 12
2008 3 5 13
2009 4 3 11
2010 1 3 7
2011 3 3 9
2012 4 1 6
2013 2 3 8
2014 Set-1 2 2 6
2014 Set-2 2 2 6
2014 Set-3 2 2 6
2015 Set-1 1 2 5
2015 Set-2 1 3 7
2015 Set-3 1 1 3
2016 Set-1 3 3 9
2016 Set-2 3 4 11
2017 Set-1 2 4 10
2017 Set-2 3 4 11
2018 1 2 5

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 CONTENTS
Topics Page No
1. FINITE AUTOMATA AND REGULAR EXPRESSION

1.1 Alphabets, Strings and Languages 1

1.2 Operations on Languages 2
1.3 Automata and Grammars 3
1.4 Finite Automata 7
1.5 Minimization of Deterministic Finite Automata (DFA) 12
1.6 Regular Expression: Formal Definition 15
1.7 Language Described by RES 18
1.8 Regular Expression & Regular Language 20
1.9 Regular Grammars 20
1.10 Regular Language 22
1.11 Non-Regular Languages 25
1.12 Power of DFA and NFA in terms of Language Acceptance 25
1.13 Things to Remember 25
Gate Questions 26

2. CONTEXT-FREE GRAMMARS AND PUSHDOWN AUTOMATA

2.1 Context Free Grammar (CFG) 53

2.2 Derivation, Parse Tree and Ambiguity 54
2.3 Left Recursion, Left Factoring and Normal Forms 55
2.4 Pushdown Automata (PDA) 58
2.5 Deterministic and Non-Deterministic PDA 61
2.6 Equivalence of PDAS and CFGS 61
2.7 Context Free Languages 62
2.8 Closure Properties of CFL 62
2.9 Things to Remember 63
Gate Questions 64

3. TURING MASCHINE, UNRESTRICTED LANGUAGES, COMPLEXITY

3.1 Informal Description 84

3.2 Types of Turing Machine 85
3.3 Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Languages 87
3.4 Unrestricted Grammars 87
3.5 Context Sensitive Grammar and Linear Bounded Automata 88
3.6 Chomsky Hierarchy 88
3.7 Complexity Theory 88
3.8 P, NP, NP-Hard and NP-Complete Problems 89
Gate Questions 92

4. ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS 104

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 1 FINITE AUTOMATA AND REGULAR EXPRESSION

1.1 ALPHABETS, STRINGS & LANGUAGES It is not the case that a string over some
alphabet should contain all the symbols
The notion of natural languages like English, from the alphabet. For example, the string cc
Hindi, etc. is familiar to us. over the alphabet { a, b, c } does not contain
Informally, language can be defined as a the symbols a and b. Hence, it is true that a
system suitable for expression of certain string over an alphabet is also a string over
ideas, facts, or concepts, which includes a set any superset of that alphabet.
of symbols and rules to manipulate these.
The languages we consider for our Length of A String:
discussion is an abstraction of natural The number of symbols in a string w is
languages. That is, our focus here is on called its length, denoted by |w|.
formal languages that need precise and
formal definitions. Programming languages Example:
belong to this category. |011|=4, |11|=2, |b|=1
It is convenient to introduce a notation ε for
Symbols: the empty string, which contains no symbols
at all. The length of the empty string ε is
Symbols are indivisible objects or entity zero, i.e., |ε| = 0.
that cannot be defined. (Symbols are the
atoms of the world of languages) Some String Operations
A symbol is any single object such as , a, 0,
1, #, begin, or do. Let x = a1a2a3 ∈ an and y = b1b2b3 ∈bm be
two strings.
Alphabets: Concatenation: The concatenation of x and
y denoted by xy, is the string a1a2a3b1b2b3
An alphabet is a finite, nonempty set of That is, the concatenation of x and y
symbols. The alphabet of a language is denoted by xy is the string that has a copy
normally denoted by. When more than one of x followed by a copy of y without any
alphabets are considered for discussion, intervening space between them.
then subscripts may be used (e.g.  1,  2etc)
or sometimes other symbol like G may also Example
be introduced. Concatenation of the strings 0110 and 11 is
011011 and concatenation of the strings
Strings or Words over Alphabet good and boy is good boy.
A string or word over an alphabet  is a finite Note:
sequence of concatenated symbols of. For any string w, wε=εw = w.
It is also obvious that if | x | = n and | y |= m,
Example Then | x + y | = n + m.
0110, 11, 001 are three strings over the Prefix: u is a prefix of v if v =ux for some
binary alphabet {0, 1}. aab,abcb, b, cc string x.
are four strings over the alphabet { a, b, c }. Suffix: u is a suffix of v if v =xu for some
string x.

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 Substring: u is a substring of v if v =xuy for Example
some strings x and y. If ∑ = { a, b }, then ∑* = {, a, b,aa,ab,ba,
bb,aaa,aab, aba,abb, baa, …}.
Example Please note that if ∑ = Ø, then ∑* that is
Consider the string 011 over the binary Ø*={ε}. It may look odd that one can proceed
alphabet. All the prefixes, suffixes and from the empty set to a non-empty set by
substrings of this string are listed below.
iterated concatenation. But there is a reason
Prefixes: , 0, 01, 011.
for this and we accept this convention. The
Suffixes: , 1, 11, 011.
Substrings: , 0, 1, 01, 11, 011. set of all nonempty strings over an alphabet
Note that x is a prefix (suffix or substring) to ∑ is denoted by ∑+. That is,
x, for any string x and  is a prefix (Suffix or
substring) to any string. ∑+ = ∑1∪ ∑2 ∪ --- ∑* ∪ --- = ∪∑k (k is 1 to ∞)
A string x is a proper prefix (suffix) of string
Note that k is infinite. It contains no infinite
y if x is a prefix (suffix) of y and xy.
strings but strings of arbitrary lengths.
In the above example, all prefixes(suffixes)
except 011 are proper prefixes(Suffixes).
Reversal
For any string w = a1a2a3··· anthe reversal of
Powers of Strings
the string is wR = anan-1···a3 a2 a1.
For any string x and integer n ≥ 0, we use xn
For example if the string is x = abb then
to denote the string formed by sequentially
reverse of x = bba.
concatenating n copies of x. We can also give
an inductive definition of xn as follows: xn =
Languages
ε, if n = 0 ; otherwise xn = xxn-1
A language over an alphabet is a set of
Example strings over that alphabet. Therefore, a
If x = 011, then x 3= 011011011, x 1= 011 and language L is any subset of ∑*. That is, any L
x0 = ε ⊆ ∑* is a language.

Powers of Alphabets Example

We write∑k(for some integer k) to denote 1. ⏀ is the empty language.
the set of strings of length k with symbols 2. ∑*is a language for any∑.
from ∑. In other words ∑k={w| w is a string 3. {ε } is a language for any ∑.
over ∑ and |w|=k}. Hence, for any alphabet, Note that,⏀ ≠ { ε}. Because the language
∑0denotes the set of all strings of length F does not contain any string but {ε }
zero. That is, ∑0= {ε}. For the binary contains one string of length zero.
alphabet {0, 1} we have the following. 4. The set of all strings over {0, 1}
∑0 = {ε} containing equal number of 0's and 1's.
∑1 = {0,1} 5. The set of all strings over {a,b,c} that
∑2 = {00, 01, 10, 11} starts with a.
∑3 = {000,001,010,011, 100, 101, 110, 111}
The set of all strings over an alphabet ∑ is 1.2 OPERATIONS ON LANGUAGES
denoted by ∑* . That is,
∑* = ∑0∪∑1∪∑2∪ --- ∑n ∪ --- = ∪∑k (K is 0 to ∞) Since languages are set of strings we can
apply set operations to languages. Here are
The set ∑* contains all the strings that can be some simple examples (though there is
generated by iteratively concatenating nothing new in it).
symbols from ∑ any number of times.

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 Union of L with itself n times. This is defined
A stringx ∈ L1 ∪ L2 iff x ∈ L1 or x ∈ L2 formally as follows:
L0 = { ε}
Example Ln = LLn-1
{ 0, 11, 01, 011 } { 1, 01, 110 } = { 0, 1, 11,
01, 011, 110 } Example
Let L = {a,ab}.
Intersection Then according to the definition, we have
A string x ∈ L1 ∩ L2 iff x ∈ L1 and x ∈ L2 L0 = {ε}
Example L1 = L{ε} = L = { a, ab }
{ 0, 11, 01, 011 } { 1, 01, 110 } = { 01 } L2 = LL 1 = {a, ab } {a, ab} = { aa, aab, aba, abab
}
Complement L = LL2 = {a, ab} {aa, aab, aba, abab}
3

Usually, ∑* is the universe that a = { aaa, aaab, aaba, aabab, abaa, abaab,
complement is taken with respect to. Thus ababa,
for a language L, thecomplement is L(bar) = ababab } and so on.
{ x ∈ ∑* | x ∉ L }.
Kleene's Star operation
Example The Kleene star operation on a language L,
Let L = {x | |x| is even}. Then its complement denoted as L*is defined as follows:
is the language { x∈ ∑* | |x| is L*= ( Union in N and n>=0) Ln
odd}. Similarly we can define other usual set = L0∪ L1∪ L2 ∪ ···
operations on languages like relative = { x | x is the concatenation of zero or
complement, symmetric difference, etc. more strings from L }
Thus L* is the set of all strings derivable by
Reversal of A Language any number of concatenations of strings in
The reversal of a language L, denoted as LR, L.
is defined as: LR = { WR | W ∈ L} .
Example It is also useful to define L+=LL*, i.e., all
1. Let L = { 0, 11, 01, 011 }. Then LR = { 0, strings derivable by one or more
11, 10, 110 }. concatenations of strings in L.
2. Let L = { 1n0n| n is an integer }. Then LR That is L+= (Union n in N and n>0) Ln
= {0n1n | n is an integer }. = L1∪ L2∪ L3 ∪ ···

Language concatenation Example

The concatenation of languages L 1 and L2is Let L = { a, ab }. Then we have,
defined as L 1 L2= { xy | x ∈ L1and y ∈ L2 }. L*= L0∪ L1∪ L2 ∪ ···
= { ε }∪{a, ab} ∪{aa, aab, aba, abab} ∪…
Example L+= L1∪ L2∪ L3 ∪ ···
{ a, ab }{ b, ba } = { ab, aba, abb, abba }. = {a, ab}∪{aa, aab, aba, abab}∪…
Note that,
1. L1 L2≠ L2 L1 in general. 1.3 AUTOMATA AND GRAMMARS
2. LΦ = Φ and ΦL = Φ
3. L{ ε } = L and { ε }L = L Automata
Since we can concatenate two languages, we
also repeat this to concatenate any number An automata is an abstract computing
of languages. Or we can concatenate a device (or machine). There are different
language with itself any number of times. verities of such abstract machines (also
The operation Ln denotes the concatenation called models of computation) which can be
defined mathematically. Some of them are

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 as powerful in principle as today's real state in some defined manner
computers, while the simpler ones are less determined by a transition function
powerful. (Some models are considered
even more powerful than any real
computers as they have infinite memory
and are not subject to physical constraints
on memory unlike in real computers).
Studying the simpler machines are still
worth as it is easier to introduce some
formalisms used in theory.

 Every automaton consists of some

essential features as in real computers. It
Diagrammatic representation of a
has a mechanism for reading input. The
generic automation.
input is assumed to be a sequence of
symbols over a given alphabet and is
Operation of the automation is defined
placed on an input tape(or written on an
as follows.
input file). The simpler automata can
only read the input one symbol at a time
 At any point of time the automaton is in
from left to right but not change.
some integral state and is reading a
Powerful versions can both read (from
particular symbol from the input tape by
left to right or right to left) and change
using the mechanism for reading input.
the input.
In the next time step the automaton then
moves to some other integral (or remain
 The automaton can produce output of
in the same state) as defined by the
some form. If the output in response to
transition function. The transition
an input string is binary (say, accept or
function is based on the current state,
reject), then it is called an accepter. If it
input symbol read, and the content of the
produces an output sequence in
temporary storage. At the same time the
response to an input sequence, then it is
content of the storage may be changed
called a transducer(or automaton with
and the input read may be modified. The
output).
automation may also produce some
output during this transition. The
 The automaton may have a temporary
internal state, input and the content of
storage, consisting of an unlimited
storage at any point defines the
number of tape cells, each capable of
configuration of the automaton at that
holding a symbol from an alphabet
point. The transition from one
(which may be different from the input
configuration to the next ( as defined by
alphabet). The automaton can both read
the transition function) is called a move.
and change the contents of the storage
Finite state machine or Finite
cells in the temporary storage. The
Automation is the simplest type of
accusing capability of this storage varies
abstract machine we consider. Any
depending on the type of the storage.
system that is at any point of time in one
of a finite number of interval state and
 The most important feature of the
moves among these states in a defined
automaton is its control unit, which can
manner in response to some input, can
be in any one of a finite number of
be modeled by a finite automaton. It
interval states at any point. It can change
does not have any temporary storage

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 and hence a restricted model of These concepts are generalized in formal
computation. language leading to formal grammars. The
word 'formal' here refers to the fact that the
Grammar specified rules for the language are
A grammar is a mechanism used for explicitly stated in terms of what strings or
describing languages. This is one of the most symbols can occur. There can be no
simple but yet powerful mechanism. There ambiguity in it.
are other notions to do the same, of course.
In everyday language, like English, we have Formal definitions of a Grammar
a set of symbols (alphabet), a set of words A grammar G is defined as a quadruple.
constructed from these symbols, and a set of G = ( N,∑ , P, S )
rules using which we can group the words N is a non-empty finite set of non-terminals
to construct meaningful sentences. The or variables, ∑ is a non-empty finite set of
grammar for English tells us what are the terminal symbols such that N ∩ ∑ = ∅.
words in it and the rules to construct S ∈ N, is a special non-terminal (or variable)
sentences. It also tells us whether a called the start symbol, and
particular sentence is well-formed (as per P:(N∪∑)+X(N∪∑)* is a finite set of
the grammar) or not. But even if one follows production rules.
the rules of the English grammar it may lead The binary relation defined by the set of
to some sentences which are not meaningful production rules is denoted by →, i.e. α → β
at all, because of impreciseness and if
ambiguities involved in the language. In α,β ∈ P. In other words, P is a finite set of
English grammar we use many other higher production rules of the form α → β, where
level constructs like noun-phrase, verb- α ∈ (N∪∑ )+ , α must contain at least one
phrase, article, noun, predicate, verb etc. non-terminal and β ∈ ( N∪∑ )*
A typical rule can be defined as < sentence
>→< noun-phrase ><predicate> meaning The production rules specify how the
that "a sentence can be constructed using a grammar transforms one string to another.
'noun-phrase' followed by apredicate". Given a string δαγ, we say that the
Some more rules are as follows: production rule α → β is applicable to this
string, since it is possible to use the rule α →
< noun-phrase >→< article >< noun > β to rewrite the α (in δαγ) to β obtaining a
<predicate>→< verb > new string δβγ We say that δαγ derives δβγ
and is denoted as δαγ ⇒ δβγ
with similar kind of interpretation given Successive strings are derived by applying
above. the productions rules of the grammar in any
If we take {a, an, the} to be <article>; cow, arbitrary order. A particular rule can be
bird, boy, Ram, pen to be examples of used if it is applicable, and it can be applied
<noun>; and eats, runs, swims, walks, are as many times as described.
associated with <verb>, then we can We write α ⇒*β if the string β can be
construct the sentence- a cow runs, the boy derived from the string α in zero or more
eats, an pen walks- using the above rules. steps; α ⇒+β if β can be derived from α in
Even though all sentences are well-formed, one or more steps.
the last one is not meaningful. We observe By applying the production rules in
that we start with the higher level construct arbitrary order, any given grammar can
<sentence> and then reduce it to <noun- generate many strings of terminal symbols
phrase>, <article>, <noun>, <verb> starting with the special start symbol, S, of
successively, eventually leading to a group the grammar. The set of all such terminal
of words associated with these constructs.

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 strings is called the language generated (or Chomsky Hierarchy
defined) by the grammar. The famous linguistic Noam Chomsky
Formally, for a given grammar G = (N, ∑, P, attempted to formalize the notion of
S) the language generated by G is grammar and languages in the 1950s. This

L(G)  w * | S  *
w  effort, due to Chomsky, resulted in the
definition of the "Chomsky Hierarchy", a
That is W ∈ L(G) if S ⇒ G. If,W ∈ L(G) we
hierarchy of language classes defined by
must have for some n ≥ 0,
gradually increasing the restrictions on the
S = α1 ⇒ α2 ⇒ α3 ⇒···⇒ αn, denoted as a
form of the productions. Chomsky
derivation sequence of w, The strings
numbered the four families of grammars
S = α1, α2, α3 ···, αn = w are denoted as
(and languages) that make up the hierarchy
sentential forms of the derivation
and are defined as below.
Let G = ( N , , P, S ) be a grammar
Example
Consider the grammar G = (N, ∑, P, S) ,
1. G is called a Type-0 or unrestricted, or
where N = {S}, ∑ ={a, b} and P is the set of
semi-there or phrase-structure
the following production rules { S →ab, S →
grammar if
aSb}
Some terminal strings generated by this all productions are of the form α → β ,
where α ∈ (N ∪ ∑ )+and β ∈ (N ∪ ∑ )*
grammar together with their derivation is
given below.
2. G is a Type-1 or context-sensitive
S ⇒ ab
grammar if each production α → β in P
S ⇒ aSb⇒ aabb
satisfies |α|≤|β| such that α ∈ (N ∪ ∑ )+
S ⇒ aSb⇒ aaSbb⇒ aaabbb
α must contain at least one non-terminal
It is easy to prove that the language
and β ∈ (N ∪ ∑ )*. Type-1 grammar, by
generated by this grammar is
specification it is allowed to have the

L(G)  aiSbi ,i  1  production S → ∈ (esplin), provided S
By using the first production, it generates does not appear on the right-hand side
the string ab( for i =1 ). of any production.
To generate any other string, it needs to
start with the production S → aSb and then 3. G is a Type-2 or context-free grammar if
the non-terminal S in the RHS can be each production α → β in P, α ∈ N, |α| =
replaced either by ab(in which we get the 1 satisfies |α| i.e. α is a single non
string aabb) or the same production S →aSb terminal and β ∈ (N ∪ ∑)*.
can be used one or more times. Every time it
adds an 'a' to the left and a 'b' 4. G is a Type-3 or regular grammar if each
to the right of S, thus giving the sentential production has one of the
form a iSbi ,i  1 . When the non-terminal is Following forms: N→N∑*, N→∑* or
replaced by ab (which is then only N→∑*N, N→∑* where N is the set of
possibility for generating a terminal string) Non-Terminals and ∑ is the set of
we get a terminal string of the form Terminal symbols.
a iSbi ,i  1 . The language generated by a Type-i
There is no general rule for finding a grammar is called a Type-i language, i =
grammar for a given language. For many 0,1,2,3. A Type-0 language is also called
languages we can devise grammars and unrestricted language. A Type-1 language is
there are many languages for which we also called a context-sensitive language
cannot find any grammar. (CSL). We have already observed that a
Type-2 language is also called a Context-

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 Free Language (CFL) and a Type-3 language expressions exactly capture the behaviors of
is also called a regular language. Each class finite automata. In 1959, Dana Scott and
of language in the Chomsky hierarchy is Michael Rabin introduced non-
characterized as the language generated by deterministic automata and showed the
a type of automata. These relationships have surprising theorem that they are equivalent
been summarized in the following table for to deterministic automata. We will study
convenience. these fundamental results. Since those early
years, the study of automata has continued
Grammars Languages Automata to grow, showing that they are indeed a
Type-0 , phrase-struct fundamental idea in computing.
Recursively
, semi- Turing
enumerable
true,Unrestricted
language
Machine States, Transitions And Finite-State
grammars Transition System
Linear-
Type-1 , Context Context-sensitive
bounded
Senstive Grammar language
automata Let us first give some intuitive idea about a
Type-2, Context-Free Context-free Pushdown state of a system and state transitions
Grammars language Automata before describing finite automata.
Type-3, Regular, right-
Finite
linear,left-linear Regular Language Informally, a state of a system is an
Automata
grammar
instantaneous description of that system
which gives all relevant information
Example
necessary to determine how the system can
Find a grammar for the language
evolve from that point on. Transitions are
L = {anbn+1|n ≥ 1}. It is possible to find a
changes of states that can occur
grammar for L by modifying the previous
spontaneously or in response to inputs to
grammar since we need to generate an extra
the states. Though transitions usually take
b at the end of the string anbn , n ≥ 1. We can
time, we assume that state transitions are
do this by adding a production S → Bb where
instantaneous (which is an abstraction).
the non-terminal B generates a iSbi ,i  1 as Some examples of state transition systems
given in the previous example. Using the are: digital systems, vending machines, etc.
above concept we devise the following A system containing only a finite number of
grammar for L. states and transitions among them is called
G = (N,∑,P,S) whereN = { S, B } a finite-state transition system. Finite-state
P = { S→Bb, B →ab, B → aBb} transition systems can be modeled
abstractly by a mathematical model called
1.4 FINITE AUTOMATA finite automation. We said that automata
are a model of computation. That means
Automata (singular: automation) are a that they are a simplified abstraction of `the
particularly simple, but useful, model of real thing'. So what gets abstracted away?
computation. They were initially proposed One thing that disappears is any notion of
as a simple model for the behavior of hardware or software. We merely deal with
neurons. The concept of a finite automaton states and transitions between states. The
appears to have arisen in the 1943 paper “A distinction between program and machine
logical calculus of the ideas immanent in executing it disappears. One could say that
nervous activity", by Warren McCullock and an automaton is the machine and the
Walter Pitts. In 1951 Kleene introduced program. This makes automata relatively
regular expressions to describe the easy to implement in either hardware or
behavior of finite automata. He also proved software. From the point of view of resource
the important theorem saying that regular consumption, the essence of a finite

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 automaton is that it is a strictly finite model input string is accepted ; otherwise, the
of computation. Everything in it is of a fixed, string is rejected. Summarizing all the
finite size and cannot be modified in the above we can formulate the following
course of the computation. formal definition:

1.4.1Deterministic Finite (State) Formal Definition of DFA

Automata (DFA) A Deterministic Finite State Automaton
(DFA) is a 5-tuple M = (Q,∑,δ,q0,F)
Informally, a DFA (Deterministic Finite
State Automaton) is a simple machine that  Q is a finite set of states.
reads an input string -- one symbol at a time  ∑ is a finite set of input symbols or
-- and then, after the input has been alphabet.
completely read, decides whether to accept  δ : Q x ∑ → Q is the “next state” transition
or reject the input. As the symbols are read function (which is total ). Intuitively, δ is
from the tape, the automaton can change its a function that tells which state to move
state, to reflect how it reacts to what it has to in response to an input, i.e., if M is in
seen so far. Thus, a DFA conceptually state q and sees input a, it moves to state
consists of 3 parts: δ (q,a)
 qo ∈ Q is the start state.
1. A tape to hold the input string. The tape  F ⊆ Qis the set of accept or final states.
is divided into a finite number of cells.
Each cell holds a symbol from ∑. Acceptance of Strings
2. A tape head for reading symbols from A DFA accepts a string w = a 1a2···an if there
the tape is a sequence of states q0 , q1, ···,qnin Q such
3. A control, which itself consists of 3 that
things:
 Finite number of states that the 1. q0 is the start state.
machine is allowed to be in (zero or 2. δ(qi,ai+1) = qi+1 for all 0  i  n .
more states are designated as accept 3. qn𝛜F .
or final states),
 A current state, initially set to a start Language Accepted or Recognized by a
state, DFA
 A state transition function for
changing the current state. The language accepted or recognized by a
An automaton processes a string on the tape DFA M is the set of all strings accepted by M
by repeating the following actions until the , and is denoted by L(M)i.e.
tape head has traversed the entire string: L(M) = { w ∈ ∑* | M accepts a } The notion
of acceptance can also be made more
1. The tape head reads the current tape cell precise by extending the transition function
and sends the symbol s found there the δ.
control. Then the tape head moves to the
next cell. Extended transition function
2. The control takes s and the current state
and consults the state transition Extend δ : Q X ∑ → Q (which is function on
function to get the next state, which symbols) to a function on strings, i.e.
becomes the new current state. Once the δ*: Q × ∑*→Q. That is, δ*(q,w) is the state the
entire string has been processed, the automation reaches when it starts from the
state in which the automation enters is state q and finish processing the string w.
examined. If it is an accept state , the

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 Formally, we can give an inductive 1. For each state in Q there is a node.
definition as follows: The language of the 2. There is a directed edge from node q to
DFA M is the set of strings that can take the node plabelled a ifδ(q, a)=p. (If there are
start state to one of the accepting states i.e. several input symbols that cause a
L(M) = { w ∈ ∑* | M accepts w } transition, the edge is labelled by the list
= { w ∈ ∑*|δ*(q0,w)ϵF} of these symbols.)
3. There is an arrow with no source into
Example of DFA thestart state.
M = ( Q, ∑, δ, q0 ,F) 4. Accepting states are indicated by double
Q = { q 0 , q1 } circle.
q0 is the start state A (State) Transition diagram for the
F={q1} language L is shown below.
δ(q0,0)= q0 δ(q1,0)= q1
δ(q0,1)= q1 δ(q1,1)= q1

It is a formal description of a DFA. But it is

hard to comprehend. For ex. The language of
the DFA is L = {any string over { 0, 1} having
at least one 1}. We can describe the same
Explanation
DFA by transition table or state transition
We cannot reach final state until 1 appears
diagram as following: It is easy to
in the i/p string. There can be any no. of 0's
comprehend the transition diagram.
at the beginning. (The self-loop at q0 on label
0 indicates it). Once the one 1 appeared in
Transition table
the input there can be any no. of 0's & 1's in
It is basically a tabular representation of the
any order at the end of the string.
transition function that takes two
arguments (a state and a symbol) and
Informal description how a DFA
returns a value (the “next state”).
operates:
 Rows correspond to states,
An input to a DFA can be any string w ∈ ∑*.
 Columns correspond to input symbols,
Put a pointer to the start state q. Read the
 Entries correspond to next states
input string w from left to right, one symbol
 The start state is marked with an arrow
at a time, moving the pointer according to
 The accept states are marked with a star
the transition function, δ. If the next symbol
(*).
of w is a and the pointer is on state p, move
A transition table for the language L is
the pointer to δ (p,a). When the end of the
shown below.
input string w is encountered, the pointer is
on some state, r. The string is said to be
accepted by the DFA if r ∈ F and rejected if
r ∉ F.
A language L ∈ ∑* is said to be regular if L =
L(M) for some DFA M. i.e. There must exist
at least one DFA which can simulate the
strings of language L.
(State) Transition diagram:

A state transition diagram or simply a

transition diagram is a directed graph which
can be constructed as follows:

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 1.4.2 Nondeterministic Finite
Few More Examples on DFA Automata (NFA)
Non determinism is an important
L1 = {Set of strings that ends with 01} abstraction in computer science.
Importance of non-determinism is found in
the design of algorithms. For examples,
there are many problems with efficient
nondeterministic solutions but no known
efficient deterministic solutions.
(Travelling salesman, Hamiltonian cycle,
clique, etc). Behavior of a process is in a
distributed system is also a good example of
L2 = {Set of strings that contains 01} nondeterministic situation. Because the
behavior of a process might depend on some
messages from other processes that might
arrive at arbitrary times with arbitrary
contents.
It is easy to construct and comprehend an
NFA than DFA for a given regular language.
L3 = {Set of strings that starts with 01} The concept of NFA can also be used in
proving many theorems and results. Hence,
it plays an important role in this subject.
In the context of FA non determinism can be
incorporated naturally. That is, an NFA is
defined in the same way as the DFA but with
the following two exceptions:
1. Multiple or No next state.
2. ∈ - Transitions.

∈ - Transitions
L4 = {Strings having second last symbol In an ∈-transition, the tape head doesn't do
0} anything- it does not read and it does not
move. However, the state of the automata
can be changed - that is can go to zero, one
or more states. This is written formally as δ
(q,∈) ={q1, q2, ···, qk} implying that the next
state could by any one of q1, q2, ··· qk w/o
consuming the next input symbol.}

Acceptance
Informally, an NFA is said to accept its input
L5 = (00+11)*
w if it is possible to start in some start state
and process w, moving according to the
transition rules and making choices along
the way whenever the next state is not
uniquely defined, such that when w is
completely processed (i.e. end of w is
reached), the automata is in an accept state.
There may be several possible paths

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 through the automation in response to an Note: In case of NFA, for string w there can
input w since the start state is not be many paths from the starting state. If any
determined and there are choices along the of the path is ending in accepting state, the
way because of multiple next states. Some of string is said to be accepted by NFA. If none
these paths may lead to accept states while of the path ends in accepting state the string
others may not. The automation is said to is said to be rejected by NFA.
accept w if at least one computation path on
input w starting from at least one start state The Extended Transition function δ*,
leads to an accept state- otherwise, the
automation rejects input w. Alternatively, To describe acceptance by an NFA formally,
we can say that, w is accepted if there exists it is necessary to extend the transition
a path with label w from some start state to function, denoted as δ*, takes a state q ∈ Q
some accept state. Since there is no and a string w∑*, and returns the set of
mechanism for determining which state to states, S⊆ Q, that the NFA is in after
start in or which of the possible next moves processing the string w if it starts in state q.
to take (including the w - transitions) in Formally, δ̂is defined as follows:
response to an input symbol we can think
that the automation is having some 1. δ*(q,∈)={q} that is, without rending any
"guessing" power to choose the correct one input symbol, an NFA does not change
in case the input is accepted. state.
2. Let y = xa some∞, xϵ∑* and aϵ∑. δ*(q,y)
Example = δ*(q,xa)= U { δ(r,a), where r ϵ δ*(q,x) }
Consider the language L = {wЄ{a,b}*| Strings .
ending in ab}. The following NFA accepts L.
Formal definition of NFA
Formally, an NFA is a quintuple
M = ( Q, ∑, δ , q0, F) where Q, ∑, q0, and F bear
the same meaning as for a DFA, but δ, the
transition function is redefined as follows:
δ : Q x ( ∑ ∪ {∈}) → P (Q) where P(Q) is the
power set of Q i.e.2Q.
The m/c is not deterministic since there are
two transitions from state 1 on input a, no The Language of an NFA:
transition (zero transition) from state 2 for From the discussion of the acceptance by an
symbol a and no transition from state 3 for NFA, we can give the formal definition of a
symbols a & b. For any string w which ends language accepted by an NFA as follows :
with ab, there exists a sequence of legal If N = (Q, ∑, δ, q0, F ) is an NFA, then the
transitions leading from the start state 1, to language accepted by N is written as L(N)
the accept state 3. But for any string w which given by L(N) = {w | δ*(q,w) ∩ F ≠ Φ} .
does not end with ab, there is no possible That is, L(N) is the set of all strings w in
sequence of legal transitions leading from 1 ∑* such that δ*(q,w)contains at least one
to 3. Hence m/c accepts L. accepting state.
If you observe the NFA, you will find that for Few More Examples on NFA
string aab it ends in state 1 as well as state 3
but one of the state from 1 and 3 is accepting L1 = {Set of strings that ends with 01}
state, hence the string is said to be accepted
by NFA.

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 L. Given two DFAs accepting the same
language L, it is now natural to ask - which
one is more simple? In this case, obviously,
the one with less number of states would be
simpler than the other. So, given a DFA
accepting a language, we might wonder
L2 = {Set of strings that contains 01} whether the DFA could further be simplified
i.e. can we reduce the number of states
accepting the same language?
Consider the following DFA M1,

L3 = {Set of strings that starts with 01}

A minute observation will reveal that it

accepts the language of the regular
expression
L4 = {Strings having second last symbol
a*b(a + b)* The same language is accepted
0}
by the following simpler DFA M2 as well.

It is a fact that, for any regular language L

there is a unique minimal state DFA (the
L5 = (00+11)* uniqueness is up to isomorphism to be
defined next).
For any given DFA M accepting L we can
construct the minimal state DFA accepting L
by using an algorithm which uses following
generic steps.
 First, remove all the states (of the given
DFA M) which are not accessible from
the start state i.e. states P for which
there is no string x ∈ ∑* s.t. δ  q0 , x   p .
Removing these states, clearly, will not
change the language accepted by the
DFA.
 Second, remove all the trap states, i.e. all
states P from which there is no
1.5 MINIMIZATION OF DETERMINISTIC transition out of it.
FINITE AUTOMATA (DFA)  Finally, merge all states which are
"equivalent" or "indistinguishable". We
For any regular language L it may be need to define formally what is meant by
possible to design different DFAs to accept equivalent or indistinguishable states;

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 but at this point we assume that merging f   q0 , y  q  x L y .
these states would not change the
accepted language. Inaccessible states A Minimization Algorithm
can easily be found out by using a simple
We now produce an algorithm to construct
research e.g. depth first search.
the minimal state DFA from any given DFA
Removing trap states are also simple. In
accepting L by merging states inductively.
the example, states 5 and 6 are
The algorithm assume that all states are
inaccessible and hence can be removed;
reachable from the start state i.e. there is no
states 1 and 2 are equivalent and can be
inaccessible states. The algorithm keeps on
merged. Similarly states 3 & 4 are also
marking pairs of states (p, q) as soon as it
equivalent and can be merged together
determines that p and q are distinguishable
to have the minimal DFA M2as produced
i.e. p ≢ q. The pairs are, of course, unordered
above.
i.e. pairs (p, q) and (q ,p) are considered to
To construct the minimal DFA we need
be identical. The steps of the algorithm are
to see how to find out indistinguishable
given below.
or equivalent states for merging. we
start with a definition and then proceed 1. For every p, q ∈ Q , initially unmark all
to find method to construct minimal pairs (p, q ).
state DFAs. 2. If p∈ F and q  F (or vice versa) then
mark (p, q).
Note: For any regular language L there is a
3. Repeat the following step until no more
unique DFA that has a minimum number of
changes occur: If there exists an
states. In fact, the minimum DFA has as
unmarked pair (p, q) such that
many states as the equivalence classes of L.
(as defined in the context of Mayhill-Nerada   p,a  ,  q,a  is marked for some
Theorem). a  , then mark (p, q).
4. p  q iff (p, q) is unmarked.
Definition of Indistinguishability: The algorithm correctly computes all pairs
States p and q are indistinguishable if of states that can be distinguished i.e.
unmarked. It is easy to show (by induction)
x *  p, x   F if f   q, x   F , and is that thepair (p, q) is marked by the above
denoted as p  q . It is easy to see that algorithm if x  * s.t.
indicting usability is an equivalence   p, x   F and   q, x   F (or vice versa ) i.e.
relation.
if p ≢ q
In other words we say that sates p and q are
"distinguishable" if x  * s.t
Example:
  p, x   Fand   q, x   F is denoted as Consider the following DFA which we need
p  q. to minimise:
We say that, states p and q of a DFA M
accepting a language L can be merged safely
(i.e. without changing the accepted language
L) if p  q i.e. if p and q are
indistinguishable. We can prove this by
showing that when p and q are merged.
Then they correspond to the same state in
M L Formally, p  q iff
x, y *,   q0 , x   p andx

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 Initially, all cells are unmarked. (i.e. at step   q3 ,q4  
1
 q5 ,q5 
1 of the algorithm). After step 2, all cells The resulting table after this pass is given
representing pairs of states of which one is below.
accepting and the other is non-accepting are
marked by putting an X. The table below
shows the status after this step.

In the next pass we find that

 q0 ,q3  
0
 q1,q5  and  q1,q5  is marked
In step 3, we consider all unmarked pairs in the previous pass .Hence,  q0 ,q3  can be
one by one. Considering the unmarked pair
marked now.
 q0 ,q3  , we find that q0 & q 3 go to q1 and q5 ,
respectively, on input 0. we use the notation Similarly,  q0 ,q4  
1
 q2 ,q5  and hence
 q0 ,q3  
0
 q1,q5  to indicate this. Since
 q0 ,q4  can be marked since  q2 ,q5  has
the pair  q1,q5  is not marked,  q0 ,q3  been marked in the previous pass. Other
cannot be marked at this point. Again, we pairs cannot be marked and the resulting
see that,  q0 ,q3  
1
 q2 ,q5  and  q2 ,q5  is table is shown below. By executing step 3
unmarked. again we observe that no more pairs can be
marked and hence the algorithm stops with
Hence, we cannot mark  q0 ,q3  and since we
this table as the final result.
have considered all input symbols (0 & 1)
we need to examine other unmarked pairs.
The observations and actions are shown
below.
  q0 ,q4  
0
 q1 ,q5 
  q0 ,q4  1
 q2 ,q5  ,cannot mark  q0 ,q4 
since  q1,q5  &  q 2 ,q5  are unmarked.
  q1,q2  0
 q3 ,q4 
  q1,q2  1
 q3 ,q4  , cannot mark
  q1,q2  since  q3 ,q4  is unmarked .
  q1,q5  0
 q3 ,q5  ,  q1,q5  is marked The unmarked pairs left in the table after
since  q3 ,q5  is already marked. execution of the algorithm are  q1 ,q 2  and
  q2 ,q5  0
 q4 ,q5  ,  q2 ,q5  is marked  q3 ,q4  implying q1  q 2 and q3  q 4 . Now,
since  q3 ,q5  is already marked. we merge q1 & q 2 and q 3 & q 4 to have new
  q3 ,q4  0
 q5 ,q5  ,  q5 ,q5  is never states q12 & q34 , respectively.
marked since it is not in the table &
hence  q3 ,q 4  is not marked.

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 Transitions are adjusted appropriately to Example
obtain the following minimal DFA. Let = {0,1,2}. Then (0+21)*(1+ ∅) is a RE,
because we can construct this expression by
applying the above rules as given in the
following step.
Steps RE Constructed Rule Used
q12 is a final state, since both q1 & q 2 were 1 1 Rule 1(iii)
2 ∅ Rule 1(i)
final states. Similarly q34 is a non-final state. Rule 2(i) & Results
q 0 Goes to q12 on input 0 and 1, since q 0 go 3 1+∅ of Step 1, 2
4 (1+∅) Rule 2(iv) & Step 3
to q1 and q 2 respectively on 0 and .Similar, 5 2 1(iii)
justifications suffice for other adjusted 6 1 1(iii)
transitions.
7 21 2(ii), 5, 6
8 0 1(iii)
1.6 REGULAR EXPRESSION: FORMAL 9 0+21 2(i), 7, 8
DEFINITION 10 (0+21) 2(iv), 9
11 (0+21)* 2(iii), 10
We construct REs from primitive 12 (0+21)* 2(ii), 4, 11
constituents (basic elements) by repeatedly
applying certain recursive rules as given 1.7 LANGUAGE DESCRIBED BY RES
below. (In the definition)
Each describes a language (or a language is
Definition associated with every RE). We will see later
Let Σ be an alphabet. The regular that REs are used to attribute regular
expressions are defined recursively as languages.
follows.
Notation
BASIS If r is a RE over some alphabet then L(r) is
the language associated with r. We can
i)  is a RE define the language L(r) associated with (or
described by) a REs as follows.
ii) ∈ is a RE
1. ∅ is the RE describing the empty
iii) ∀ a ∈ ∑ , a is RE.
language i.e. L(∅) =∅.
These are called primitive regular 2. ∈ is a RE describing the language {∈} i.e.
expression i.e. Primitive Constituents L(∈) = {∈} .
3. ∀ a ∈ ∑, a is a RE denoting the language
RECURSIVE STEP {a} i.e . L(a) = {a} .
4. If r1 and r2 are REs denoting language
If r1 and r2 are REs over Σ* , then so are L(r1) and L(r2) respectively, then
i) r1  r2 ii) r1r2 i) r1  r2 is a regular expression denoting
iii) r1* iv) (r1) the language L( r1  r2 ) = L(r1) + L(r2)
ii) r1r2 is a regular expression denoting
CLOSURE
the language L( r1r2 )=L(r1) L(r2)
r is RE over Σ* only if it can be obtained from iii) r1*is a regular expression denoting
the basic elements (Primitive REs) by a the language L(r1*) = (L(r 1))*
finite no of applications of the recursive step iv) (r1) is a regular expression denoting
(given in 2.1.2). the language L((r1)) = L(r1)

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 Example Example
Consider the RE (0*(0+1)). Thus the The RE (ab)*+b represents the language
language denoted by the RE is (L(a)L(b))* ∪L(b).
L(0*(0+1)) = L(0*) L(0+1) ..................... ..by
4(ii) Example
= L(0)*{L(0) + L(1)} It is easy to see that the RE (0+1)*(0+11)
= { , 0,00,000,........} {0} ∪{1} represents the language of all strings over
= { , 0,00,000,........} {0,1} {0,1} which are either ended with 0 or 11.
={0,00,000,0000,........,1,01,001, 0001,........} Example
The regular expression r =(00)*(11)*1
Precedence Rule denotes the set of all strings with an even
number of 0's followed by an odd number of
Consider the RE ab + c. The language
described by the RE can be thought of either 1's i.e. L(r)  {02n12m1 | n  0, m  0}
L(a)L(b+c) or L(ab)∪ L(c) as provided by Note:
the rules (of languages described by REs) The notation r+ is used to represent the RE
given already. But these two represents two rr*. Similarly, r2 represents the RE rr, r3
different languages lending to ambiguity. To denotes rr2, and so on. An arbitrary string
remove this ambiguity we can either over ∑= {0,1} is denoted as (0+1)*.
1) Use fully parenthesized expression- Exercise:
(cumbersome) or Give a RE r over {0,1} s.t. L(r)={ x∈{0,1}*|x
2) Use a set of precedence rules to evaluate has at least one pair of consecutive 1's}
the options of REs in some order. Like
other algebras mod in mathematics .For Solution
REs, the order of precedence for the Every string in L(r) must contain 11
operators is as follows: somewhere, but what comes before and
i) The star operator precedes what goes before is completely arbitrary.
concatenation and concatenation Considering these observations we can
precedes union (+) operator. write the REs as (0+1)*11(0+1)*.
ii) It is also important to note that
concatenation & union (+) operators Example
are associative and union operation Considering the above example it becomes
is commutative. Using these clear that the RE (0 + 1) * 11 (0 + 1) * + (0 +
precedence rule, we find that the RE 1)*00(0+1)* represents the set of string
ab+c represents the language over {0,1} that contains the substring 11 or
L(ab)∪L(c) i.e. it should be grouped 00.
as ((ab)+c).
We can, of course change the order Example
of precedence by using parentheses. Consider the RE 0*10*10*. It is not difficult
For example, the language to see that this RE describes the set of
represented by the RE a(b+c) is strings over {0,1} that contains exactly two
L(a)L(b+c). 1's. The presence of two 1's in the RE and
any no of 0's before, between and after the
Example 1's ensure it.
The RE ab*+b is grouped as ((a(b*))+b)
which describes the language L(a)(L(b))*∪ Example
L(b) Consider the language of strings over {0,1}
containing two or more 1's.

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 Solution RE = 00(0+1)*00 + 00 + 000
There must be at least two 1's in the RE
somewhere and what comes before, L = {Strings starting with 00 or 11}
between, and after is completely arbitrary. RE = 00(0+1)* + 11(0+1)*
Hence we can write the RE as = (00+11) (0+1)*
(0+1)*1(0+1)*1(0+1)*. But following two
REs also represent the same language, each L = {Strings starting with 00 and 11}
ensuring presence of least two 1's RE = ∅
somewhere in the string
i) 0*10*1(0+1)* L = {Strings containing 00 or 101}
ii) (0+1)*10*10* RE = (0+1)*00(0+1)* + (0+1)*101(0+1)*
= (0+1)*(00+101)(0+1)*
Example
Consider a RE r over {0,1} such that L(r) = L = {Strings containing 00 and 11}
{x∈{0,1}*|x has no pair of consecutive 1's} RE = (0+1)*00(0+1)*11(0+1)* +
(0+1)*11(0+1)*00(0+1)*
Solution = (0+1)*[00(0+1)*11+11(0+1)*00] (0+1)*
Though it looks similar to ex ……., it is harder
to construct to construct. We observer that, L = {Strings having second last symbol 0}
whenever a 1 occurs, it must be immediately RE = (0+1)*0(0+1)
followed by a 0. This substring may be
preceded & followed by any no of 0's. So the L = {Strings having even length}
final RE must be a repetition of strings of the RE = ((0+1) (0+1))* or (00+11+01+10)*
form: 00…0100….00 i.e. 0*100*. So it looks L = {Strings having odd length}
like the RE is (0*100*)*. But in this case the RE = ((0+1)(0+1))*(0+1) or
strings ending in 1 or consisting of all 0's are (00+11+01+10)* (0+1)
not accounted for. Taking these
observations into consideration, the final RE If we take ∑ = {0,1,2} then:
is r = (0*100*)(1+∈)+0*(1+∈). L = {Strings ending in 01}
RE = (0+1+2)*01
Alternative Solution:
The language can be viewed as repetitions L = {Strings starting with 01}
of the strings 0 and 01. Hence get the RE as RE = 01(0+1+2)*
r = (0+10)*(1+∈). This is a shorter
expression but represents the same L = {Strings having second last symbol 0}
language. RE = (0+1+2)*0(0+1+2)

Few more examples of Regular L = {Strings having even length}

Expressions: Consider ∑ = {0,1} RE = ((0+1+2) (0+1+2))* or
L = {Strings ending in 01} (00+01+02+10+11+12+20+21+22)*
RE = (0+1)*01
L = {Strings having odd length}
L = {Strings starting with 01} RE = ((0+1+2)(0+1+2))*(0+1+2) or
RE = 01(0+1)* (00+01+02+10+11+12+20+21+22)*
(0+1+2)
L = {Strings starting or ending with 00}
RE = 00(0+1)* + (0+1)*00 Properties of Regular Expression:
Let r, r1, r2, p, and q are the regular
L = {Strings starting and ending with 00} expressions:

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  ∅* = ∈ If L(r) is a language described by the RE r,
 ∈* = ∈ then it is regular i.e. there is a FA such that
 r∈=∈r=r L(M)≅ L(r).
 r∅= ∅r =∅
 ∅+r= r Proof
 r1 + r2 = r2 + r1 To prove the lemma, we apply structured
 r1 r2 ≠ r2 r1 index on the expression r. First, we show
 r+ r=r how to construct FA for the basic
 r* + r* = r* elements:∅, ∈ and for any ∑. Then we
 r*r* = r* show how to combine these Finite Automata
 r r* = r* r = r + into Complex Automata that accept the
 r+ + ∈ = r* Union, Concatenation, Kleen Closure of the
 p(qr) = (pq)r languages accepted by the original smaller
 p+(q+r) = (p+q) + r automata.
 p (q+r) = pq + pr Use of NFAs is helpful in the case i.e. we
 (q+r) p = qp + rp construct NFAs for every REs which are
 (pq)* p = p (qp)* represented by transition diagram only.
 (p+q)* = (p* + q*)* = (p*q*)* =
(q*p*)* = (p* + q*)+ = (p+ + q+)* = (p* Basis
+ q+)* = (p+ + q*)* = (p+ + q*)+ = (p* +  Case (i) :
q+)+ r=∅. Then L(r)=∅. Then L(r)=∅ and the
following NFA N recognizes L(r).
1.8 REGULAR EXPRESSION & REGULAR Formally N  (Q,{q}, , ,F, ) where Q =
LANGUAGE: {q} and (q,a)  S,F   .

Equivalence (of REs) with FA :

Recall that, language that is accepted by
some FAs are known as Regular language.  Case(ii) :
The two concepts : REs and Regular r  . L(r)  {} , and the following NFAN
language are essentially same i.e. (for) every accepts L(r). Formally
regular language can be developed by (there N  ({q}, , ,q,{q}) where
is) a RE, and for every RE there is a Regular (q, )   .
Language. This fact is rather surprising,
because RE approach to describing
language is fundamentally different from Since the start state is also the accept
the FA approach. But REs and FA are step, and there is no any transition
equivalent in their descriptive power. We defined, it will accept the only string ∈
can put this fact in the focus of the following and nothing else.
Theorem.  Case (iii) :
r = a for some    . Then L(r) = {a}, and
Theorem the following NFA N accepts L(r).
A language is regular if some RE describes it.
This Theorem has two directions, and are
stated & proved below as a separate lemma
Formally, N  ({p,q), , ,p,{q}) where
RE to FA (p,q)  {q}, (s,b)  {} for s≠p or b≠a.
REs denote regular languages:
Lemma

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 Induction consuming any input. WLOG, assume
Assume that the start of the theorem is true that, it enters the start state of M1 . From
for REs r1 and r2. Hence we can assume that this point onward it has to follow only
we have automata M1 and M2 that accepts the transition of M1 to enter the final
languages denoted by REs r1 and r2 , state of M1 , because this is the only way
respectively i.e. to enter the final state of M by following
the e-transition.(Which is the last
L(M1 )  L(r1 ) and L(M2 )=L(r2 ) . transition & no input is taken at the
The FAs are represented schematically as transition). Hence the whole input w is
shown below. Each has an initial state and a considered while traversing from the
final state. There are four cases to consider. start state of M1 to the final state of M1.
Therefore M1 must accept w3.
Case (i) : Union Say w  L(M1 )or w  L(M2 ) .
 Consider the RE r3  r1  r2 denoting the WLOG, say w  L(M1 )
language L(r1 )  L(r2 ) . Therefore when M1 process the string w,
it starts at the initial state and enters the
final state when w consumed totally, by
following its transition. Then M3 also
accepts w, by starting at state q’ and
taking ∈ -transition enters the start state
of M1 -follows the moves of M1 to enter
the final state of M1 consuming input w
thus takes ∈-transition tof’ . Hence
 We construct FA M3, from M1 and M2 to proved.
accept the language denoted by RE r3 as
follows : Case(ii): Concatenation
 Create a new (initial) start state q’ and  Consider the RE r3  r1r2 denoting the
give ∈ - transition to the initial state
of M1 and M2.This is the initial state of language L(r1 )L(r2 ) .
M3.
 Create a final state f’ and give -
transition from the two final state of
M1and M2. F’is the only final state of M3
and final state of M1 and M2 will be
ordinary states in M3. We construct FA M3 from M1 & M2 to accept
 All the state of M1 and M2 are also state L(r3 ) as follows :
of M3.  Draw ∈ - transitions from the
 All the moves of M1 and M2 are also accepting states of M1 to the starting
moves of M3. [ Formal Construction]
states of M2.
It is easy to prove that L(M3 )  L(r3 )  Convert the accepting states of M1 to
Proof: To show that L(M3 )  L(r3 ) we non-accepting states.
must show that  Accepting states of M3 will be the
 L(r1 )  L(r2 ) accepting states of M2 only.
 Starting state of M3 will be starting
 L(M1 )  L(M2 ) by following transition state of M1 only.
of M3.Starts at initial state q’ and enters
the start state of either M1 or M2
following the transition i.e. without

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 Case(iii): Kleene Star Left linear grammar:
 Consider the RE r3 =(r1)* denoting A grammar G is left-linear if each production
the language L(r3) = L(r1)* has one of the following forms.
V -> VT* or V->T*
where V is the set of variables and T ∈ ∑.

Example:
G2 = < V, { a, b }, S, P > , where V = {S} ,
P = { S -> Sa, S -> Sb, S -> } is a left linear
grammar.
We can construct FA for L(r) as follows: Hence G2 is regular grammar.
 Create a new state. Make it starting
state. Make it accepting state. Let us Example:
call this state as q. G3 = < V, { a, b }, S, P > , where V = {S} ,
 Draw ∈ - transition from q to the P = { S -> aSb, S -> } is neither right
starting state of M1. linear nor left linear.
 Draw ∈ - transition from the Hence G3 is not regular grammar.
accepting state of M1 to q.
 Convert the accepting state of M1 to 1.10 REGULAR LANGUAGE
Non-accepting states. Definition:
A language L is said to be regular if :
L(M3 )  (L(M1 ))* | (L(r)1)*  r1* .  It has a regular grammar. Or
 Its regular expression exist. Or
Case (iv): Parenthesis  Its DFA exist. Or
Let r3  (r1 ) . Then the FA M1 is also the FA for  Its NFA exist.
(r1), since the use of parentheses does not So Regular grammar, Regular expression,
change the language denoted by the DFA and NFA are all equivalent in the sense
expression. that any language which can be defined by
any of these can also be defined by others.
1.9 REGULAR GRAMMARS
For the example in the previous topic we
A grammar is said to be regular grammar if can say that the language((a+b)*)
it is either left linear or right linear. represented by G1 and G2 is regular but the
language ((anbn|n>=0)) represented by G3 is
Right linear grammar: not.
A grammar G=(V, ∑,S,P)is right-linear if each
production has one of the following forms: All languages we have seen in topic 2.2 are
V -> T*V or V->T* regular.
where V is the set of variables and T ∈ ∑.
Closure properties of Regular
Example: Languages:
G1 = < V, { a, b }, S, P > , where V = {S} , Regular languages are closed under:
Union, Intersection, Concatenation, Kleene
P = { S -> aS, S -> bS, S -> } is a right
Closure, Difference, Complement, Reversal,
linear grammar.
Homomorphism, Inverse Homomorphism
Hence G1 is regular grammar.

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 i) Union:
If L and M are regular languages, so is Example:
L  M. L = (a+b)* and M = a*
L M = (a+b)*a*
 Let L and M be the languages of
regular expressions R and S, iv) Kleene Star:
respectively. If L is a regular language then L* will
 Then R+S is a regular also be a regular language.
expression whose language is L
 M.  Let the regular expression for
the language L is r then the
Example: regular expression of
L = (a+b)* and M = a* language L* will be r*.
L U M = (a+b)* + a* = (a+b)*
Example:
ii) Intersection: Let L = (a+b) then L* = (a+b)*
If L and M are regular languages, then
so is L  M. v) Difference:
If L and M are regular languages, then
 Let D1 and D2 be DFA’s whose so is L – M = strings in L but not M.
languages are L and M,
respectively.  Let D1 and D2 be DFA’s whose
 Construct D3, the product languages are L and M,
automaton of D1 and D2. respectively.
 Make the final states of D3 be  Construct D3, the product
the pairs consisting of final automaton of A and B.
states of both D1 and D2.  Make the final states of C be
the pairs where A-state is
Example: final but B-state is not.

Example:

iii) Concatenation:
If L and M are regular languages, so is
L M. vi) Complement:
Let L is the regular language then L’
 Let L and M be the languages will also be a regular language.
of regular expressions R and
S, respectively.  Let D is the DFA for language
 Then R+S is a regular L.
expression whose language is
L

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  Convert accepting states of D viii) Homomorphism:
to non-accepting states and If L is a regular language, and h is a
non-accepting states to homomorphism on its alphabet,
accepting states to get the then h(L) = {h(w) | w is in L} is also
DFA for language L’. a regular language.

Example:  A homomorphism on an
Consider the DFA D for alphabet is a function that
language L: gives a string for each
symbol in that alphabet.
 Let E be a regular expression
for L.
 Apply h to each symbol in E.
 Language of resulting RE is
h(L)
Example:
The DFA D’ for language L’ will be: Let h(0) = ab; h(1) = ε and L =
01* + 10* then h(L) will be abε*
+ ε(ab)* = (ab)*

ix) Inverse Homomorphism:

Let h be a homomorphism and L a
language whose alphabet is the
output language of h. h -1(L) = {w |
h(w) is in L}.

vii) Reversal:
If L is regular then L R will also be Example:
regular language. Let h(0) = ab; h(1) = ε. Let L = {abab,
baba}.
 Let D be the NFA for h-1(L) = the language with two 0’s
language L. and any number of 1’s =
 Convert starting state of D to L(1*01*01*)
accepting state and
accepting state of D to Here, no string maps to baba; any
starting state. string with exactly two 0’s maps to
 If D has more than one abab.
accepting state then create
new state, make it starting 1.11 NON-REGULAR LANGUAGES:
state and draw null We have learned regular languages, their
transitions to the old properties and their usefulness for
accepting states. describing various systems. There are,
 Reverse the direction of however, languages that are not regular
transtitions. and therefore require devices other than
finite automata to recognize them.
Example:
Let L = 01* + 10*then L R = 1*0 + 0*1 In this section we are going to study some
of the methods for testing given
languages for regularity and see some of

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 the languages that are not regular. The language.
main idea behind these test methods is
that finite automata have only finite Using this concept of indistinguishability,
amount of memory in the form of states the following theorem by Myhill and
and that they can not distinguish Nerod gives a criterion for
infinitely many strings. (non)regularity of a language.

For example to recognize the language Theorem : A language L over

{anbn | n is a natural number}, a finite alphabet ∑ is nonregular if and only if
automaton must remember how many there is an infinite subset of ∑* , whose
a's it has read when it starts reading b's. strings are pairwise distinguishable
Thus it must be in different states when it with respect to L.
has read different number of a's and
starts reading the first b. But any finite Example 1: L1 = { anbn | n is a positive
automaton has only finite number of integer } over alphabet { a , b } can be
states. shown to be nonregular using Myhill-
Nerode as follows:
Thus there is no way for a finite
automaton to remember how many a's it Consider the set of strings S 1 = { an | n is a
has read for all possible strings a nbn . positive integer } . S1 is over alphabet { a ,
That is the main limitation of finite b } and it is infinite. We are going to show
automata. Since a regular language must that its strings are pairwise
be recognized by a finite automaton, we distinguishable with respect to L 1. Let
can conclude that {a nbn | n is a natural ak and am be arbitrary two different
number} is not regular. members of the set S1, where k and m are
positive integers and k ≠ m . Select bm as
This is the basis of two of the regularity a string to be appended to a k and am .
test methods we are going to study Then akbm is not in L 1 while ambm is in L 1 .
below: Myhill-Nerode Theorem and Hence ak and am are distinguishable with
Pumping Lemma. respect to L 1 . Since ak and am are
arbitrary strings of S 1, S1 satisfies the
Myhill-Nerode's theorem conditions of Myhill-Nerode theorem.
Hence L 1 is nonregular.
Indistinguishability of strings : Strings
x and y in ∑* are indistinguishable with Example 2: L2 = { ww | w ∈ {a, b }* } is
respect to a language L if and only if for nonregular.
every string z in ∑* , either xz and yz are Consider the set of strings S 2 which is the
both in L or they are both not in L. same as S1 of Example 1 above. It can be
shown to be pairwise distinguishable
For example, a and aa are with respect to L 2 as follows.
indistinguishable with respect to the Let ak and am be arbitrary two different
language an over alphabet { a }, where n is members of the set, where k and m are
a positive integer, because aa k and positive integers and k ≠ m . Select bakb
aaak are in the language a n for any as a string to be appended to a k and am .
positive integer k. However, with respect Then akbakb is in L 2 while ambakb is not in
to the language a nbn , a and aa are not L2 . Hence ak and am are distinguishable
indistinguishable (hence with respect to L 2 . Since ak and am are
distinguishable), because ab is in the arbitrary strings of S 2, S2 satisfies the
language anbn while aab is not in the

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 conditions of Myhill-Nerode theorem. The following theorem which is called
Hence L 2 is nonregular. Pumping Lemma is based on this
observation. It states that if a language is
Pumping Lemma: regular, then any long enough string of
Let us consider the NFA given below. the language has a substring which can
be repeated any number of times with the
resultant strings still in the language. It is
stated without a proof here.

Pumping Lemma :
Suppose that a language L is regular.
Then there is an FA that accepts L. Let n
be the number of states of that FA. Then
for any string x in L with |x| ≥ n, there are
strings u, v and w which satisfy the
following relationships:

x = uvw
This NFA accepts among others some |uv| ≤ n
strings of length greater than 5 such as |v| > 0 and
abbabbb, abbabbabbb etc. Those strings for every integer m ≥ 0,
which are accepted by this NFA and uvmw ∈ L.
whose length is greater than 5 have a
substring which can be repeated any Note that Pumping Lemma gives a
number of times without being rejected necessity for regular languages and that
by the NFA. it is not a sufficiency, that is, even if there
is an integer n that satisfies the
For example the string abbabbb is conditions of Pumping Lemma, the
accepted by the NFA and if one of its language is not necessarily regular. Thus
substrings bba is repeated any number of Pumping Lemma can not be used to
times in abbabbb, the resultant strings prove the regularity of a language. It can
such as abbb (bba repeated 0 times), only show that a language is nonregular.
abbabbabbb, abbabbabbabbb etc. are
also accepted by the NFA. Example 4: As an example to illustrate
In general if a string w (such as abbabbb how Pumping Lemma might be used to
in the example above) is accepted by an prove that a language is nonregular, let us
NFA with n states and if its length is prove that the language L = a kbk is
longer than n, then there must be a cycle nonregular, where k is a natural number.
in the NFA along some path from the
initial state to some accepting state (such Suppose that L is regular and let n be the
as the cycle 2-3-4-2 in the above number of states of an FA that accepts L.
example). Consider a string x = a nbn for that n. Then
there must be strings u, v, and w such
Then the substring representing that that
cycle (bba in the example) can be
repeated any number of times within the x = uvw,
string w without being rejected by the |uv| ≤ n
NFA. |v| > 0 , and
for every m ≥ 0, uvmw ∈ L.

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 Since |v| > 0 , v has at least one symbol.  Every finite subset of regular set is
Also since |uv| ≤ n, v = ap, for some p > 0, regular.
Let us now consider the string uv mw for  Every subset of regular set need not
m = 2. be regular.
Then uv2w = an-pa2pbn = an+pbn . Since p >  Subset of non regular set need not
0 , n + p ≠ n . Hence an+pbn can not be in be non regular.
the language L represented by a kbk .  Every finite language has regular
This violates the condition that for every subset.
m ≥ 0, uvmw ∈ L. Hence L is not a regular  Every finite language except ∅ has
language. regular proper subset.
 If the language is defined over
single symbol then it will be regular
Few examples of Non-Regular only if the length of strings of the
Languages: language is in arithmetic
L = { w ∈ {a,b}* : w = aibi, for some i ≥ 0 } progression.
L = { w ∈ {a,b}* : w = ambn, for m > n }  Let RL = Regular language and NRL
L = { w ∈ {a,b}* : w = ambn, for m < n } = Non-Regular language then:
L = { w ∈ {a,b}* : #a(w) = #b(w) }  RL U NRL = RL/NRL
L = { wwR : w ∈ {a,b}* }  RL  NRP = RL/NRL
L = {Even length palindrome strings}  NRL U NRL = RL/NRL
L = {Odd length palindrome strings}  RL  NRL = RL/NRL
L = { ww : w ∈ {a,b}* }
L = { w ∈ {a,b}* : w = ambncp, m=n+p }
L = { w ∈ {a,b}* : w = ambncp, m=n }
L = { w ∈ {a,b}* : w = ambncp, m=4n or
n=5p}

1.12 POWER OF DFA AND NFA IN

TERMS OF LANGUAGE ACCEPTANCE
For any language if DFA can be built then
NFA can be and vice versa.
For any language if DFA can’t be built
then NFA can’t be and vice versa.

Hence, DFA and NFA are equally

powerful.

1.13 THINGS TO REMEMBER:

 Every finite language is regular.
 A regular language may or may not
be finite.
 Every non-regular language is
infinite.
 An infinite language may or may not
be finite.

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 GATE QUESTIONS

Q.1 Consider a DFA over   {a, b} c) Both S1 and S2 are correct

d) None of these
accepting all strings which have [GATE-2001]
number of a's divisible by 6 and
number of b's divisible By 8. What is Q.5 The smallest finite automaton which
the minimum number of states that accepts the language {x | length of x
the DFA will have? is divisible by 3} has
a) 8 b) 14
c) 15 d) 48 a) 2 states b) 3 states
[GATE-2001] c) 4 states d) 5 states
[GATE-2002]
Q.2 Given An arbitrary Non-
deterministic Finite Automaton Q.6 The finite state machine described
(NFA) with N states, the maximum by the following state diagram with A
number of states in an equivalent as starting state, where an arc label is
minimized DFA is at least x
and stands for 1 -bit input and y
a) N2 b) 2N y
c) 2N d) N! stands for 2 bit output
[GATE-2001]
Q.3 Which of the following languages
is/are regular?

L1  ww w a, b * 

L2  ww R w a, b*, w R is the reverse of w  a) Outputs the sum of the present

L3  0 i is an integer
2i
 and the previous bits of the input
b) Outputs 01 whenever the input

L4  0i i is an integer
2

 sequence contains 11
a) L1 and L2 c) Outputs 00 whenever the input
b) All sequence contains 10
c) L3 and L4 d) None of the above
d) L3 only [GATE-2002]
[GATE-2001] Q.7 Consider the NFA, M, shown below:

Q.4 Consider the following two

statements:
S1- {02n | n≥1} is regular language.
S2 - {0m1n0m+n|m ≥1 and n ≥ 1} is a
regular language.
Which of the following statements is
correct? Let the language accepted by M be L.
Let L 1 be the language accepted by
a) Only S1 is correct the NFA M1 obtained by changing the
b) Only S2 is correct accepting state of M to a non-

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 accepting state and by changing the Q.11 Which one of the following regular
non-accepting states of M to accepting expressions is NOT equivalent to the
states. regular expression (a + b + c)*?
Which of the following statements is a)  a * b* c* * b)  a *b*c* *
true?
a) L1 = {0, 1}* - L b) L1 = {0, 1}* c)  ab * c* * d)  a *b*  c* *
c) L1⊆ 1 d) L 1 =L [GATE-IT-2004]
[GATE-2003] Q.12 Let M   K, , ,s,F be a finite state
Q.8 Consider the following deterministic automation, where K  A, B ,
finite state automaton M   a,b , s  A, F  B ,
  A,a   A,   A, b   B,   B,a  
Band   B, b   A
A grammar to generate the language
accepted by M can be specified as
Let S denotes the set of seven bit G   V,Σ,R,S , Where V=K∪Σ, S = A
binary strings in which the first, the
fourth and the last bits are 1. The Which one of the following setoff
number of strings in S that are rules will make L(G)=L(M)?
accepted by M is a) A  aB,A  bA,B  bA,B  aA,B  
a) 1 b) 5 b)
c) 7 d) 8 A  aA, A  bB,B  aB,B  bA, B  
[GATE-2003]
c)
Q.9 The regular expression 0*(10*)*
denotes the same set as A  bB,A  aB,B  aA,B  bA,B  )
a) (1*0)*1* d)
b) 0 + (0 + 10)* A  aA,A  bA,B  aB,B  bA,A  
c) (0+1) *10 (0+1) * [GATE-IT-2004]
d) None of these
[GATE-2003] Q.13 Which of the following statements is
TRUE about the regular expression
Q.10 The following finite state machine 01*0?
accepts all those binary strings in a) It represents a finite set of finite
which the number of 1’s and O's are strings.
respectively b) It represents an infinite set of
finite strings.
c) It represents a finite set of infinite
strings.
d) It represents an infinite set of
infinite strings.
[GATE-IT-2005]

a) divisible by 3 and 2

Q.14 The language on 1n 2n 1  n  106 is 
b) odd and even a) Regular
c) even and odd b) Context-free but not regular.
d) divisible by 2 and 3 c) Context-free but its complement
[GATE-2004] is not context-free.

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 d) Not context-free. following statements about L is
[GATE-IT-2005] TRUE?
a) L is necessarily a regular
Q.15 Consider the non-deterministic finite
language.
automaton (NFA) shown in the b) L is necessarily a context-free
figure
language, but not necessarily a
regular language.
c) L is necessarily a non-regular
language.
d) None of the above
[GATE-IT-2005]

Q.18 Consider the machine M:

State X is the starting state of the

automaton. Let the language accepted
by the NFA with Y as the only
accepting state be L1. Similarly, let
the language accepted by the NFA
with Z as the only accepting state b e The language recognized by M is
L2. Which of the following statements a) {W ∈ {a,b}* | every a in W is
about L1 and L2 is TRUE? followed by exactly two b’ s}
a) L1 = L2 b) L1 ⊂ L2 b) {W ∈ {a,b}* | every a in W is
c) L2 ⊂ L1 d) None of these followed by at least two b' s}
[GATE-IT-2005] c) {W ∈ {a,b}* | W contains the
substring abb}
Q.16 Consider the regular grammar: d) {W ∈ {a, b}* | W does not contain
S  Xa Ya aa as a substring}
X  Za [GATE-2005]
Z  Sa  Q.19 The following diagram represents a
Y  Wa finite state machine which takes as
W  Sa input a binary number from the least
Where S is the starting symbol, the significant bit
set of terminals is {a} and the set off
non-terminals is {S,W,X,Y,Z}. We wish
to construct a deterministic finite
automaton (DFA) to recognize the
Which one off the following is TRUE?
same language. What is the minimum
a) It computes 1’s complement of the
number of states required for the
input number
DFA?
b) It computes 2’s complement of the
a) 2 b) 3
input number
c) 4 d) 5
c) It increments the input number
[GATE-IT-2005]
d) It decrements the input number
Q.17 A language L satisfies the Pumping [GATE-2005]
Lemma for regular languages, and
Q.20 In the automaton below, s is the start
also the Pumping Lemma for con t
state and t is the only final state
ext-free languages. Which of the

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 c) w a  b*| #a  w   #b (W)
and
w  a  b*| #a (w)  #b  w 
d) ,wa w a  b * and
wb w a  b *
[GATE-IT-2006]
Consider the string u=abbaba, v=
Q.23 Which of the following statements
bab, and w=aabb. Which of the
about regular languages is NOT true?
following statements is true?
a) Every language has a regular
a) The automaton accepts u and v
superset
but not w
b) Every language has a regular
b) The automaton accepts each of
subset
u, v, and w
c) Every subset of a regular
c) The automaton rejects each of u,
language is regular
v, and w
d) Every subset of a finite language
d) The automaton accepts u but
is regular
rejects v and w
[GATE-IT-2006]
[GATE-IT-2006]
Directions for Q.24 to Q.25:
Q.21 Which regular expression best
Let L be a regular language. Consider the
describe the language accepted by
constructions on L below:
the non-deterministic automaton
I. repeat (L) = {ww | w ∈ L)
below?
II. prefix (L) = u v : uv  L
III. suffix (L) =  v u : uv  L

a)  a  b *a  a  b  b 
IV. half (L) = u v : v  u and uv  L 
b)  abb  * Q.24 Which of the constructions could
c)  a  b *a  a  b  *b  a  b  * lead to a non-regular language?
a) Both I and I V b) Only I
d)  a  b  * c) Only IV d) Both II and III
[GATE-IT-2006] [GATE-IT-2006]
Q.22 Consider the regular grammar below Q.25 Which choice of L is best suited to
S  bS aA  support your answer above?
a) (a+b)* b) {ε,a, ab, bab}
A  aS bA c) (ab)* d) {anbn | n ≥ 0}
The My hill-Nerode equivalence [GATE-IT-2006]
classes for the language generated by
the grammar are Q.26 Consider the regular language L=

a) w   a  b  * #a  w  is even and  (111+11111)*. The minimum number
of states in any DFA accepting this
w a  b * #a (w)is odd language is
b) w  a  b*| #b  w  is even and a) 3
c) 8
b) 5
d) 9
{w   a  b*| #b (w)is odd [GATE-2006]

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Q.27 If s is a string over (0+1)* then let L={W|W∈{0,1}*, number of 0's and
n0(s) denotes the number of 0's in s 1's in W are divisible by 3 and 5,
and n1 (s) the number of 1's in s. respectively} has
Which one of the following languages a) 15 states b) 11 states
is not regular? c) 10 states d) 9 states
a) L={s∈(0+1)*|n0(s) is a 3-digit [GATE-2007]
prime}
b) L= {s ∈ (0 + 1)* | for every prefix Q.32 Which of the following is true?
s' of s,| n0(s') – n1(s’) |≤ 2} a) Every subset of a regular set is
c) L = {s ∈ (0 +1)*| n0(s)–n1(s) | ≤ 4 regular
d) L = {s ∈ (0 + 1)* | n0(s) mod 7= b) Every finite subset of a non-
n1(s) mod 5=0} regular set is regular
[GATE-2006] c) The union of two non-regular
sets is not regular
Common Data for Questions 28 and 29 d) Infinite union of finite sets is
Consider the following Finite State regular
[GATE-2007]
Automation:
Q.33 The two grammars given below
generate a language over the
alphabet {x, y, z}
G1: S → x|z|xS|zS|yB
B→ y|z|yB|zB
G2: S→ y|z|yS|zS|xB
B→y|yS
Q.28 The language accepted by this Which one of the following choices
automaton is given by the regular describes the properties satisfied by
expression the string in these languages?
a) b* ab* ab* ab* b) (a+b)*
c) b* a(a + b)* d) b* ab* ab* a) G1 : No y appears before any x
[GATE-2007] G2 : Every x is followed by at least
one y
Q.29 The minimum state automaton b) G1 : No y appears before any x
equivalent to the above FSA has the G2 : No x appears before any y
following number of states c) G1 : No y appears after any x
a) 1 b) 2 G2 : Every x is followed by at least
c) 3 d) 4 one y
[GATE-2007] d) G1 : No y appears after any x
Q.30 Which of the following languages is G2 : Every y is followed by at least
regular? one x
[GATE-IT-2007]
a) {WWR | W 0,1 }


b) (WWR X | X, W0,1 * Q.34 Consider the following DFA in which


c) WXWR | X, W0,1*  s0 is the start state and s 1, s3 are the
final states.
d) {XWW | X, W 0,1*}
R

[GATE-2007]
Q.31 A minimum state deterministic finite
automaton accepting the language

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 What language does this DFA
recognize?
a) All strings of x and y
b) All strings of x and y which have The automation which recognize the
either even number of x and even language L(P)∩L(Q) is:
number of y or odd number or x a)
and odd number of y
c) All strings of x and y which have
equal number of x and y
d) All strings of x and y with either
even number of x and odd
number of y or odd number of x
b)
and even number of y
[GATE-IT-2007]
Q.35 Consider the grammar given below
S → xB|yA
A → x|xS|yAA
B →y|yS|yBB c)
Consider the following strings.
(i)xxyyv (ii)xxyyxv
(iii)xyxy (iv)yxxy
(v)yxx (vi)xyx
Which of the above strings are
generated by the grammar? d)
a) (i), (ii) & (iii) b) (ii),(v)& (vi)
c) (iii) & (iv) d)(i),(iii) &(iv)
[GATE-IT-2007]
Q.36 Consider the following finite
automata P and Q over the alphabet
{a,b,c}. the start states are indicated [GATE-IT-2007]
by a double arrow and final states Common Data for Q.37 to Q.38:
are indicated by a double circle. Let Consider the regular expression:
the languages recognized by them be
R   a  b *  aa  bb a  b  *
denoted by L(P) and L(Q)
respectively. Q.37 Which of the following non-
deterministic finite automata
recognizes the language defined by
the regular expression R? Edges

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 labelled λ denote transitions on the
empty string.
a)

b) d)

c)

[GATE-IT-2007]

Q.39 Which one of the regular expressions

given below defines the same
language as defined by the regular
d) expression R?
a)  a  ba  * b  ab *  a  b


b)  a  ba  * b  ab * *  a  b 
*

c)  a  ba  *  a  bb   b  ab  *  b  aa 
 a  b*
[GATE-IT-2007]
d)  a  ba  *  a  bb   b  ab  *  b  aa 
Q.38 Which deterministic finite  a  b 
automaton accepts the language [GATE-IT-2007]
represented by the regular
expression R? Q.40 Which of the following regular
a) expressions describes the language
over {0,1} consisting of strings that
contain exactly two 1’s?
a)  0  1 *11 0  1 *
b) 0*110*
b) c) 0*10*10*
d)  0  1 *1 0  1 *1 0  1 *
[GATE-IT-2008]

Q.41 Let N be an NFA with n states and let

M be the minimized DFA with m
c) states recognizing the same language.
Which of the following in
NECESSARILY true?

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 a) m  2n
b) n  m
c) M has one accept state
d) m  2n
[GATE-IT-2008]
a) L1  L2 b) L1  L2  
Q.42 If the final states and non-final states c) L1  L2   d) L1  L2  L1
in the DFA below are interchanged, [GATE-IT-2008]
then which of the following
languages over the alphabet {a, b} Q.45 Which of the following are regular
will be accepted by the new DFA? sets?
1. {anb2m | n 0, m 0}
2. {anbm | n=2m}
3. {anbm | n m}
4. {xcy |x, y, {a,b}*}
a) 1 and 4 b) 1 and 3
c) 1 only d) 4 only
[GATE-2008]
a) Set of all strings that do not end
with ab
Q.46 Match the following NFAs with the
b) Set of all strings that begin with
regular expressions they correspond
either an a or ab
to
c) Set of all strings that do not
contain t eh substring ab,
d) The set described by the regular
expression b*aa*(ba)*b*
[GATE-IT-2008]
Q.43 Which of the following languages is
(are) non-regular?

L1  0m1n 0  m  n  10000 
L2  {w w reads the same forward
and backward}
L3  {w 0,1 * w contains an even
number of 0’s and an even number of
1’s} 1. ε + 0 (01*1+00)*01*
a) L 2 and L 3 only b) L1 and L 2 only 2. ε + 0(10* 1 + 00)*0
3. ε + 0(10* 1+10)* 1
c) L 3 only d) L 2 only 4. ε + 0 (10* 1 + 10)* 10*
[GATE-IT-2008] a) P-2, Q-1, R-3, S-4
b) P-1, Q-3, R-2, S-4
Q.44 Consider the following two finite c) P-1, Q-2, R-3, S-4
automata. M1 accepts L1 and M 2 d) P-3, Q-2, R-1, S-4
[GATE-2008]
accepts L 2 . Which one of the following
is TRUE? Q.47 Given below are two finite state
automata (→indicates the start state
and F indicates a final state)

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Y: a b Z: a b Q.48

→1 1 2 →1 2 2

2(F) 2 1 2(F) 1 1

Which of the following represents The above DFA accept the set of all
the product automation Z × Y? strings over (0, 1) that
a) a) begin either with 0 or 1
a b b) end with 0
c) end with 00
→P S R
d) contain the substrings 00
Q R S [GATE-2009]

R(F) Q P
Q.49 Given the following state table of an
FSM with two states A and B, one
S P Q input and one output.If the initial
state is A=0, B=0, what is the
b) minimum length of an input string,
a b which will take the machine to the
state A =0, B =1 with output =1?
→P S Q Presn Presn
t t Next
Q R S state state inpu state Next Outp
A B t A state B ut
0 0 0 0 0 1
R(F) Q P 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0
S P Q 1 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1
c) 1 0 1 0 1 1
a b 1 1 1 0 0 1
a) 3 b) 4
→P Q S c) 5 d) 6
[GATE-2009]
Q R S

R(F) Q P Q.50 Which one of .the following

languages over the alphabet {0,1} is
S Q P described by the regular expression
(0+1)* 0(0+1)* 0(0+1) ?
d) a) The set of all strings containing the
a b substring 00
b) The set of all strings containing at
→P S Q most two O's
c) The set of all strings containing at
Q S R
least two O's
d) The set of all strings that begin
R(F) Q P
and end with either 0 or 1
S Q P [GATE-2009]
Q.51 Let W be any string of length n in
[GATE-2008] (0,1)*. Let L be the set of all sub-
strings of W. What is the minimum

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 number of states in a non-
deterministic finite automation that
accepts L?
a) n - 1 b) n
c) n + 1 d) 2n-1 [GATE-2011]
[GATE-2010]
Q.54 Definition of a language L with
Q.52 Let L = {W ∈ (0+1)* | W has even alphabet {a} is given as following
number of 1s }, i.e., L is the set of all L = { ank | k > 0, and n is a positive integer
bit strings with even number of 1's. constant} What is the minimum
Which one of the regular expressions number of states needed in a DFA to
below represents L? recognize L?
a) (0* 10* 1)* b) 0* (10* 10*)* a) k + 1 b) n + 1
c) 0* (10* 1*)*0* d)0*1(10*1)* 10* c) 2a + 1 d) 2k + 1
[GATE-2010] [GATE-2011]
Q.55 Which of the following pairs have
Q.53 A deterministic finite automation
different expressive power?
(DFA) D with alphabet {a, b} is given
a) Deterministic Finite Automata
below
(DFA) and Mon-determinis tic
Finite Automata (NPFA)
b) Deterministic Push Down
Automata (DPDA) and Non-
deterministic Push Down
Automata (NPDA)
c) Deterministic single-tape turing
Which of the following finite state
machine and non-deterministic
machines is a valid minimal DFA
single tape turing machine
which accepts the same language as D?
a) d) Single-tape Wring machine and
multi-tape turing machine
[GATE-2011]
Q.56 Let P be a regular language and Q be
a context free language such that Q
 P. For example, let P be the
language represented by the regular
b) expression p* q* and Q be {p n qn | n ∈
N} Then which of the following is
always regular?
a) P∩ Q b) p - Q
c) Σ*- P d) Σ*- Q
[GATE-2011]

c) Q.57 The lexical analysis of a modern

computer language such as Java
needs the power of which one of the
following machine models in a
necessary and sufficient sense?
d)
a) Finite state automata
b) Deterministic pushdown automata

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 c) Non-detreministic pushdown automata a)
d) Turing machine 00 01 10 11 q
[GATE-2011]
00 1 0
Q.58 What is the complement of the
language accepted by the NFA shown 01 1
below? Assume Σ = {a} and ε is the
10 0
empty string.
11 0

b)
00 01 10 11 q

a) ⊘ b)  00 0 1
c) a * d) a,  01 1
[GATE-2012]
Q.59 Given the language L  ab,aa,baa , 10 0

which of the following strings are in 11 0

L*?
1. abaabaabaa 2. aaaabaaaa c)
3. baaaaabaaaab 4. Baaaaabaa 00 01 10 11 Q
a) 1, 2 and 3 b) 2, 3 and 4
00 1 0
c) 1, 2and 4 d) 1, 3 and 4
[GATE-2012] 01 1
Q.60 Consider the set of strings on {0, 1} in
10 0
which, every substring of 3 symbols
has at most two zeros. For example, 11 0
001110 and 011001 are in the
language, but 100010 is not. All d)
strings of length less than 3 are also 00 01 10 11 Q
in the language. A partially complete
00 1 0
DFA that accepts this language is
shown below. 01 1
The missing arcs i n the DFA are
10 0

11 0

[GATE-2012]
Q.61 Consider the DFA, A given below.

Which of the Following are false?

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 1. Complement of L(A) is context- III) (0+1)*1
free. a) I and II only b) I and III only
2. L(A)=L (11 * 0 + 0) (0 + 1) * 0*1*) c) II and III only d) I, II and III
3. For the language accepted by A, A [GATE-2014]
is the minimal DFA.
4. A accepts all strings over (0,1} of Q.66 Let L 1={an|n>=0} and L 2={bn|n>=0}.
length at least 2. Consider
a) 1 and 3 b) 2 and 4 I) L1.L2 is a regular language
c) 2 and 3 d) 3 and 4 II) L 1.L2 = {anbn |n>=0}
[GATE-2013] Which of the following is correct?
a) only I b) only II
Q.62 Consider the languages L 1=ϕ and L 2
c) Both I and II d) Neither I nor II
= {a}. Which one or the following [GATE-2014]
represents L 1 L*2∪ L*1 ?
a) {ε} b)∅ Q.67 Let L1={w∈{0,1}* | w has at least as
c) a d) {ε,α} many occurrences of (110)’s as
[GATE-2013] (011)’s}. Let L2 = {w∈{0,1}* | w has
Q.63 Which one of the following is TRUE? at least as many occurrences of
(000)’s as (111)’s}. Which one of the
a) The language L={anbn|n>=0} is
following is TRUE?
regular
b) The language L={an|n is prime} is a) L1 is regular but not L2
regular b) L2 is regular but not L1
c) The language L ={w| w has 3k+1 c) Both L2 and L1 are regular
b’s for some k∈N with ={a,b}} is d) Neither L1 nor L2 are regular
regular [GATE-2014]
d) The language L={ww| w ∈ * with Q.68 The length of shortest string NOT in
={0,1}} is regular the language (over ={a,b}) of the
[GATE-2014] following regular expression
Q.64 Consider the finite automaton in the a*b*(ba)*a* is _______
following figure: [GATE-2014]
Q.69 The number of states in the minimal
deterministic finite automaton
corresponding to the regular
expression (0 + 1) * (10) is _______.
What is the set of reachable states for
the input string 0011? [GATE-2015]
a) {q0,q1,q2} b) {q0,q1}
Q.70 Consider the alphabet ∑ = {0,1}, the
c) {q0,q1,q2,q3} d) {q3}
null/empty string λ and the sets of
[GATE-2014]
strings X0, X1, and X2 generated by
Q.65 Which of the regular expressions the corresponding non-terminals of
given below represent the following a regular grammar X0, X1, and X2 are
DFA related as follows.
X0 = 1 X1
X1 = 0 X1 + 1 X2
X2 = 0 X1 + {λ}
Which one of the following choices
I) 0*1(1+00*1)* precisely represents the strings in
II) 0*1*1+11*0*1 X0?

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 a) 10(0*+(10)*)1 b) {w a,b * w has equal number of
b) 10(0*+(10)*)*1 a’s and b’s }
c) 1(0*+10)*1
d) 10(0+10)*1+110(0+10)*1
c)   
a n n  0  bn n  0  
[GATE-2015] a b
n n
n0 
Q.71 Let T be the language represented by d) a, b *
the regular expression Σ*0011Σ* [GATE-2016]
where Σ = {0, 1}. What is the
minimum number of states in a DFA Q.75 Which of the following decision
that recognizes L’ (complement of L)? problems are undecidable?
a) 4 b) 5 I. Given NFAs N1 & N 2 , is
c) 6 d) 8
L(N1 )  L  N2    ?
[GATE-2015]
II. Given a CFG G = (N, Σ, P, S) and a
Q.72 string x  * , does x  L(G)?
III. Given CFGs G 1 and G 2 , is
L(G1 )  L(G2 )?
IV. Given a TM M, is L(M)  
a) I and IV only b) II and III only
c) III and IV only d) II and IV only
[GATE-2016]

Q.76 Which one of the following regular

expressions represents the
Consider the DFAs M and N given language: the set of all binary strings
above. The number of states in a having two consecutive 0s and two
minimal DFA that accepts the consecutive 1s?
language L(M)∩L(N) is ____ a)(0+1)*0011(0+1)*+(0+1)*
[GATE-2015] 1100(0+1)*
b)(0+1)*(00(0+1)*11+11(0+1)*
Q.73 Which of the following language 00)(0+1)*
is/are regular? c)(0+1)* 00(0+1)* +(0+1)*11(0+1)*
La :{wxw w, x a,b* and
R
d) 00(0+1)* 11+11(0+1)* 00
w , x  0}wR is the reverse of string [GATE-2016]
w Q.77 The number of states in the
L2 : a n bm m  n and m, n  0 minimum sized DFA that accepts the
language defined by the regular

L3 : a pbqcr p,q,r  0  expression (0+1)*(0+1)(0+1)* is
a) L1 and L 3 only b) L 2 only ______.
[GATE-2016]
c) L 2 and L 3 only d) L 3 only
[GATE-2015] Q.78 Language L1 is defined by the
grammar: S1 → aS1 b| ε
Q.74 Which of the following languages is Language L2 is defined by the
generated by the given grammar? grammar: S2 → abS2 | ε
S  aS bS  Consider the following statements:

a) a n bm n,m  0  P: L1 is regular
Q: L2 is regular

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 Which one of the following is TRUE? Q.82 Consider the following grammar over
a) Both P and Q are true the alphabet {a,b,c} given below, S
b) P is true and Q is false and T are non-terminals.
c) P is false and Q is true G1: S-->aSb|T
d) Both P and Q are false T--> cT|∈
[GATE-2016]
Q.79 Consider the following two statements: G2: S-->bSa|T
I. If all states of an NFA are T--> cT|∈
accepting states then the The language L1(G1) ∩ L2(G2).
language accepted by the NFA is a) Finite
b) Non-finite but Regular
Σ*.
II. There exists a regular language A c) Context Free but not Regular
such that for all languages B, A∩B d) Recursive but not Context-Free
is regular. [GATE-2017]
Which one of the following is correct?
a) Only I is true Q.83 If G is grammar with productions
b) Only II is true S → SaS | aSb | bSa | SS | ∈ where S is
c) Both I and II are true the start variable, then which one of
d) Both I and II are false the following is not generated by G?
[GATE-2016] a) abab
b) aaab
c) abbaa
Q.80 Consider the language L given by the d) babba
regular expression (a+b)*b(a +b) over [GATE-2017]
the alphabet {a, b}. The smallest
number of states needed in a
deterministic finite-state automaton
(DFA) accepting L is ______.
[GATE-2017]

Q.81 Consider the following context-free

grammar over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b,
c} with S as the start symbol:
S → abScT | abcT
T → bT | b

Which of the following represents the

language generated by the above
grammar?
a) {(ab)n(cb)n | n >= 1 }
b) {(ab)ncbm cbm …cbm | n, m1, m2, …..,
1 2 n

mn >= 1 }
c) {(ab)n(cbm)n | n >= 1 }
d) {(ab)n(cbn)m | m, n >= 1 }
[GATE-2017]

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
(d) (b) (d) (a) (c) (a) (b) (c) (a) (a) (c) (b) (b) (a) (a)
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
(b) (d) (b) (b) (d) (a) (a) (c) (b) (a) (d) (c) (c) (b) (c)
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
(a) (b) (a) (d) (c) (b) (a) (a) (c) (c) (a) (a) (d) (a) (a)
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
(c) (a) (c) (a) (c) (c) (b) (a) (b) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c) (d)
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75
(d) (a) (c) (a) (b) (a) (a) 3 3 (c) (b) 1 (a) (d) (c)
76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83
(b) 2 (c) (b) 4 (b) (b) (d)

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 EXPLANATIONS

same so they are showing the output

Q.1 (d)
in symmetry but if we use the
The minimum number of states in different values of m and n then the
DFA that accepts strings which have
output will display a behaviour which
number of a’s divisible by m and
is not regular. Therefore, confirmed is
number of b’s divisible by n is m*n.
that S1 is a regular language.
So minimum number of states=
6*8=48
Q.5 (c)
Q.2 (b) Since, X is divisible by 3 and we know
If the NFA has n states, the resulting that 3 does not have any factor apart
DFA may have up to 2n states. itself and 1, so the number of states
would be 3+1(F)= 4.
Q.3 (d) It can be further represented as

L1  ww w a, b * 
is context sensitive language (CSL)
(since these is infinite string
matching in straight order).
L2  {wwR w   a,b*, wR is the
Q.6 (a)
reverse of w} is context free language As per the given diagram
(since there is infinite string State Input Output
matching in reverse order).

L3  02i i is an integer  (00)*  A to A 10 00
is regular language which contains
all string having even number of 0’s. B to A 10 00


L4  0i i is an integer
2

 C to A 10 00
Is context sensitive language (CSL)
(since the power is infinite and non Therefore, the finite state machine
outputs the sum of the present and
linear).
previous bits of the input.
Q.4 (a)
Q.7 (b)
Let’s consider both the statements
Even after changing non-final states
separately to find the correct option.
to final state and final state to non-
S1 :{02n | n  1|}
final state in NFA, still it accepts all
Applying the values of n, the strings with 0’s and 1’s.
 S1  00,0000,000000,......
The behavior shown by the output is Q.8 (c)
regular and hence, the language is a The given bit pattern can be
regular language. represented as 1 _ _ 1 _ _ 1
S2 :{0m1n0mn | m  1 and n  1|} The four blanks can be filled in 2 4
Applying the values of m and n, =16 ways.
S2=0100,00110000, 000111000000, Therefore, there are 16 such strings
Here the values of m and n are kept in this pattern.

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 Not all of these are accepted by the In choice (c) the strings “a” and “b”
machine. cannot be generated separately since
The strings and its acceptance is as “ab” is always together.
follows Accepted So, choice (c) is not same as
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 √ (a + b + c)*.

1 0 0 1 0 1 1 √ Q.12 (b)
  A,a   A  A  aA
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 √
  A,b  B  A  bB
1 0 0 1 1 1 1 √   B,a   B  B  aB
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 √   B,b  A  B  bA
Since B is final state, so we need to
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 √ put
B   . So the correct grammar is
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 √ choice (b) which is
{A  aA, A  bB, B  aB,
Only these seven strings given above B  bA,B }.
are accepted. All other strings in this
pattern are rejected. Q.13 (b)
Given regular expression is infinite
Q.9 (a) set (because of *) of finite strings. A
Given regular expression is 0*(10*)* regular expression cannot generate
A: (1*0)*1* any infinite string (Since string is
All strings that can be generated always finite in length by definition).
from given regular expression can
also be generated from this. Q.14 (a)
B: 0 + (0 + 10)* and Given language is finite. Hence it is
C: (0 + 1)* 10(0 + 1)* regular language.
We can generate 11 from given
regular expression which is not Q.15 (a)
possible with B and C. Writing Y and Z interms of incoming
C: (0 + 1)* 10(0 + 1)* arrows (Arden’s method), we get
Not possible as we can produce Y  X0  Y0  Z1
{epsilon} from the given regular Z  X0  Z1 Y0
expression but not from C. Clearly, Y =Z

Q.10 (a) Q.16 (b)

The given finite state machine The given grammar after
accepts any string W∈(0,1)* in which substitution of X and Y becomes
the number of 1’s is multiple of 3 and S  Zaa waa
the number of 0's is multiple of 2. Z  Sa 
Q.11 (c) w  Sa
Which after substituting Z and Wis
In choices (a), (b) and (d), inside t he
parenthesis we can generate “a” and equivalent to S → Saaa |aa.
“b” and “c” separately and hence all So, L(G)  (aaa)*aa
three are same as (a + b + c)*.

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 So the language generated by the Q.21 (a)
grammar is the set of strings with a’s
such that number of a mod 3 is 2. So
the number of states required should
be 3 to maintain the count of number
of a’s mod 3.  a  b *a  a  b b.
Q.17 (d) Q.22 (a)
If L is regular⟹L satisfies the The given right-linear grammar can
pumping lemma for regular languages . be converted to the following DFA.
If L is CFL ⟹ L satisfies the pumping
lemma for CFLs.
By satisfying pumping lemma, we
can never say that a language is
regular or CFL. It can only be used to
prove that a certain language is not
regular or not CFL in case the The machine accepts all strings over
language violates the corresponding the alphabet {a,b} which have an
pumping lemma. So, both regular and even number of a’s . It is a minimal
non-regular languages can satisfy DFA. So, Myhill-Nerode equivalence
pumping lemma for regular language. classes for the language is nothing
Similarly, both CFLs and non-CFLs but the set of strings reaching S and
can satisfy pumping lemma for CFLs. A respectively.
So satisfying pumping lemma doesn’t
prove anything about the type of

S  w   a  b  * #a  w  is even
language. A  w   a  b  * #  w  is odd
a

Q.18 (b)
a is followed by two or more than 2 Q.23 (c)
b's so the language recognized by M a) Every language has a regular
is {W∈{a, b}*| every a followed by superset: True.  * is such a superset.
b) Every language has a regular
atleast 2 b’s}.
subset:
True. Φ is such a subset.
Q.19 (b)
c) Every subset of a regular language
is regular. False a n bn  *, but a n bn
is not Regular.
d) Every subset of a finite language is
regular. True. Every subset of a finite
The given machine, executes the set must be finite by definition. Every
algorithm for 2’s complement when finite set is regular. Hence, every
input is given from LSB. subset of a finite language is regular.

Q.20 (d) Q.24 (b)

u = abbaba : Accepted by automata. Prefix (L), suffix (L) and Half (L) are
v = bab: Not accepted by automata. regular languages.
w = aabb; Not accepted by automata. Repeat (L) is not a regular language
but a CSL.

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 Q.25 (a) Option (d)
Option (A): If L   a  b  *, then L  {s  (0  1)*| n 0 (s) mod 7=n1 (s) mod 5=0}
repeat (L) = ww w   a  b * is It is a regular language.

clearly not regular. So option (a) is Q.28 (c)

best suited to show that repeat (L) The behavior as per the given PDA is
need not be regular. as seen below.
Option (b): IF L  , a, ab, bab , q0 to q1  b*a
then repeat  L  ww w  L q1 to q2  (a  b)*
becomes finite and hence regular. So Regular expression =b* a(a + b)*
option (b) is not suited to show that
repeat (L) need not be regular. Q.29 (b)
The FSA as obtained in the previous
Option(c): If L   ab  * , then repeat
question is b * a(a + b) *.
 
L  ww w   ab  *  (ab)* which is The minimum number of states is
thus given by
regular.
So option (c) is not suited to show
that repeat (L) need not be regular.

Option (d): L  a n bn n  0 , is not 
suited since it is not regular. q0 and q1 are the states that are
required at most and hence the
Q.26 (d) minimum number of states is 2(q 0 &
Given language L= (111 + 11111)*. q1).
Here, we can see that more than
eight 1's can be generated by the Q.30 (c)
combination of 111 and 11111. Let’s study the regular languages.
Therefore, number of states =8+1=9. Conventions on regular expressions:
These can be represented as 1. Bold face is not used for regular
expressions when the expression is
hot confusing. So, for example, (r +s)
is used instead of (r + s).
2. The operation * has precedence over
concatenation, which further has
precedence over union (+). Thus, the
Q.27 (c) regular expression (a + (b(c*))) is
Option (a) written as a + be*.
3. The concatenation of k r's, where r is
L  {s  (0  1)*| n 0 (s) is a 3- digit prime}
a regular expression, is written as r k.
It is a regular language. Thus, for example rr=r 2. The
Option (b)
language corresponding to r k is Lkr ,
L={s (0 + 1)*| for every prefix s' of
Where L r is the language
s | n 0 (S') - n1 (S')|  2} corresponding to the regular
It is a regular language. expression r. For a recursive
definition of Lkr .
Option (c) 4. The (r+) is used as a regular
L={s  (0 + 1)*| n 0 (s) - n1 (s)|  4} expression to represent L*r . Since,
It is not a regular language.

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 language Lean be expressed as  x  z *y  y  z 
r  [0(0 1)*0] [1(0 1)*1]
G1 generates every string in which “
and follows the above convention,
no y appears before any x”.
therefore is regular.
G2 : S  y z yS zS xB
Q.31 (a) B  y yS
It is given that the 0 ’s and 1’s are Substitute B in S to get
divisible by 3 and 5 and we know
S  y z yS zS xy xyS
that 3 and 5 do not have any factor
other than themselves or 1 i.e., these Now solution of S is
cannot be further breakdown. S   y  z  xy  *S
Therefore, number of states S   y  z  xy  *  y  z  xy 
=3×5 =15
So L  G2  S   y  z  xy

The schematic representation is as
follows: G2 generates every string in which
“every x followed by atleast one y” .

Q.34 (d)
Given DFA can be redesigned as S0
asq00, S1 as q10, S2 as q11, S3 as
q01.
Each state is
qab a  na mod 2, b = n b mod 2 .
Q.32 (b) q00 as n a mod 2 = 0, n b mod 2  0
Finite subset of non-regular set is [Number of x is ever, number of y is
regular as we know that Pumping even].
Lemma can be applied on all the
finite sets that state that all finite sets
are regular.
Infinite union of finite set is not
regular because regular sets can
never be closed under infinite union.

Q.33 (a)
G1: S  x z xS zS yB q01 is final state mean where
B  y z yB zB number of x is even and number of
y is odd. q10 if final state mean
B   y  z

where number of x is odd and
Substitute in s to get number of y is even.
S  x z xS zS y  y  z 


Q.35 (c)
Now solution o f S is This grammar cannot generate any
S   x  z  *S string starting with xx or ending with

S   x  z * x  z  y  y  z

 xx so (i), (ii) and (v) cannot be
generated by the grammar. xyx also
So L(G1)  S   x  z  

cannot be generated by the

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 grammar. The derivation for (iii)
xyxy and (iv) yxxy is shown below.
S  xB  xyS  xyxB  xyxy
S  yA  yxS  yxxS  yxxy
So only (iii) and (iv) can we derived
from this grammar.
Q.36 (b)
L(P)∩L(Q) must contain all strings Which is equivalent Transition graph
common to P and Q. Note that `aa’ is [by removing transition from q1 to
common to both P and Q and hence q2 and q2 to q1 but does not effect on
must be accepted by any FA language]
accepting L(P)∩L(Q). However, all of
the given machine reject ‘aa’.
Therefore option (e) i.e. none of
these is the right answer.

Q.37 (a)
The language of the given regular
expression R is ‘containing the
substring aa or bb’. Option (a) is the That is equivalent to:
correct machine for this language.

Q.38 (a)
In option (a) S3 and S4 together act
as a permanent accept and can
therefore be collapsed into a single Which is equivalent to:
permanent accept state as shown
below.

Which is equivalent to:

Equivalent regular expression is

This machine clearly accepts all
strings containing the substring `aa’ a  ba  *  a  bb  b(ab)*(b  aa) (a  b)*.
or `bb’, which is same as regular
expression R, Q.40 (c)
a) with at least 2 consecutive 1’s,
Q.39 (c) any no of 0’s and any no of 1’s
R   a  b *  aa  bb a  b  * has b) exactly two consecutive 1’s
following equivalent DFA c) exactly two 1’s but need not be
consecutive
d) Any no of 1’s & 0’s with at least two
1’s

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 Q.41 (a) even number of b’s. This can be
A state in a DFA will be a subset of the accepted by DFA. So it is regular.
set of states of the equivalent NFA. 2. There is a relation between
So, the maximum number of states in number of a’s and b’s which can be
the equivalent DFA of an NFA, will be solved by stack. So this is CFL.
2n , where n is the number of states in 3. There is a relation between
NFA, as a set with n elements has number of a’s and b’s which can be
maximum 2n subsets. solved by stack. So this is CFL.
So, number of states in equivalent 4. The given language is set of strings
minimal DFA ≤ number of states in having c in it. There exists DFA to
equivalent DFA ≤ 2n . accept all such strings. So it is
regular.
Q.42 (a)
Q.46 (c)
Interchanging final and non-final
states of DFA is used for The correct sequence is given as
follows:
complementation. P. 1.
Given D FA generates all strings end
with ab. Complement of DFA accepts   0(01*1 00)*01*
all strings do not end with ab.
Complement of given DFA is :

R. 2.

  0(10*1 00)*0
It accepts all strings that do no end
with ab.

Q.43 (d)
L1 is regular, since 10000 is finite.
L3 is also regular (mod machine, Q. 3.
since finite number of residue
  0(10*110)*1
combinations). L2  w w  w R  
which is the Palindrome language
which is known to be non regular.

Q.44 (a)
S. 4.
M1 is a DFA accepting all string
containing 2 consecutive 1’s   0(10*110)*10*
(containing the substring `11’).M2 is
a NFA accepting the same language.
Containing 2consecutive 1’s.
So, L1 = L2.

Q.45 (a)
1. There is no comparison between
number of a’s and b’s. We must have

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 Q.47 (a) Therefore, the above DFA ends with
Given: Transition table for Y and Z 00.
The number of states of Z = 2
The number of states of Y = 2 Q.49 (a)
ZxY The initial state =00
Final state required =01
Let us construct the transition
diagram for the given.

No. of states of the product of Z and Y

= 2 x 2 = 4 Now, the states as per the
given option are P, Q, R and S. The
finite state automata is
a B We get the total number of states to
be 3 when getting the desired output.
→P S R The transition diagram can further
be elaborated as below.
Q R S

R(F) Q P

S Q P

Table for Z x Y is
a B There can be 4 states 00, 01, 10, 11.
With this, the FSM can be designed as
→(1,2) (2,1) (2,2) the desired output is obtained with
the input string 101, however the
(1,2) (2,2) (2,1) concern is number of states which
we found to be 3.
(2,1) (1,1) (1,2)
Q.50 (c)
F(2,2) (1,2) (1,1) We have given the relation
(0 + 1)* 0(0 + 1)* 0(0 + 1)*
Here, the accepting languages are
Q.48 (c) L={00, 000, 100, 001, 010, 0000,
0001, 1000, 1001, 0100, 1100, 0010,
0011, 0110, 0101, 1010,…}
The common feature in the accepting
languages can be seen that they
consist of atleast two 0’s.
State Input Output
Q.51 (c)
q0 to q0 1, 0 00 The length of W is not defined. It is
given as n so let us take an example.
Q1 to q0 1, 0 00 Consider the length of W be 2.
Let W =01
Q2 to q0 1, 0 00 The sub-strings thus formed are 0, 1
and 01.

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 The number of states required by Q.58 (b)
NFA as compared to the string will
give us the minimum number of
states in the NFA accepting L.
The automaton for the above is
Language for NFA L= a +
Now L   * L
⟹ L  a * a 
Here the minimum number of states ⟹ L  
required is 3 which is 1 greater than
the string of length 2. Therefore, n + Q.59 (c)
1 are the desired solution. L  ab,aa,baa
Q.52 (b) The breakdown of the strings 1,2,4 in
It is given that L is the set of all bit terms of ab, aa and baa is shown
strings with even number of 1's, so below:
the regular expression should 1. a baa baa ab aa
exhibit the same. 2. aa aab aa aa
Now, the min string should be s and 3. baa aa a baa
the string should be e, 0, 11, 101... String no (3) has no breakdown in
The string obtained from such terms of strings in L and hence string
expression is 0* (10*10*)* (3) does not belong to L*. Only 1, 2
and 4 belongs to L*.
Q.53 (a)
As state (s) and (t) both are final Q.60 (d)
states and accepting a* + b*, we can Notice that the state names are given
combine both states and we will get based on ending bits of the string,
which has been processed.
The are from 00 labeled “0” should
go to trap state q (since at most 2
zeros are allowed in any substring).
Based on this fact, option (a) and (b)
are incorrect Between option (c) and
Q.54 (b) (d), if you look at arc labeled “I” from
As n is constant at least n + 1 states state 01, this arc should go to state 11
will be required to design a nk since the string at this point is ending
with 11. So option (c) is wrong and
Q.55 (b) option (d) is correct.
DPDA and NPDA because an NPDA The dfa corresponding to correct
cannot be converted into DPDA. option (d) is correct.
The dfa corresponding to correct
Q.56 (c)
option (d) is shown below with
*- P as *- P is the complement of P
missing arrows shown in dotted
and complement of regular language lines.
is also regular.

Q.57 (a)
Lexical analysis only requires the
power of FA.

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 But s'  is an empty language
,L  
{}  L* for all languages L.
As it indicates taking letters from the
language and concatenating them ‘0’
length string which is possible for all
languages.
 is in *
L1.L2  
Q.61 (d)
And L*1  {}
L1.L2 * L*1  (L1.L2 )  L*1
{}  {}
Hence, the answer is option (a) = {𝛆}

Q.63 (c)
1. Element of L(A) is context free – Only for C we can build the finite
true As there exist a DFA, L(A) is automata
regular. Regular languages are
closed under complement. Q.64 (a)
∴ Complement of L(A) is regular The given automaton is NFA and
and therefore context free. clearly the states q 0, q1, q2 can be
2. reached with the input string 0011.
L(A)  L((11*0  0)(0 1)*0*1*)  true
AS L(A)  L((11*0  0)(0 1)*) is Q.65 (b)
I and III are the expressions for DFA.
Equivalent to
But II is not representing the given
L((11*0  0)(0 1)*0*1*) For the
DFA as it accepts strings like 11011
language accepted by A, which is not accepted by regular
A is minimal DFA – false expression.
Minimal DFA
Q.66 (a)
Both L1 and L2 are regular. The
concatenation of two regular
3. A accepts all strings over {0, languages is regular.
1} of length at least 2 – false. But L1.L2 ={ambn | m, n>=0}
The given DFA A accepts the
string “0” Ans (d) 3 and 4 only Q.67 (a)
false. L1 is regular let us consider the
string 011011011011 In this string,
Q.62 (a) number of occurrences of 011 are 4
but when we see here 110 is also
Considering the languages L1  
occurred and the number of
and L2  {a} for all languages L it is occurrence of 110 is 3. Note that if i
known that ∅. L =∅ add a 0 at the last of string we can
Suppose, ∃α string s . L ∃s’ Such have same number of occurrences of
that s=s’ s” 011 and 110 so this string is
And s' s" L accepted. We can say if the string is

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 ending with 011 so by appending a 0
we can make 110 also. Now string2 :
110110110110 in this number of
occurrences of 110 is 4 and 011 is 3
which already satisfy the condition
So we can observe here that Q.72
whenever 110 will be there string L  M   a  b *a (strings ending with a)
will be accepted So with this idea we L(N)   a  b  *b (strings ending with b)
can build an automata for this.
Therefore, it is regular.
L(M)  L(N)   (nothing in common)
∴ Number of states = 1
Q.68 (3)
Length 0 string is present as it
accepts epsilon, all length 1 strings Minimal DFA which accepts empty
are present (a,b) and also length two language.
string aa, ab, ba, bb are present, But
'bab ' is not present. So length of string Q.73 (a)
not accepted is 3.

L1  wxw R w, x a, b *and w , x  0 
Q.69 (3) w cannot be put as ``ϵ” since w  0 .
The corresponding DFA is So we put w as its smallest string
which is `a’ and `b’and get the
regular expression:
r  a  a  b a  b(a  b) b .


Now putting w as any other

Q.70 (c) string like say “ab” will not add any
The smallest possible string by given new string to the expression r, since
grammar is "11". any such string so generated will be
X0 = 1X1 either already generated by either
= 11X2 [Replacing X1 with 1X2] a(a+b)+ a or b  a  b b .


= 11 [Replacing X2 with λ]
So the given language
The string "11" is only possible with
 a  a  b a  b(a  b) b which is

option (c)
clearly regular.
Q.71 (b) ∴ L1 is regular.
In regular language, DFA containing
sub-string of length n contains n+1  
L2  a n bm m  n . This language has
state. Complement of that DFA also infinite comparisons between
contain n+1 state. number of a’s and b’s . L 2 is not
DFA for the language is regular language.
 
L3 : a pbqcr p,q,r  0  a *b*c* is a
regular language.

Q.74 (d)
Following is the DFA for complement
of L which again contains 5 states. G: G :S  aS bS 
L(G)  a, b *.

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 Q.75 (c) Q.77 (2)
I. Disjointedness problem of R.e (0+1)*(0+1)(0+1)*
regular = Decidable The number of states in minimal DFA
II. Membership of CFL’s = Decidable is 2
III. Equivalence of CFL’s =
Undecidable
IV. Emptiness of RE language’s =
Undecidable
So, III and IV only is correct answer. Q.78 (c)
L1: S1 → aS1 b | ε
Q.76 (b) L2: S2 → abS2 | ε
Option A represents those strings L1: {an bn | n > 0} → CFL
which either have 0011 or 1100 as L2: (ab)* → RL
substring. P is false and Q is true
Option C represents those strings
which either have 00 or 11 as Q.79 (b)
substring. I is true because consider the empty
Option D represents those strings lnguage which is regular. And its
which start with 11 and end with 00 intersection with any language is
or start with 00 and end with 11. regular. I is false because, if we do not
Option B represents those strings define the transition for an input ‘a’
having two consecutive 0s and two at a particular state but the next
consecutive 1s. character in string is ‘a’, then it
cannot be accepted by that NFA.

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 2 CONTEXT-FREE GRAMMARS AND PUSHDOWN
AUTOMATA

As we have seen in previous chapter, many Language and CFG

languages are not regular languages. As well
as finite automata can’t be constructed for All the set of strings generated by CFG forms
few languages. So to solve few problems we the language. Every CFG generates one
need more powerful language and more language.
powerful machine. Context-free grammars
allows us to generate more interesting Examples:
languages; much of the syntax of a high-level
programming language. In this chapter we 1. L = {anbn | n>= 0}
are going to learn the context free language S → aSb | ^
and push down automata.
2. L = {anbn | n> 0}
2.1 CONTEXT FREE GRAMMAR (CFG) S → aSb | ab

Definition: 3. L = {Even length palindrome strings, Σ =

A context-free grammar (CFG) is a 4-tuple G {a,b}}
= (V, Σ, S, P), where V and Σ are disjoint finite S → aSa | bSb | ^
sets, S ∈ V , and P is a finite set of formulas
of the form A → α, where A ∈ V and α ∈ (V ∪ 4. L = {Odd length palindrome strings, Σ =
Σ)∗. {a,b}
Elements of Σ are called terminal symbols, S → aSa | bSb | a | b
or terminals, and elements of V are
variables, or nonterminals. S is the start 5. L = {Every string of Σ*, Σ = {a,b}}
variable, and elements of P are grammar S → aSa | bSb | aSb | bSa | ^ |a | b
rules, or productions. Or
Example of CFG S → aS | bS | ^
Consider the Grammar:
V = {S}, S = {S}, Σ = {id} and P is as follows: 6. L = {Strings having middle symbol a, Σ =
S → (S) {a,b}}
S → aSa | bSb | aSb | bSa | a
S→S +S
S→S −S 7. L = {Strings having first, last and middle
S→S ×S symbol same, Σ = {a,b}}
S → S/S S → aAa | bBb | a | b
S → id A → aAa | bAb | aAb | bAa | a
Sometimes we also write as: B → aBa | bBb | aBb | bBa | b
S → (S)| S + S | S − S | S × S | S/S | id
8. L = (a+b)*ab
Here, is an example of how a string id × (id +
S → Aab
id) can be generated from the above A → aA | bA | ^
grammar.
S ⇒ S × S ⇒ S × (S) ⇒ id × (S) ⇒ id × (S + S) ⇒ id 9. L = {aibjck | j=i+k, Σ = {a,b,c}}
× (id + S) ⇒ id × (id + S) ⇒ id × (id + S) ⇒ id × (id S → AB
+ id) A → aAb | ^
B → bBc | ^

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 10. L = {x | na(x) = nb(x) , Σ = {a,b}}
S → aSb | bSa | SS | ^ E → E+E
→ E+E*E
2.2 DERIVATION, PARSE TREE AND → E+E*id
AMBIGUITY → E+id*id
→ id+id*id
The right most non-terminal (underline)
Derivation:
gets replaced every time by one of right side
The process of deriving a string from the of its production.
starting non-terminal is called a derivation.
Here, E+E, E+E*E, E+E*id, E+id*id, id+id*id
Derivation can be of two types: are called right sentential forms – in general
Left Most Derivation: In the process of sentential forms.
derivation every time if left most non-
Parse Tree/ Derivation Tree:
terminal gets replaced by one of right side of Pictorial representation of derivation is
its production then it is called left most called parse tree.
derivation. Root Node: Starting non-terminal
Internal Nodes: Non-Terminals
Example: Leaf Nodes: Terminals
Consider the grammar E → E+E | E*E| id
Example: Parse tree for id+id*id is as
Left most derivation for the string id+id*id below.
is as follows:
E → E+E
→ id+E
→ id+E*E
→ id+id*E
→ id+id*id

The left most non-terminal (underline) gets

replaced every time by one of right side of
its production.

Here, E+E, id+E, id+E*E, id+id*E, id+id*id

are called left sentential forms – in general
sentential forms.
Ambiguous Grammar:
Right Most Derivation: In the process of A context-free grammar G is ambiguous if
derivation every time if right most non- for at least one x ∈ L(G), x has more than one
terminal gets replaced by one of right side of derivation tree (or, equivalently, more than
its production then it is called left most one leftmost derivation).
derivation.
Example:
The grammar E → E+E | E*E | id is
Example: ambiguous.
Consider the grammar E → E+E | E*E| id
Left most derivation for the string id+id*id
is as follows:

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 Because there exist more than one different Left Factoring:
parse tree for the string id+id*id which are A grammar is said to be left factored when it
shown below. is of the form :
A → αβ1 | αβ2 | αβ3 | …… | αβn | γ i.e the
productions start with the same terminal
(or set of terminals).

For the grammar

A → αβ1 | αβ2 | αβ3 | …… | αβn | γ
The equivalent left factored grammar will
be:
A → αA’ | γ
A’ → β1 | β2 | β3 | …… | βn

2.3 LEFT RECURSION, LEFT FACTORING Example:

AND NORMAL FORMS S → iEtS|iEtSeS|id
Here, α = iEtS, β1 = ε, β2 = eS, γ = id
Left Recursion: The equivalent left factored grammar will
A grammar is left recursive if it has a non be:
terminal (variable) A such that their is a S → iEtSS’|id
derivation S’ → ε|eS
A → Aα | β
Removal of Null Production:
where α ∈ (VUT)* and β ∈ (VUT)* In a CFG, a non-terminal symbol ‘A’ is a
nullable variable if there is a production A →
Due to the presence of left recursion some ε or there is a derivation that starts at A and
top down parsers enter into infinite loop so finally ends up with A ⇒* ε.
we have to eliminate left recursion.
Removal Procedure:
Let the productions is of the form A → Aα1 | Step 1 − Find out nullable non-terminal
Aα2 | Aα3 | ….. | Aαm | β1 | β2 | …. | βn variables which derive ε.
Step 2 –Replace all combinations of nullable
Where no βi begins with an A then we variables by ε.
replace the A-productions by
Example:
A → β1 A’ | β2 A’ | ….. | βn A’ S → ASA | aB | b, A → B, B → b | ∈
A’ → α1A’ | α2A’ | α3A’| ….. | αmA’ | ε Here. A and B both are nullable.

The nonterminal A generates the same S → ASA | aB | b | a | SA | AS | S, A → B, B → b

strings as before but is no longer left
recursive. Removal of Unit Productions:
Any production rule in the form A → B
Example: where A, B are Non-terminal is called unit
production..
E --> E + T | E-T | T
Here, A = E, α1 = +T, α2 = -T, β1 = T Removal Procedure −
E → T E' Step 1 − To remove A → B, add production A
E' → ε | +TE' | -TE’ → x to the grammar rule whenever B → x

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 occurs in the grammar. [x is Terminal, x can Solution
be Null] (1) Since S appears in R.H.S, we add a new
Step 2 − Delete A → B from the grammar. state S0 and S0→S is added to the
Step 3 − Repeat from step 1 until all unit production set and it becomes −
productions are removed. S0→S, S→ ASA | aB, A → B | S, B → b | ε

Example: (2) Now we will remove the null

S → aA, A → a | B, B → bb productions − B → ε and A → ε
After removing unit production: After removing B → ε, the production set
S → aA, A → a | bb becomes −
S0→S, S→ ASA | aB | a, A → B | S | ε, B → b
CHOMSKY NORMAL FORM:
A CFG is in Chomsky Normal Form if the After removing A → ε, the production set
productions are in the following forms − becomes −
A→a S0→S, S→ ASA | aB | a | AS | SA | S, A → B | S,
A → BC B→b
S→ε
where A, B, and C are non-terminals and a is (3) Now we will remove the unit
terminal. productions.
After removing S → S, the production set
Steps to Convert into Chomsky Normal becomes −
Form: S0→S, S→ ASA | aB | a | AS | SA, A → B | S, B
Step 1 − If the start symbol S occurs on some →b
right side, create a new start symbol S’ and a
new production S’→ S. After removing S0→ S, the production set
becomes −
Step 2 − Remove Null productions. S0→ ASA | aB | a | AS | SA, S→ ASA | aB | a |
AS | SA
Step 3 − Remove unit productions.
A → B | S, B → b
Step 4 − Replace each production A →
B1…Bn where n > 2 with A → B1C where C After removing A→ B, the production set
→ B2 …Bn. Repeat this step for all becomes −
productions having two or more symbols in S0 → ASA | aB | a | AS | SA, S→ ASA | aB | a |
the right side. AS | SA
A→S |b
Step 5 − If the right side of any production is B→b
in the form A → aB where a is a terminal and
A, B are non-terminal, then the production is After removing A→ S, the production set
replaced by A → XB and X → a. Repeat this becomes −
step for every production which is in the S0 → ASA | aB | a | AS | SA, S→ ASA | aB | a |
form A → aB. AS | SA
A → b |ASA | aB | a | AS | SA, B → b
Example:
Convert the following CFG into CNF (4) Now we will find out more than two
variables in the R.H.S
S → ASA | aB, A → B | S, B → b | ε
Here, S0→ ASA, S → ASA, A→ ASA violates
two Non-terminals in R.H.S.

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 Hence we will apply step 4 and step 5 to get Step 3 − Remove unit productions. (Using
the following final production set which is in the Unit production removal algorithm
CNF − discussed earlier)

S0→ AX | aB | a | AS | SA Step 4 − Remove all direct and indirect left-

S→ AX | aB | a | AS | SA recursion.
A → b |AX | aB | a | AS | SA
B→b Step 5 − Do proper substitutions of
X → SA productions to convert it into the proper
form of GNF.
(5) We have to change the productions S0→
aB, S→ aB, A→ aB Example:
S → XY | Xn | p
And the final production set becomes − X → mX | m
S0→ AX | YB | a | AS | SA Y → Xn | o
S→ AX | YB | a | AS | SA
A → b A → b |AX | YB | a | AS | SA Solution
B→b Here, S does not appear on the right side of
X → SA any production and there are no unit or null
Y→a productions in the production rule set. So,
we can skip Step 1 to Step 3.
Note: If G is a Context Free Grammar in the
Chomsky Normal Form, then for any Step 4
string w belongs L(G) of length n ≥ 1, it
requires exactly 2n-1 steps to make Now after replacing X in S → XY | Xo | p with
any derivation of w. mX | m we obtain

GREIBACH NORMAL FORM: S → mXY | mY | mXo | mo | p.

A CFG is in Greibach Normal Form if the
Productions are in the following forms − And after replacing X in Y → Xn | o with the
right side of X → mX | m we obtain
A→b
A → bD1…Dn Y → mXn | mn | o.
S→ε
Two new productions O → o and P → p are
where A, D1,....,Dn are non-terminals and b added to the production set and then we
is a terminal. came to the final GNF as the following −

Steps to Convert a CFG into Greibach S → mXY | mY | mXC | mC | p

Normal Form: X → mX | m
Step 1 − If the start symbol S occurs on some Y → mXD | mD | o
right side, create a new start symbol S’ and a O→o
new production S’ → S. P→p

Step 2 − Remove Null productions. (Using Note: If G is a in GNF, then for any string w
the Null production removal algorithm belongs L(G) of length n ≥ 1, it
discussed earlier) requires exactly n steps to make any
derivation of w.

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 2.4 PUSHDOWN AUTOMATA (PDA) As shown in figure, a PDA has three
components: an input tape with read only
Regular language can be characterized as head, a finite control and a pushdown store.
the language accepted by finite automata. The input head is read-only and may only
Similarly, we can characterize the context- move from left to right, one symbol (or cell)
free language as the language accepted by a at a time. In each step, the PDA pops the top
class of machines called "Pushdown symbol off the stack; based on this symbol,
Automata" (PDA). A pushdown automation the input symbol it is currently reading, and
is an extension of the NFA. It is observed its present state, it can push a sequence of
that FA have limited capability. (in the sense symbols onto the stack, move its read-only
that the class of languages accepted or head one cell (or symbol) to the right, and
characterized by them is small). This is due enter a new state, as defined by the
to the "finite memory" (number of states) transition rules of the PDA. PDA are
and "no external memory" involved with nondeterministic, by default. That is, ∈-
them. A PDA is simply an NFA augmented transitions are also allowed in which the
with an "external stack memory". The PDA can pop and push, and change state
addition of a stack provides the PDA with a without reading the next input symbol or
last-in, first-out memory management moving its read-only head. Besides this,
capability. This "Stack" or "pushdown store" there may be multiple options for possible
can be used to record a potentially next moves.
unbounded information. It is due to this
memory management capability with the Formal Definitions
help of the stack that a PDA can overcome
the memory limitations that prevents a FA Formally, a PDA M is a 7-tuple
to accept many interesting languages like M =(Q,∑, Γ, δ, q0, z0, F )
 
a n bn | n  0 . Although, a PDA can store an where,
 Qis a finite set of states,
unbounded amount of information on the
 ∑is a finite set of input symbols (input
stack, its access to the information on the
alphabets),
stack is limited. It can push an element onto
 Γ is a finite set of stack symbols (stack
the top of the stack and pop off an element alphabets),
from the top of the stack. To read down into
 δ is a transition function from
the stack the top elements must be popped
Q    to subset of Q
off and are lost. Due to this limited access to
the information on the stack, a PDA still has  q0  Q is the start state
some limitations and cannot accept some  z0  , is the initial stack symbol, and, F
other interesting languages.
is the final or accept states.

Explanation of the transition function, δ:

If, for any a  , δ(q,a,z)=

 p1, 1  ,  p2 , 2  ,.... pk , k  . This means
institutively that whenever the PDA is in
state q reading input symbol a and z on top
of the stack, it can non deterministically for
any i,
1≤i≤k

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  go to state p1 entire input, starting in the start
 pop z off the stack configuration on input x.
 push 1 onto the stack (where 1  * )
2. Acceptance by empty stack (or Null
(The usual convention is that if stack)
1  X1X2 ...Xk , then X1 will be at the top The PDA M accepts its input x by empty
and X k at the bottom.) stack if starting in the start configuration on
 move read head right one cell past the input x , it ever empties the stack w/o
current symbol a. If a = , then pushing anything back on after reading the
(q,, z)  {(p1 , 1 ),(p2 , 2 ),...(pk , k )} entire input.
Note that the set of final states, F is
means institutively that whenever the
irrelevant in this case and we usually let the
PDA is in state q with z on the top of the
stack regardless of the current input F to be the empty set i.e. F = ∅ .
symbol, it can non deterministically for
Following is the PDA for language L = {a nbn |
any i, 1  i  k ,
 go to state pi n>=0}
 pop z off the stack
1. (q1 ,a, z)  {(q 2 ,az)}
 push  i onto the stack, and
 leave its read-only head where it is. 2. (q 2 ,a,a)  {(q 2 ,aa)}
3. (q2 , b,a)  {(q3 ,)}
State Transition Diagram 4. (q3 , b,a)  {(q3 ,)}

A PDA can also be depicted by a state 5. (q3 ,, z)  {(q 4 , z)}

transition diagram. The labels on the arcs Here, q1 and q4 are the accepting states.
indicate both the input and the stack
operation. The transition (p,a,z)  {(q,a)} The PDA can also be described by the
adjacent transition diagram.
for a {},p,q Q,z  and αϵΓ* is
depicted by

Final states are indicated by double circles

and the start state is indicated by an arrow Informally, whenever the PDA M sees an
to it from nowhere. input a in the start state q1 with the start
symbol z on the top of the stack it pushes a
onto the stack and changes state to q2 . (to
Language accepted by a PDA M remember that it has seen the first 'a'). On
state q2 if it sees anymore a, it simply pushes
There are two alternative definition of it onto the stack. Note that when M is on
acceptance as given below. state q2 , the symbol on the top of the stack
can only be a. On state q2 if it sees the first b
1. Acceptance by final state with a on the top of the stack, then it needs
Consider the PDA M =(Q,∑, Γ, δ, q0, z0, F ). to start comparison of numbers of a's and
Informally, the PDA M is said to accept its b's, since all the a's at the beginning of the
input ∞ by final state if it enters any final input have already been pushed onto the
state in zero or more moves after reading its stack. It start this process by popping off the

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 a from the top of the stack and enters in More Examples:
state q3 (to remember that the comparison L1 = {wcwr|w∈{a,b}*}
process has begun). On state q3 , it expects
only b's in the input (if it sees any more a in Sr State I/P Stack Move
the input thus the input will not be in the 1 qo a z0 (qo,az0)
proper form of a nbn). Hence there is no more 2 qo b z0 (qo,bz0)
on input a when it is in state q3 . On state q3 3 qo a a (qo,aa)
it pops off an a from the top of the stack for 4 qo b a (qo,ba)
every b in the input. When it sees the last b
5 qo a b (qo,ab)
on state q3 (i.e. when the input is
exhausted), then the last a from the stack 6 qo b b (qo,bb)
will be popped off and the start symbol z is 7 qo c z0 (q1 ,z0)
exposed. This is the only possible case when 8 qo c a (q1 ,a)
the input (i.e. on ∈ -input ) the PDA M will 9 qo c b (q1 ,b)
move to state q4 which is an accept state. 10 q1 a a (q1 ,^)
we can show the computation of the PDA on 11 q1 b b (q1 ,^)
a given input using the IDs and next move 12 q1 ^ z0 (q2 ,z0)
relations. For example, following are the
computation on two input strings.
Let the input be aabb. We start with the start
configuration and proceed to the
subsequent IDs using the transition function
defined

(q1,aabb,z) → (q2,abb,az)(using transition 1

)
→ (q 2 , bb,aaz) ( using transition 2 )
→ (q3 , b,az) ( using transition 3 ) L2 = {x | x is Palindrome String over {a,b}*}
→ (q3 ,, z) ( using transition 4 ) Sr State I/P Stack Move
→ (q 4 ,, z) ( using transition 5 ) 1 qo a z0 (qo,az0) (q1 ,z0)
q4 is final state. Hence , accept. So the string 2 qo b z0 (qo,bz0) (q1 ,z0)
aabb is rightly accepted by M. We can show 3 qo a a (qo,aa) (q1 ,a)
the computation of the PDA on a given input 4 qo b a (qo,ba) (q1 ,a)
using the IDs and next move relations. For
5 qo a b (qo,ab) (q1 ,b)
example, following are the computation on
6 qo b b (qo,bb) (q1 ,b)
two input strings.
Let the input be aabab. 7 qo c z0 (q1 ,z0)
(q1,aabab,z) → (q2,abab,az) 8 qo c a (q1 ,a)
→ (q2 , bab,aaz) 9 qo c b (q1 ,b)
10 q1 a a (q1 ,^)
→ (q3 ,ab,az)
11 q1 b b (q1 ,^)
No further move is defined at this point.
12 q1 ^ z0 (q2 ,z0)
Hence the PDA gets stuck and the string
aabab is not accepted.
L3 = {String of balanced parenthesis over [ }

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 Sr State I/P Stack Move
1 qo [ z0 (q1, [z0) Power of DPDA and NPDA in terms of
2 q1 [ [ (q1, [[) language acceptance:
For every CFL there exist a non-
3 q1 ] [ (q1, ^)
deterministic PDA or simply PDA. But for
4 q1 ^ z0 (q1, z0)
every CFL deterministic PDA does not exist.
It means there are few CFL for which DPDA
2.5 DETERMINISTIC AND can’t be constructed but NPDA can be.
NON-DETERMINISTIC PDA
For example:
Deterministic Moves/Choices: L = {x | x is Palindrome String over {a,b}*}

For above language we have constructed

NPDA in the previous section but its DPDA
does not exist.

Note: For this reason NPDA is said to be

more powerful than DPDA.

2.6 EQUIVALENCE OF PDAS AND CFGS

If P is a pushdown automaton, an equivalent
context-free grammar G can be constructed
where
L(G) = L(P)

Steps to find PDA corresponding to a given

Non-Deterministic Moves/Choices CFG:
Input − A CFG, G = (V, T, P, S)
Output − Equivalent PDA, P = (Q, ∑, S, δ, q0,
I, F)
Step 1 − Convert the productions of the CFG
into GNF.

Step 2 − The PDA will have only one state

{q}.

Deterministic PDA (DPDA): Step 3 − The start symbol of CFG will be the
If all moves in PDA are deterministic then it start symbol in the PDA.
is called deterministic PDA.
Step 4 − All non-terminals of the CFG will be
Non-Deterministic PDA (NPDA): the stack symbols of the PDA and all the
If any move of PDA is non-deterministic terminals of the CFG will be the input
then it is called non-deterministic PDA. symbols of the PDA.

Example: Step 5 − For each production in the form A

In the previous section the PDA for language → aX where a is terminal and A, X are
L1 and L3 was deterministic but PDA for L2 combination of terminal and non-terminals,
was non-deterministic. make a transition δ (q, a, A).

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 Example:  L = {x ∈ {a, b, c}∗ | na(x) = min
Construct a PDA from the following CFG. {nb(x), nc(x)}}
G = ({S, X}, {a, b}, P, S) where the productions  {anbmanbn+m | m, n ≥ 0}
are −
S → XS | ε , A → aXb | Ab | ab
Deterministic Context Free Language
Solution (DCFL)
Let the equivalent PDA, A CFL is said to be DCFL if there exist DPDA
P = ({q}, {a, b}, {a, b, X, S}, δ, q, S) which accepts it.
where δ −
δ(q, ε , S) = {(q, XS), (q, ε )} 2.8 CLOSURE PROPERTIES OF CFL
δ(q, ε , X) = {(q, aXb), (q, Xb), (q, ab)}
δ(q, a, a) = {(q, ε )} Context-free languages are closed under
δ(q, 1, 1) = {(q, ε )} union, concatenation, and Kleene star but
not under intersection and
complementation.
2.7 CONTEXT FREE LANGUAGES
A language is said to be context free if there
Suppose G1 = (V1, Σ1, R1, S1) and G2 = (V2,
exist a PDA which accepts it.
Σ2, R2, S2).
Informally, PDA can remember one
Example: For G1 we have S 1 → aS1b, S1 → ^.
condition/comparison but it can’t
For G2 we have S2 → c S2d, S2 → ^.
remember more than one conditions
Then L(G1) = {anbn : n ≥ 0}.
simultaneously.
Also, L(G2) = {cndn : n ≥ 0}
For example:
Union:
L = {aibjck | i = j or j = k } is context free but L
G = (V1 ∪ V2 ∪ {S}, Σ1 ∪ Σ2, R, S) where
= {aibjck | i = j and j = k} is not context free.
R = R1 ∪ R2 ∪ {S → S1, S → S2} and S is a new
symbol.
Following is the list of context free
Then L(G) = L(G1) ∪ L(G2).
languages:
Example:
 {x ∈ {a, b}∗ | na(x) < nb(x)}
S1 → a S1b, S1 → ^. S2 → c S2d S2 → ^.
 {x ∈ {a, b}∗ | na(x) ≠ nb(x)} S → S1 | S2
 {x ∈ {a, b}∗ | na(x) = 2nb(x)} Then L(G) = {an bn : n ≥ 0} ∪ {cndn : n ≥ 0}.
 {anbn+mam | n,m ≥ 0}
 The set of even-length palindromes Concatenation
over {a, b} G = (V1 ∪ V2 ∪ {S}, Σ1 ∪ Σ2, R, S) where
 The set of odd-length palindromes R = R1 ∪ R2 ∪ {S → S1S2} and S is a new
over {a, b} symbol. Example:
 {x ∈ {a, b}∗ | na(x) = nb(x)} S1 → aS1b, S1 → ^. S2 → c S2d S2 → ^.
 {x ∈ {0, 1}∗ | na(x) = 2nb(x)} S → S1S2
Then L(G) = {ambmcndn : m, n ≥ 0}.
Following is the list of non context free
languages: Kleene Star
 L = {aibjck | i < j <k} G = (V1 ∪ {S}, Σ1, R, S) where R = R1 ∪ {S →
 L = {x ∈ {a, b}∗ | nb(x) = na(x)2 ^, S → SS1} and S is a new symbol.
 L = {anb2nan | n ≥ 0} Example:
 L = {x ∈ {a, b, c}∗ | na(x) = max S1 → aS1b S1 → ^.
{nb(x), nc(x)}} S → ^, S → SS1

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 Then L(G) = {anbn : n ≥ 0}∗ .

Not Closed under Intersection

Let L1 = {ambmcn : m, n ≥ 0} and
let L2 = {ambncn : m, n ≥ 0}.
• Then both L1 and L2 are context-free.
• However, their intersection L1 ∩ L2 is
{anbncn : n ≥ 0} which is not context-free.

Not Closed under Complement

Let L1 = {aibjck | i ≠j or j ≠k or i ≠k} U
(a+b+c)*(ba+cb+ca+cba)(a+b+c)* Here, L1
is context-free.
But its complement
L1’ = {anbncn : n ≥ 0} is not Context Free.

2.9 THINGS TO REMEMBER:

 NPDA is more powerful than DPDA.
 Every DCFL is CFL.
 Every regular language is DCFL
hence CFL.
 If the language is defined over single
symbol then it is CFL if it is regular.

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 GATE QUESTIONS

Q.1 Which of the following statements is context free grammars

true? generating them are ambiguous
a) If a language is context-free it can b) An unambiguous context-free
always be accepted by a grammar always has a unique
deterministic push- down parse tree for each string of the
automaton language generated by it
b) The union of two context-free c) Both deterministic and non-
languages is context-free deterministic pushdown
c) The intersection of two context- automata always accept the same
free languages is context-free set of language
d) The complement of a context-free d) A finite set of strings from some
language is context-free alphabet is always a regular
[GATE-2001] language
[GATE-2004 (IT)]
Q.2 The language accepted by a push-
down automaton is limited to 10 Q.5 Let M   K, , , , s, F be a
items is best described as pushdown automaton, where
a) context-free K   s, f  F  f  ,   a, b ,   a
b) regular and   {  s, a,   ,  s, a   ,   s, b,  
c) deterministic context-free
d) recursive  s,a   ,   s, a,  ,  f ,   , ( f , a, a  ,
[GATE-2002]
 f , ),   f , b, a  ,  f ,   }
Which one of the following strings is
Q.3 Let G  S , a, b R, S be a not a member of L(M)?
context-free grammar where the rule a) aaa b) aabab
set R is S aSb SS  c)baaba d) bab
Which of the following statements is [GATE-2004 (IT)]
true? Q.6 Consider the following grammar G.
a) G is not ambiguous
S bS aA b
b) There exist X, Y L  G such
A  bA | aB
that xy ∉ L(G)
c) There is a deterministic push- B bB aS a
down automaton that accepts Let Na (W) and N b (W) denote the
L  G number of a's and b's in a string W
d) We can find a deterministic finite respectively.
The language L  G   a, b

state automaton that accepts
L  G generated by G is
[GATE-2003] a) W | Na  W   3Nb  W 

Q.4 Which one of the following b) W | Nb  W   3Na  W 

statements is FALSE? c) {W| Na  W  3k, k  0, 1, 2,..}
a) There exist context free d) {W | Nb  W  3k, k  0,1, 2, . .}
languages such that all the
[GATE-2004]

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 Q.7 The language {a m bn cm n | m, n  1} is [GATE-2005 (IT)]
a) regular
b) context-free but not regular Q.10 Consider the languages :
c) Context-sensitive but not L1  {WWR | W  0, 1 *}
context-free L2  {W # WR | W 0,1)* where #
d) type-0 but not context-sensitive is a special symbol
[GATE-2004]
L3  {WW | W0, 1*} Which one
Q.8 Let L be a regular language and M be of the following is true?
a context-free language, both over a) L1 is a deterministic CFL
the alphabet  . Let Lc and Mc b) L 2 is a deterministic CFL
denote the complements of L and M
respectively. c) L 3 is a CFI but not a deterministic
Which of the following statements CFL
about the language Lc  Mc is TRUE? d) L 3 is a deterministic CFL
a) It is necessarily regular but not [GATE-2005]
necessarily context-free.
b) It is necessarily context-free. Q.11 Consider the languages :
c) It is necessarily non-regular. L1  a n bncm | n, m  0 and L2  a n bmcm | n, m  0
d) None of the above Which one of the following
[GATE-2005 (IT)] statements is false?
Q.9 Let P be a non-deterministic push- a) L1  L2 is a context-free language
down automation (N PDA) with b) L1 L2 is a context-free language
exactly one state, q, and exactly one c) L1 and L2 arecontext-free
symbol, Z, in its stack alphabet. State
languages
q is both the starting as well as the
d) L1  L2 is a context-sensitive
accepting state of the PDA. The stack
is initialized with one Z before the language
start of the operation of the PDA. Let [GATE-2005]
the input alphabet of the PDA be  .
Let L  P be the language accepted Q.12 Let Nf and Np , denote the classes of
by the PDA by reading a string and languages accepted by non-
reaching its accepting state. Let deterministic finite automata and
non - deterministic push - down
N  P be the language accepted by
automata, respectively. Let D f and
the PDA by reading a string and
emptying its stack. Dp denote the classes of languages
Which of the following statements is accepted by deterministic finite
TRUE? automata and deterministic push-
a) L  P is necessarily Σ* but down automata respectively.
Which one of the following is true?
N  P is not necessarily Σ* .
a) Df  Nf and Dp  Np
b) N  P is necessarily Σ* but
b) Df  Nf and Dp  Np
L  P is not necessarily Σ* c) Df  Nf and Dp  Np
c) Both L  P & N  P is necessarily Σ *
d) Df  Nf and Dp  Np
d) Neither L  P nor N  P are [GATE-2005]
necessarily Σ* .

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 Q.13 In the context-free grammar below, S after propping the top of stack and
is the start symbol, a and b are pushing the symbols Z 0 and X (in
terminals, and  denotes the empty that order) on the stack.
string S  aSa bSb a b  s,a, Z0   s, XXZ0 
Which of the following string is NOT
generated by the grammar?
s, , Z0   f , 
a) aaaa b) baba s,a, X  s, XXX 
c) abba d) babaaabab s, b, X   t, 
[GATE-2006 (IT)]
 t, b, X   t, 
Q.14 Which of the following languages is  t,c, X    u, 
accepted by a non-deterministic  u,c, X   u, 
pushdown automaton (PDA) but
NOT by deterministic PDA?  u, , Z0    f , 

a) a n bn cn n  0  The language accepted by the PDA is

b) a b c l  m or m  n
1 m n 
a) a1bmcn l  m = n 
b) a b c
1 m n
lm 
c) a b n  0
n n

c) a b c
1 m n
2 lm+n 
d) a b m,n  0
m n

[GATE-2006 (IT)] d) a b c
1 m n
m=n 
[GATE-2006 (IT)]
Q.15 Let L be a context-free language and
M a regular language. Then the Q.17 In the context-free grammar below, S
language L  M is is the start symbol, a and b are
a) always regular terminal, and ε denotes the empty
b) never regular string.
c) always a deterministic context- S  aSAb 
free language A  bA 
d) always a context-free language
[GATE-2006 (IT)] The grammar generates the language
a)   a  b  *b  *  
b) a mbn m  n
Q.16 Consider the pushdown automaton
(PDA) below which runs over the

c) a mbn m  n  d) a*b*

input alphabet (a,b,c). It has the stack [GATE-2006 (IT)]

alphabet Z0 , X where Z 0 is the
bottom –of-stack marker. The set of Q.18 Let L1  {0nm1n 0m | n, m  0},
states of the PDA is {s, t, u, f} where s L2  {0nm1nm 0m | n, m  0}, and
is the start state and f is the final
state. The PDA accepts by final state. L3  {0nm1nm 0nm | n,m  0}.
The transitions of the PDA given Which of these languages is/are not
below are depicted in a standard context?
manner. For example, the transition a) L1 only b) L 3 only
 s, b, X  c) L1and L2 d) L2and L3
(t, XZ0 ) means that if the PDA is in [GATE-2006]
state s and the symbol on the
top o f the stack is X, then it can read Q.19 Consider the following statements
b from the input and move to state t about the context-free grammar

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 G  {S SS,S ab,S ba,S  } Q.22 The language L  0i 21i i  0 over  
1. G is ambiguous. the alphabet {0, 1, 2) s
2. G produces all strings with equal a) not recursive
number of a's and b's b) is recursive & is a deterministic CFL
3. G can be accepted by a c) is a regular language
deterministic PDA. d) is not a deterministic CFL but a
Which combination below expresses CFL
all the true statements about G? [GATE-2007(IT)]
a) 1 only b) 1 and 3
c) 2 and 3 d) 1, 2 and 3 Q.23 Which of the following problems is
[GATE-2006] undecidable?
a) Membership problem for CFGs
Q.20 Consider an ambiguous grammar G b) Ambiguity problem for CFGs
and its disambiguated version D. Let c) Finiteness problem for FSAs
the languages recognized by the two d) Equivalence problem for FSAs
grammars be denoted b y L(G) and [GATE-2007]
L(D)respectively. Which one of the
Q.24 Consider the following languages.
following is true?
a) L(D)  L(G) b) L(D)  L(G) 
L1  ai b jck i  j, k  1 
c) L(D)  L(G) d) L(D) is empty L2  a bi j
j  2i, i  0
[GATE-2007] Which of the following if true?
Q.21 Consider the following grammars, a) L1 is not a CFL but L 2 is
Names representing terminals have b) L1  L2   and L1 is non-regular
been specified in capital letters. c) L1  L2 is not a CFL but L 2 is
G1: stmnt  WHILE  expr  stmnt d) There is a 4 state PDA that accepts
stmnt  OTHER L1 , but there is no DPDA that
expr  ID accepts L 2
G2: stmnt  WHILE  expr  stmnt [GATE-2008(IT)]
stmnt  OTHER
expr  expr  expr Q.25 Consider CFG with the following
expr  exper * expr productions.
S  AA B
expr  expr * expr
expr  ID A  0A A0 1
Which one of the following B  0B00 1
statements is true? S is the start symbol, A and B are
a) G 1 is context-free but not regular non-terminals and 0 and 1 are the
and G 2 is regular terminals. The language generated
b) G 2 is context-free b ut not by this grammar is
regular and G 1 
a) 0n102n n  1 
c) Both G 1 and G 2 are regular b)
d) Both G 1 and G 2 are context-free   
0i 10j 10k i, j,k  0  0n102n n  1 c) 
but neither of them is regular 0 10
i j
  
i, j,  0  0n102n n  1
[GATE-2007(IT)] d) The set of all strings over {0, 1}
containing at least two 0’s
[GATE-2008(IT)]

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 Directions for Question Q.26 to Q.27: Q.30 Match List I with List II and select
A CFG G is given with the following the correct answer using the codes
productions where S is the start symbol, A is a given below the lists
non-terminal and a and b are terminals. List I List II
S  aS A
E. Checking that P.L  {anbmcndm | n  1, m  1|}
A  aAb bAa  identifiers are
declared before thei r
Q.26 Which of the following strings is use
generated by the grammar above?
a) aabbaba b) aabaaba F. number of formal Q.
c) abababb d) aabbaab parameters in the X  XbX XcX dXf | g
[GATE-2008(IT)] declaration of function
agrees with the
Q.27 For the correct answer in above number of actual
Question, how many steps are parameters in use of
that function
required to derive the string and
how many parse trees are there? G.Arithmetic R.L={WcW | W∈ (a|b)*}
a) 6 and 1 b) 6 and 2 expressions with
c) 7 and 2 d) 4 and 2 matched pairs of
[GATE-2008(IT)] parameters

Q.28 Which of the following are H. Palindromes S.X→bXb | cXc |ε

decidable?
1. Whether the intersection of two a) E-P, F-R, G-Q, H-S
regular languages is infinite. b) E-R, F-P, G-S, H-Q
2. Whether a given context-free c) E-R, F-P, G-Q, H-S
language is regular. d) E-P, F-R, G-S, H-Q
3. Whether two push-down [GATE-2008]
automata accept the same
language. Q.31 Which of the following statements
4. Whether a given grammar is are true?
context-free. 1. Every left-recursive grammar
a) 1 and 2 b) 1 and 4 can be converted to a right-
c) 2 and 3 d) 2 and 4 recursive grammar and vice-
[GATE-2008] versa.
2. All ε -productions can be
Q.29 Which of the following is true for removed from any context-free

language a p | p is a prime ?  grammar
transformations.
by suitable

a) it is not accepted by Turing 3. The language generated by a

machine context-free grammar all of
b) it is regular but not context-free whose productions are of the
c) it is context-free but not regular form X→W or X→WY (where, W
d) it is neither regular nor context- is a string of terminals and Y is a
free, but accepted by a Turing non-terminal), is always regular.
machine 4. The derivation trees of strings
[GATE-2008] generated by a context free
grammar in Chomsky Normal
Form are always binary trees.

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 a) 1, 2, 3 & 4 b) 2, 3 & 4 string which will take the machine to
c) 1, 3 & 4 d) 1, 2 & 4 the state A =0, B =1 with Output =1?
[GATE-2008] a) 3 b) 4
c) 5 d) 6
Q.32 Which of the following statements is [GATE-2009]
false? Q.35 Let L1  L1 L2 , where L 1 and L 2 are
a) Every NFA can be converted to an languages as defined below
equivalent DFA L1  {a mbmc a n bn | m, n  0}
b) Every non-deterministic Turing
machine can be converted to an L2  {ai b jck | i, j,k  0}
equivalent deterministic Wring Then L is
machine a) not recursive
c) Every regular language is also a b) regular
context-free language c) context-free but not regular
d) Every subset of a recursively d) recursively enumerable but not
enumerable set is recursive context-free
[GATE-2008] [GATE-2009]

Q.33 Which one of the following is FALSE? Q.36 Match all items in List I with correct
a) There is a unique minimal DFA options from those given in List II.
for every regular language List-I List-II
b) Every NFA can be converted to an
P. Regular expression 1. Syntax analysis
equivalent PDA
c) Complement of every context- Q. Push-down 2. Code
free language is recursive automata generation
d) Every nondeterministic PDA can
be converted to an equivalent R. Dataflow analysis 3. Lexical
deterministic PDA analysis
[GATE-2009]
S. Register allocation 4. Code
Q.34 Given the following state table of an optimization
FSM with two states A and B, one
input and one output: a) P-4, Q-1, R-2, S-3
b) P-3, Q-1, R-4, S-2
Present Present Input Next Next Output c) P-3, Q-4, R-1, S-2
State A State B State A Stat B d) P-2, Q-1, R-4, S-3
0 0 0 0 0 1
[GATE-2009]
0 1 0 1 0 0
Q.37 Which one of the following is false?
1 0 0 0 1 0 a) There is unique minimal DFA for
1 1 0 1 0 0 every regular language
0 0 1 0 1 0 b) Every NFA can be converted to an
0 1 1 0 0 1 equivalent PDA.
c) Complement of every context-
1 0 1 0 1 1
free language is recursive
1 1 1 0 0 1 d) Every non-deterministic PDA can
be converted to an equivalent
If the initial state is A = 0, B = 0, what deterministic PDA
is the minimum length of an input [GATE-2009]

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 Q.38 S→aSa|bSb|a|b; the language Q.42 Consider the following languages
generated by the above grammar over the alphabet ∑={0,1,c}
over the alphabet {a, b} is the set of L1 ={0n1n∣ n ≥ 0}
a) All palindromes L2 ={wcwr | w∈ {0,1}*}
b) All odd length palindromes L3 = {wwr | w∈ {0,1}*}
c) Strings that begin and end with Here, wr is the reverse of the string
the same symbol w. Which of these languages are
d) All even length palindromes deterministic context free
[GATE-2009] languages?
a) None of the languages
Q.39 Consider the languages L 1 = {0i1j | i b) Only L1
<> j}, L 2 = {0i1j | i = j}, L3 = {0i1j | i = 2j
c) Only L1 and L2
+1}, L 4 = {0i1j | i 2j}. Which one of d) All the three languages
the following statements is true? [GATE-2014]
a) Only L 2 is context-free
b) L2 and L 3 are Context-free Q.43 Consider the NPDA
c) L1 and L 2 are context-free Q  q0 ,q1,q2  ,   0,1 , Γ =
d) All are context-free 0,1,  , ,q0 , , F  q2 , where (as
[GATE-2010]
per usual convention)Q is the set of
Q.40 Consider the languages L 1, L2 and L 3 states, Σ is the input alphabet, Γ is
as given below stack alphabet, δ is the state
L1 = {0p1q | p, q N} transition function, 𝑞0 is the initial
L2 = {0p 1q | p, q N and p= q} and state, ⊥ is the initial stack symbol,
and F is the set of accepting states,
L3 = {Op1q0r|p, q r N and p=q=r}
The state transition is as follows:
Which of the following statements is
not true?
a) Push Down Automata (PDA) can
be used to recognize L 1 and L 2
b) L1 is a regular language
c) All the three languages are
context-free Which one of the following
d) Turing machines can be used to
sequences must follow the string
recognize all the languages 101100 so that the overall string is
[GATE-2011] accepted by the automaton?
Q.41 Consider the following languages. (a) 10110 (b) 10010
L1  {0p1q0r | p,q,r  0} (c) 01010 (d) 01001
[GATE-2015(1)]
L2 = {0p1q0r | p,q,r >=0 and p ≠ r}
Which one of the following
Q.44 Which of the following languages are
statements is false?
context-free?
a) L2 is context-free
L1 = {ambnanbm | m,n>=1}
b) L1  L2 is context-free L2 = {ambnambn | m,n>=1}
c) Complement of L 2 is recursive L3 = {ambn | m = 2n+1}
d) Complement of L 1 is context-free a) L1 and L2 only
but not regular b) L1 and L3 only
[GATE-2013] c) L2 and L3 only
d) L3 only
[GATE-2015]

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 Q.45 Language L1 is defined by the denote the language accepted by the
grammar: PDA.
S1  aS1b 
Language L 2 is defined by the
grammar:
S2  abS2 
Consider the following statements: Which one of the following is TRUE?
P : L1 is regular a) L ={anbn | n ≥ 0} and is not
Q : L2 is regular accepted by any finite automata
Which one of the following is TRUE? b) L {an|n ≥ 0} ∪ {anbn |n≥0} and is
a) Both P and Q are true not accepted by any
b) P is true and Q is false deterministic PDA
c) P is false and Q is true c) L is not accepted by any Turning
d) Both P and Q are false machine that halts on every input
[GATE-2016(2)] d) L {an | n ≥ 0} ∪ {anbn | n ≥ 0} and
is deterministic context-free
Q.46 Which of the following languages is [GATE-2016]
generated by the given grammar?
S → aS |bS| ε Q.49 Consider the following languages:
a) {anbm |n,m ≥ 0} L1 = {anbmcn+m : m, n ≥ 1}
b) {w ϵ {a,b}* | w has equal number L2 = {anbnc2n : n ≥ 1}
of a’s and b’s} Which one of the following is TRUE?
c) {an | n ≥ 0} ∪ {b n | n ≥ 0} ∪ {anbn | a) Both L1 and L2 are context-free.
n ≥ 0} b) L1 is context-free while L2 is not
d) {a, b}* context-free.
[GATE-2016] c) L2 is context-free while L1 is not
context-free.
Q.47 Consider the following context-free d) Neither L1 nor L2 is context-free
grammars: [GATE-2016]
G1: S→aS|B, B→b|bB
G2: S→aA|bB, A→aA|B|ε, B→bB|ε Q.50 Which one of the following grammars
Which one of the following pairs of is free from left recursion?
languages is generated by G 1 and G2, a) S → AB b)S →Ab| Bb |c
respectively? A → Aa | b A → Bd | ε
a) {ambn|m>0 or n > 0} and {a mbn|m B→c B→e
> 0 and n > 0} c) S → Aa | B d) S → Aa|Bb|c
b) {ambn|m>0 and n>0} and {a mbn|m A → Bb | Sc | ε A → Bd | ε
> 0 or n≥0} B→d B → Ae | ε
c) {ambn|m≥0 or n > 0} and {a mbn|m [GATE-2016]
> 0 and n > 0}
d) {ambn|m≥0 and n>0} and Q.51 Identify the language generated by
{ambn|m>0 or n>0} the following grammar, where S is
[GATE-2016] the start variable.
S→ XY
Q.48 Consider the transition diagram of a X → aX|a
PDA given below with input alphabet Y→ aYb|∈
Σ= {a, b} and stack alphabet Γ = {X,Z}. a) {a m bn | m  n, n>0}
Z is the initial stack symbol. Let L b) {a m bn | m  n, n  0}

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 c) {a m bn | m>n, n  0} a) ϕ b) (q0, q1, q3)
d) {a m bn | m>n, n>0} c ) (q0, q1, q2) d) (q0, q2, q3)
[GATE-2017(2)]
[GATE-2017(2)]
Q.55 Consider the following context-free
Q.52 Let L 1 , L2 be any two context-free grammar over the alphabet
languages and R be any regular   {a,b,c} with S as the start
language. Then which of the symbol:
following is/are CORRECT ? S -> abScT | abcT
I. L1  L2 is context-free . T -> bT|b
II. L1 is context –free.
Which one of the
following
III. L1  R is context –free. represents the language generated by
IV. L1  L2 is context –free. the above grammar?
a) I, II and IV only b) I and III only a) {(ab)n(cb)n | n >= 1 }
c) II and IV only d) I only b) {(abncbm cbm …cbm | n, m1, m2, ….., mn >= 1 }
1 2 n

[GATE-2017(2)] c) {(ab)n(cbm)n | n >= 1 }

d) {(ab)n(cbn)m | m, n >= 1 }
Q.53 Consider the following languages.
L1 = {ap |p is a prime numder} [GATE-2017(1)]
L2 ={anbmc2m|n ≥ 0, m ≥ 0}
L3={anbnc2n|≥ 0} Q.56 Consider the context-free grammars
L4={anbn|n≥1} over the alphabet {a,b,c} given
Which of the following are CORRECT ? below. S and T are non- terminals.
I. L1 is context –free but not regular. G1 :S  aSb | T,T  cT |
II. L2 is not context –free.
III. L3 is not context–free but G2 :S  bSa | T,T  cT |
recursive. The language L(G1 )  L(G 2 )is
IV. L4 is deterministic context –free. a) Finite
a) I,II and IV only b) Not finite but regular
b)II and III only c) Context- Free but not regular
c) I and IV only d) Recursive but not context - free
d) III and IV only [GATE-2017(1)]
[GATE-2017(2)]
Q.57 If G is a grammar with productions
Q.54 Let 𝛿 denote the transition function
S  SaS| aSb| bSa | SS|
and 𝛿̂denote the extended transition
function of the 𝜀-NFA whose Where S is the start variable , then
transition table is given below: which one of the following strings is
not generated by G?
δ ϵ a b a) abab b) aaab
c) abbaa d) babba
→q0 {q2} {q1} {q0} [GATE-2017(1)]
q1 {q2} {q2} {q3}
Q.58 Consider the following languages
q2 {q0} Φ Φ over the alphabet   {a, b,c} . Let
L1  a n bncm | m,n  0 and
q3 Φ Φ {q3}
L2  a mbn cn | m,n  0 Which of the
The 𝛿̂(q2,aba)is

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 following are context – free Q.60 Given a language L, define L i as
languages? follows:
I. L1  L2
II. L1  L2
a) I only b) II only
c) I and II d)Neither I nor II
[GATE-2017(1)] The order of a language L is defined
as the smallest k such that L k = Lk+1.
Q.59 Consider the following languages: Consider the language L1 (over
I. {ambncpdq | m+p = n+q , where alphabet 0) accepted by the
m,n,p,q >= 0} following automaton.
II. {ambncpdq | m=n and p=q , where
m,n,p,q >= 0}
III. {ambncpdq | m=n=p and p!=q ,
where m,n,p,q >= 0}
IV. {ambncpdq | mn = p+q , where The order of L1 is _____.
m,n,p,q >= 0} [GATE-2018]

Which of the languages above are

context-free?
a) I and IV only
b) I and II only
c) II and III only
d) II and IV only
[GATE-2018]

ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
(b) (b) (c) (c) (b) (c) (b) (d) (d) (b) (a) (d) (b) (b) (d)
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
(c) (b) (d) (b) (c) (d) (b) (b) (b) (b) (d) (a) (b) (d) (c)
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
(c) (d) (d) (a) (c) (b) (d) (b) (d) (c) (d) (c) (b) (b) (c)
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
(d) (d) (d) (b) (b) (c) (b) (d) (c) (c) (b) (d) (a) (b) 2

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 EXPLANATIONS

Q.1 (b) C) It is true, since this language is

Option (a) False: If the language is L(G) ={W | na(W) = nb(W) and
context-free then it cannot be said na(V)≥nb(V)
that the language will be accepted by Where V is any prefix of W}
the deterministic push-down This language happens to be
automaton as there are some cases deterministic context-free
defined where the context-free language.
language is not accepted by DPDA. ∴ There exists a DPDA that accepts
Option (b) True: The union of it.
context-free languages always d) It is false, as the given language is
produces a context-free language but not regular.
it’s not the case with intersection of ∴ No DFA exists to accept it.
two context-free languages. Q.4 (c)
Option (c) False: As discussed in a) This is true, since some CFLs are
Option (b). inherently ambiguous.
Option (d) False: Similar to b) Always correct, that’s why it is
intersection, complement of a called unambiguous.
context-free language is not always a c) The set of all languages accepted
context-free language. by all NPDAs is the set of CFLs,
which is proper superset of the se
Q.2 (b) t of all languages accepted b y all
It is given that the, stack is limited to DPDAs, which is the set of DCFLs.
10 items. So the strings accepted by Hence option (c) is false.
it are finite. All finite languages are d) Finite language is always regular. So,
regular. true.

Q.3 (c) Q.5 (b)

The grammar is S→ aSb |SS|ϵ
a) G is not ambiguous is false, since
ϵ which belongs to L(G), has
infinite number of derivation
trees, which makes C ambiguous.
Some derivation trees are

This machine accepts the language

L  w1aw2 w1  w2 
The language allows only strings
whose centre bit is “a” and the
b) There exists x, yϵL(G) such that
strings on either side have equal
xy∈ L(G) is false, since S→SS, can
length i.e., strings of odd length with
be used derive xy, whenever
centre bit “a”.
xϵL(G) and yϵL(G).

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 The string “aabab” is odd length but Q.8 (d)
centre bit is not “a”. LC  MC  (Reg)C  (CFL)C 
So, this string is not a member of
Reg  (CSL)C  Reg  CSL  CSL
L(M)
A CSL may or may not be
regular. So, options (a) and (c) are
Q.6 (c)
false. A CSL need not be a CFL. So,
Here, we have
option (b) is false. So, answer is (d)
S → bS
none of these.
S → baA (S → aA)
S → baaB (A → aB)
Q.9 (d)
S → baaa (B → a)
In NPDA we may a dead
Therefore, | Na (w) | = 3.
configuration. This mean we may not
Also, if we use A → bA instead of A →
give any transition to any alphabet
aB,
from this state.
S → baA
We say that a string is accepted if
S → babA
PDA is in final state after reading the
To terminate A,
final symbol in the string or after it
we would have to use A → aB as only
has read `$ symbol denoting end of
B terminates at a (B → a).
the string and it is in final state.
S → baA
S → babA Question never says that we have
transitions defined for all the
S → babaB
alphabet symbols in the PDA. Neither
S →babaa
L(P) nor N(P)are necessarily  * .

Q.10 (b)
L1 is CFL but not a DFCL, since
accepting WW R necessarily involves
finding the middle of the string,
which involves non-determinism.
Thus, here also, |Na(w)|=3. Therefore, (a) is false.
So, C is the correct choice. L2 is a DFCL is true since # is a special
symbol and middle string can now be
Q.7 (b) surely found by using #, thereby

L  a mbn cmn | m,n   eliminating the need for non-
A DPDA can accept this language. deterministic guessing. So, (b) is
When a's and b's are in input, these true.
are pushed into the stack and when L3 is a CSL and not a CFL. So (c) is
c's appear in input the a’s and b's are false.
popped out. If after all c's are L3 is not a DCFL either. So, (d) is false.
finished, if stack is empty, this means
nc(W) = na{W)+nb(W) and the string Q.11 (a)
is accepted. Else it is rejected. L1 and L 2 are context-free languages
Now, since a DPDA exists, the and therefore, L1  L2 may or may
language is context-free. Clearly the not be context-free, since CFLs are
language is not regular, since not closed under intersection.
we must count and compare c's with Now, let us look at L1  L2 .
a's and b's which cannot be done by
L1  L2  {a n bncn | n  0}
any FA.

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 Which is clearly not context-free but Sum of number of b’s and number of
is context sensitive. c’s = twice of number of a’s

Q.12 (d)

i.e. L  a l bmcn 2l  m+n 
We know that; the languages
Q.17 (b)
accepted by non-deterministic finite
automata are also accepted by A  bA 
deterministic-finite automata. This L(A)  b*
may not be in the case of context-free S  aSAb 
languages. Now, substituting A Qution into this
Therefore, Df  Nf and Dp  Np gives
S  aSAb 
Q.13 (b)
No, substituting A Qution into this
L(G) =Set of all palindrome strings.
gives
“baba” is not a palindrome string.
S  aSb*b 
Q.14 (b) S  aSb aSbb aSbbb... 
To be accepted by NPDA but not
DPDA, the language must be a C FL 
L(S)  a mbn m  n 
but not DCFL. Q.18 (d)
a) is wrong, it is not context free. The language is context free or not,

b) L  a l bmcn l  m or m  n  this can be proved by finding out the
This language has double grammar for all the languages.
comparison on m with `or’. So 
L  0nm1n 0m n,m  0 
the language is CFL but not DCFL. The production for L 1 as follows:
c) In this language only one S  0S0 | 0A1| 
comparison is there and push
and pop position are clear. This is A  0A1| 
a DCFL. Now, we need to apply these values
d) a*b* is regular. Every regular of the production individually to
language is a DCFL. So this generate
language is also a DCFL. 0m0n1n0m→to prove
This can be verified by using stack.
Q.15 (d) Hence, proved, So L 1 is context-free.
L is CFL and M is Regular. Going through the same procedure,
Intersection of CFL and Regular is we can see that two comparisons are
always a CFL, since all languages are made in the L 2 language, so, it is not
closed under regular intersection. context-free.
L3→ Going through the same
Q.16 (c) procedure again, we can see that two
For every a, we put two X in stack comparisons are made in the L 3
[at state s] language, so it is not context-free.
For every b we pop out one X [reach
to state (getting b after a)] Q.19 (b)
For every c we pop out one X [reach a) G would be ambiguous if
to state u (getting c after b)] replacement of 5 add equal a ’s
If all X are popped out then reached and b's.
to final state f, means t hat,

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 b) The grammar cannot generate 1, a zero is popped out of the stack. In
string aabb though they have the end, if stack has start stack
equal number of a’s and b’s. symbol only, then the string is
c) The language exhibiting such accepted. Else it is rejected. Since
nature is accepted by every DCFL is recursive, we can say
deterministic push- down that the language is recursive, and is
automata. a DCFL.
Example of string abba
Now, S→SS→εS→εSS→SS abS→abba Q.23 (b)
Also, S→SS→abS→abba Option (a) Decidable: Due to
Here, we can see two derivations of presence of CYK algorithm, the
same string. So it is ambiguous. membership problem for CFGs
becomes decidable.
Q.20 (c)
Option (b) Undecidable: The
Grammar may change but language
ambiguity problem for CFGs cannot
remain the same in the grammar and
be decided.
its disambiguated version. Option (c) Decidable : Like
L(D)  L(G) pumping lemma is used to check
whether the language is regular or
Q.21 (d) not, similarly algorithms are
Using capital letters for variables and employed and implemented to check
small letters for terminals, the given for the regular language whether the
grammar G1 becomes regular languages are finite or not.
S  w  ES Option (d) Decidable: Equivalence
So problem for FSAs are always
E i decidable.
Since LHS of every production is a Q.24 (b)
single variable, G1 is context free L1 is CFL [push a’s onto stack, and
grammar. pop a with each b]
G2 becomes L2 is CFL [push b’s onto stack and
S  w  ES pop b with each c]. So, option (a) is
So false.
E EE In L1, every string has atleast one “c” .
E  E*E In L2, every string has no “c” .
E i So, L1 ∩ L2 = ϕ. So option (b) us true.
Since LHS of every production is a Union of two CFLs is a CFL and so
single variable, G2 is also a context option (c) is false.
free grammar. RHS of some of the L2 is DCFL and hence acceptable b y
productions in G1 and G2 has two a DPDA . So, option (d) is false.
non-terminals, hence it is not regular
grammar. Q.25 (b)
SB
Q.22 (b) B  0B00 1
 
0i 21i i  0 is a DCFL since, a DPDA

So, S generates 0n102n n  1 
can accept this language. 0’s are S  AA
pushed into the stack and then when
A  0A A0 1
2 appears in input, state is changed
and immediately after that for e very 
A  0m10n m,n  0 

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 
So, S generates 0m10n 0p10q m,n,p,q  0 .  Statement 4 Decidable : If the LHS
of each production has one and only

 0m10x10q m, x,q  0  one variable then it is a context-free
 010 10 i, j, k  0
i j k grammar.

L(S)  010 10 i, j,k  0 0 10

i j k n 2n

n  1 Q.29 (d)
Which is same as option (b). We have to prove if the language is
1. regular
Q.26 (d) 2. context-free
S  aS 3. accepted by turing machine
S  aA Applying Pumping lemma, we get
S  aaAb that the given language is neither
S  aabAab regular nor context-free.
S  aabbAaab
S  aabbaab Q.30 (c)
The matched sequence is as given
Q.27 (a)
E. Checking that R.
S  aS 1
identifiers are declared L={WCW|W∈(a|b)*}
S  aA 2
before their use
S  aaAb 3
S  aabAab 4 F. Number of formal
S  aabbAaab 5 parameters in the
S  aabbaab 6 declaration of a function
P.L={an bm cn dm | n ≥
Thus 6 steps are needed and only one agrees with the number
1, m≥1|}
parse tree shown below. of actual parameters in
the use of the function

G. Arithmeti c
expressions with
matched pairs of
parentheses

H. Palindromes

Q. X→XbX| XcX|
dXf|g
Q.28 (b)
Statement 1 Decidable: The
algorithm can be used to check the
finiteness/infiniteness on the DFA
and also the two given DFAs, a
product DFA can be constructed.
S. X→bXb|cXc|ε
Statement 2 Undecidable: It is not
decidable since the language is
context-free. Q.31 (c)
Statement 3 Undecidable : It is also Statement 1 True: Left recursive and
undecidable that whether two push right recursive grammar can be
down automata accept the same converted into each other.
language.

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 Statement 2 False: We can remove all In fact the minimum length input
epsilon productions only if grammar string is “101”. Which will give an
doesn't contain epsilon in the output of1, while reaching state 01.
language.
Statement 3 True: It is the definition Q.35 (c)
of regular grammar. The language L1 accept strings {c,
Statements 4 True: The derivation abc, abcab, aabbcab, aabbcaabb, …}
trees in CNF are binary trees. and L2 accept strings {a, b, c, ab, abc,
aabc, aabbc, … }. Intersection of these
Q.32 (d) two languages is L1∩L2 = {a kbkc | k
Option (a) True: Non-deterministic >= 0} which is context free, but not
finite automata can be converted into regular.
the deterministic finite automata.
Option (b) True: With reference to Q.36 (b)
option (a), same is with the non- Regular expression A regular
deterministic turing machine. expression is a way for a computer
Option (c) True: Regular language is programmer to express, how a
always context-free but the reverse computer program should look for a
is not true. specified pattern in text and then
Option (d) False: We know that a set what the program is to do when each
is a subset of itself and hence, every pattern match is found. This is done
subset of recursively enumerable set using lexical analysis.
is not recursive. Push-down automata PDAs are
finite automatons with a data
Q.33 (d) structure that can be used to store an
Since it is known that the set of DCFL’ arbitrary number of symbols but
are a proper sub class of the set of which can be only.
CFL’s NPDA’s which corresponds in Accessed in a Last-In-First-Out
general to class of CFL’s cannot in (LIFO) fashion. PDA follows syntax
general be converted to equivalent analysis.
DPDA’s which correspond to the Dataflow analysis It is the process
class of DCFL’s of collecting information about the
way the variables are used, defined
Q.34 (a) in the program. The analysis is done
The transition diagram for the at basic block granularity . Collected
given FSM is given below: information is represented as a set of
dataflow equations. The technique is
useful for performing several
optimizations such as constant
propagation and copy propagation.
Q.37 (d)
There need not be an equivalent
DPDA for each NPDA.
Q.38 (b)
As can be seen from above diagram The possible palindrome generated
the minimum length of the input by above grammar can be of odd
string that will take machine from 00 length only as there is no rule.
to 01 with output 1, is three.

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 Example generated palindromes are a) L 2 is context Free - true
aba, aaa, bab, ababa, aaaaa, .. We can accept or reject L 2 with single
Q.39 (d) stack. Insert P 0's into stack skip q
A context-free language is 1’s.
For each 0 corresponding to r, remove
 
L  a b : n  1 that is the language
n n
0 from stack.
of all non-empty even-length strings. b) L1∩ L2 is context Free — true
It consists of Here L 1∩ L2 = L2 which is context Free.
1. The entire first halves of which are c) Complement of L 2 is recursive —
a's. true L2 is Context-Free language
2. The entire second halves of Complement of CFL may or may not be
which are b's. CFL. Complement by CFL is definitely
L is generated by the grammar recursive.
S→aSb|ab, and is accepted by the d) Complement of L 1 is Context Free, but
push-down, automaton. , not regular false.
M  q0 ,q1,q1,a,b, a,z, ,q0 , q1 
L1  0p1q0r |p,q,r0 
is regular and
M  q0 ,q1,q1,a,b, a,z ,q0 , q1 regular languages are closed under
, where δ are defined as follows: complement.
  q0 ,a, z    q0 ,a, z 
  q0 ,a,a    q0 ,a 
  q0 , b,a    q1, x 
  q1, b,a    q1, x 
δ(q1 ,λ,z)=(qf ,z)
 (state1 , read pop) = (state 2 , push)
Where z is initial stack symbol and x
means pop action. Hence, the answer is (d).
The given languages follow all the
rules of the context-free languages Q.42 (c)
and also these languages are accepted L3 is non-deterministic context free
by push-down automata, therefore language.
all languages are context-free.
Q.43 (b)
Q.40 (c) The language accepted is

L1  0p1q | p,q, N is  regular
L(M)  {wxw
R
x 0,1,  , where w
language.
is context-free language is the 1's complement of w} .

L2  0p1q | p,q, Nand p  q  Only the string “10110010010” is
in the language and hence will be
L3  0 1 0 | p,q, Nand p  q  r
p q r
accepted.
is not context free. The following diagram shows how
this string will be accepted by the
PDA.
Q.41 (d) 101100 10010

L1  0p1q0r | p,q,r  0  Given string Option(b)string
L2  0 1 0 | p,q,r  0,p  r
p q r

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 Q.47 (d)
G1 : S → aS | B
B→ b | b B which generates strings
with RE b+
The above grammar can be written
as S → aS | b + which represents the
strings with RE a* b + = {am bn | m≥0,
n >0}
G2 : S → aA | bB
A→ aA | B | ϵ
Q.44 (b) B→ bB | ϵ
L1 is CFL because there is only one The minimum strings obtained from
comparison at a time. First we will starting symbol are a, b
push 'a' into the stack m number of S →aA, A→aA| ϵ generates strings a+
times and then push 'b', n number of S→bB, B→bB | ϵ generates strings b+
times. Now when 'a' comes, don't Also, the combination of these
push it into stack, pop b's for every productions generates strings start
a's. When b comes don't push then with at least one a and followed by
into the stack, pop a's for every b's. any number of b’s.
L2 is not CFL. because here we are So it is the language L = {a m bn | m >
not able to check equal numbers of 0, n ≥0} ∪ { bn | n > 0} which can also
a's and equal number of b's. be written as {a mbn|m > 0 or n > 0}.
L3 is CFL. We can rewrite it like
{a2n+1bn}={a2nabn}={aa2nbn}. This can Q.48 (d)
be implemented using PDA. L = {an | n ≥ 0} ∪{an bn | n ≥ 0} and L
is DCFL.
Q.45 (c)
G1 :S1  aS1b  Q.49 (b)
L1: {an bm cn+m | m, n >= 1} – CFL
G2 :S2  abS2 
L2: {an bn c2n | n >= 1} – CSL

L1  L(G1 )  a n bn n  0  L1 is CFL but L2 is Not CFL because

 
in L2 comparison is needed twice
L2  L(G2 )   ab  n  0   ab  *
n
which cannot be done using one stack.
Clearly L1 is regular is false of L2 is
regular is True. So correct answer is Q.50 (b)
(c). S → Ab | Bb | ε
A → Bd | ε
Q.46 (d) B→e
S → aS |bS | ϵ This generates finite language and
S → ϵ there is no left recursion.
S→aS generates all strings with RE a* C and D have indirect left recursion.
S→ aS generates all strings with RE b*
S→ aS | bS generates all strings with Q.51 (c )
RE ab* and ba* and then any S→ XY
combination of a and b. X→ aX|a⇒X→{am |m ≥1}
So given grammar represents RE Y→ aYb|∈⇒Y→{anbn |n ≥0}
{a,b}* S→ XY⇒ S → {ambn |m>n,n>0}
m > n because at least 1 will be
attached on left of a nbn.

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 Q.52 (b) Q.55 (c)
I. L1  L2 is context –free = CFL  S → abScT|abcT
CFL = CFL . So, True T→bT|b
Qving T →bb*
II. L1 is context- free = CFL = CSL
Substitute in S to get
but not CSL but not CFL. So, false. S→abScbb*|abcbb*
III. L1  R is context –free CFL So, Qution of S would be
Regular  CFL  CFL = CFL 
(ab)n (cbm )n | m,n  1 
.So, True So, option (c ) is correct
IV. L1  L2 is context-free
 CFL  CFL  CSL. So, False Q.56 (b)
G1 :S  aSb | T,T  cT |
Q.53 (d) G 2 :S  bSa | T,T  cT |
L1 = {ap |p prime} is a CSL but not
CFL(prime number checking involve L(G1 )  a ncmbn | m,n,  0
division) L(G2 )  bn cma n | m,n  0
L2  {a n bmc2m | n 0, m0} is CFL (one L(G1 )  L(G2 )  a ncmbn  bncma n   cm | m  0  C*
comparision) Since the only common strings will
L3  {a n bnc2n | 0}is CSL (two be those strings with only ‘c’, since in
comparision) the first language all the other
L4  {a n bn | n1} is a DCFL strings start with ‘a’ and in the
So, second language all the other strings
I. L1 is CFL but not regular is false start with ‘b’ Clearly the intersection
II. L2 is not CFL is false is not finite but regular.
III. L3 is not CFL but recursive is true
since every CSL is recursive. Q.57 (d)
IV. L4 is true DCLF is true. The given grammar is
So, only III and IV are true and S  SaS| aSb| bSa | SS|
correct. Now S  aSb | bSa | SS|
Generated all s strings with equal
Q.54 (c) number of ‘a’ and ‘b’. Now S  SaS
Covering the table to a state diagram, can only generated strings where ‘a’
we get , is more than ‘b’ since on left and
right of ‘a’ in SaS, S will have only
strings with n b  n a is not possible
to generate by the given grammar

Q.58 (a)
L1 is a CFL.
L 2 also a CFL.
𝛿̂(q2,abc) = All states reachable from Union of 2 CFL is always as CFL, but
q2 by “aba” If aba is broken as intersection may or may not be
𝜀.a. 𝜀. 𝜀.b.a.Then from q2 we can So, I is clearly true.
reach q1 and from there by null Let us intersect and check II
transition we can reach state q 2 as
well as q0 .
    
a n bn cm  a n bmcm  a n bncn 
𝛿̂(q2,aba) = { q0, q1, q2}

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 Which is clearly not a CFL but CSL. Q. 60 2
So option (a) which is I only, is the L1 = ε + 0(00)*
answer. L0 = ε
L1 = ε . (ε + 0(00)*)
Q. 59 (b) = ε + 0(00)* = L1
I. {ambncpdq ∣ m + p = n + q, where m, n, L = L1 . L1 = L1 . L1
2

p, q ≥ 0} since, m+p = n+q can also be = (ε + 0(00)*) (ε + 0(00)*)

written as m-n=q-p. For this we can = ε + 0(00)* + 0(00)* + 0(00)* . +
construct PDA in the following way: 0(00)*
Push a on the stack. For every b pop = ε + 0(00)* + 0(00)* 0(00)* = 0*
a from the stack. When c comes push Given automaton contains epsilon
it. For every d pop one c from the and even number of 0’s and odd
stack. Do it until top of the stack numbers of 0’s.
becomes a or Z. Now there should be L3 = L2 . L1
exactly same a on the stack as d in the
= {0*} . {ε + 0(00)*} = 0* 0(00)* = 0*
input. For that pop one a for every d.
So, L 2 = L3 = L2+1
II. {ambncpdq ∣ m = n and p = q, where m, So, the smallest value of k = 2
n, p, q ≥ 0} is also context free. Its PDA
can easily be constructed.
III and IV are not context free.

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 3 TURING MACHINE, UNRESTRICTED LANGUAGES,
COMPLEXITY

3.1 INFORMAL DESCRIPTION  Q is a finite nonempty set of states.

 Γ is a finite non-empty set of tape
We consider here a basic model of TM which symbols, called the tape alphabet of M.
is deterministic and have one-tape. There  ∑⊆ Γ is a finite non-empty set of input
are many variations, all are equally symbols, called the input alphabet of M.
powerful. The basic model of TM has a finite   : Q   Q L  R is the
set of states, a semi-infinite tape that has a transition function of M,
leftmost cell but is infinite to the right and a  q0  Q is the initial or start state.
tape head that can move left and right over
the tape, reading and writing symbols.  B  \  is the blank symbol
For any input w with |w|=n, initially it is  F  Q is the set of final state.
written on the n leftmost (contiguous) tape So, given the current state and tape symbol
cells. The infinitely many cells to the right of being read, the transition function describes
the input all contain a blank symbol, B which the next state, symbol to be written on the
is a special tape symbol that is not an input tape, and the direction in which to move the
symbol. The machine starts in its start state tape head (L and R denote left and right,
with its head scanning the leftmost symbol respectively).
of the input w. depending upon the symbol
scanned by the tape head and the current Transition function: 
state the machine makes a move which  The heart of the TM is the transition
consists of the following: function,  because it tells us how the
 Writes a new symbol on that tape cell, machine gets one step to the next.
moves its head one cell either to the left  when the machine is in a certain state
or to the right and (Possibly) enters a q  Q and the head is currently scanning
new state. the tape symbol X  , and if
 The action it takes in each step is  (q, x)  (p,Y,D) , then the machine
determined by a transition functions. 1. Replaces the symbol x by Y on the
The machine continues computing (i.e. tape
making moves) until it decides to 2. Goes to state p, and
"accept" its input by entering a special 3. The tape had moves one cell (i.e. one
state called accept or final state or halts tape symbol) to the left (or right) if D
without accepting i.e. rejecting the input is L or R.
when there is no move defined. The ID (instantaneous description) of a TM
 On some inputs the TM may keep on capture what is going out at any moment i.e.
computing forever without ever it contains all the information to exactly
accepting or rejecting the input, in which capture the "current state of the
case it is said to "loop" on that input. computations".

Formal Definition It contains the following:

Formally, a deterministic Turing machine  The current state, q
(DTM) is a 7-tuple M  (Q, , ,  ,q0 , B, F) ,  The position of the tape head,
where  The constants of the tape up to the
rightmost nonblank symbol or the
symbol to the left of the head, whichever
is rightmost.

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 Note that, although there is no limit on how
far right the head may move and write
nonblank symbols on the tape, at any finite
TM, the TM has visited only a finite prefix of
the infinite tape.
An ID (or configuration) of a TM M is
denoted by α qβ
where , *
  is the tape contents to the left of the
head
 q is the current state. 3.2 TYPES OF TURING MACHINE
  is the tape contents at or to the right of There are a number of other types of Turing
the tape head. machines in addition to the one we have seen
That is, the tape head is currently scanning such as Turing machines with multiple tapes,
the leftmost tape symbol of β . ones having one tape but with multiple heads,
(Note that if  , then the tape head is ones with two dimensional tapes,
nondeterministic Turing machines etc. It turns
scanning a blank symbol), If q 0 is the start
out that computationally all these Turing
state and w is the input to a TM M then the machines are equally powerful. That is, what
starting or initial configuration of M is on one type can compute any other can also
piously denoted by q0w . compute. However, the efficiency of
computation, that is, how fast they can compute,
Examples: may vary.

L1 = {Turing machine for Turing Machines with Two Dimensional

(a+b)*(aa+bb)(a+b)* Tapes
This is a kind of Turing machines that have
one finite control, one read-write head and
one two dimensional tape. The tape has the
top end and the left end but extends
indefinitely to the right and down. It is divided
into rows of small squares. For any Turing
machine of this type there is a Turing machine
with a one dimensional tape that is equally
powerful, that is, the former can be simulated
L2 = {anbn|n>=0}
by the latter.
To simulate a two dimensional tape with a one
dimensional tape, first we map the squares of
the two dimensional tape to those of the one
dimensional tape diagonally as shown in the
following tables:

L3 = {Palindrome strings over {a,b}}

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 q0, >. The transition function is a partial
function
: Q X { H1 , H2 ... , Hn } X ( { } ) -> (
Q { h } ) X( { }X{ R , L , S } ,
where H1 , H2 ... , Hn denote the tape heads.

It can be easily seen that this type of Turing

machines are as powerful as one tape
Turing machines.

Here the numbers indicate the Turing Machines with Infinite Tape:
correspondence of squares in the two
tapes: square i of the two dimensional tape is This is a kind of Turing machines that have
mapped to square i of the one dimensional one finite control and one tape which extends
infinitely in both directions.
tape. h and v are symbols which are not in the
It turns out that this type of Turing machines
tape alphabet and they are used to mark the
are only as powerful as one tape Turing
left and the top end of the tape, respectively. machines whose tape has a left end.
Turing Machines with Multiple Tapes: Nondeterministic Turing Machines:
This is a kind of Turing machines that have A nondeterministic Turing machine is a
one finite control and more than one tapes Turing machine which, like nondeterministic
each with its own read-write head. It is finite automata, at any state it is in and for the
denoted by a 5-tuple < Q, , , q0, > . Its tape symbol it is reading, can take any action
transition function is a partial function selecting from a set of specified actions rather
: QX ( { } )n -> ( Q { h } than taking one definite predetermined
) X( { }) X { R , L , S }n .
n action. Even in the same situation it may take
A configuration for this kind of Turing different actions at different times. Here an
machine must show the current state the action means the combination of writing a
machine is in and the state of each tape. symbol on the tape, moving the tape head and
It can be proven that any language accepted going to a next state. For example let us
by an n-tape Turing machine can be accepted consider the language L = {ww: w ∈ {a, b}*}.
by a one tape Turing machine and that any Given a string x, a nondeterministic Turing
function computed by an n-tape Turing machine that accepts this language L would
machine can be computed by a one tape first guess the midpoint of x that is the place
Turing machine. Since the converses are where the second half of x starts. Then it
obviously true, one can say that one tape would compare the first half of x with the
Turing machines are as powerful as n-tape second half by comparing the i-th symbol of
Turing machines. the first half with the i-th symbol of the second
half for i = 1, 2, ... . A deterministic Turing
Turing Machines with Multiple Heads: machine, on the other hand, can not guess the
This is a kind of Turing machines that have midpoint of the string x. It must find the
one finite control and one tape but more midpoint by for example pairing off symbols
from either end of x.
than one read-write heads. In each state
Formally a nondeterministic Turing
only one of the heads is allowed to read and machine is a Turing machine whose transition
write. It is denoted by a 5-tuple < Q, , , function takes values that are subsets of

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 (Q { h } ) X( { }X { R,L,S}.  So, on any input strings w  L , M enters
an accepting ID and halts and
As in the case of NFA, it is understood that a  On an input string w  L , M halts
nondeterministic Turing machine at any entering in a blocking ID (or entering in
configuration selects one combination of next a reject state).
state, tape symbol and head movement out of
the set of triples without following any Informally, a language is said to be
specific predetermined rule. recursively enumerable if there exists a TM
which accepts it and a language is said to be
It can be shown that a nondeterministic recursive if there exist a TM which halts on
Turing machine is only as powerful as a every input.
deterministic Turing machine.
Every recursive language is recursively
3.3 RECURSIVE AND RECURSIVELY enumerable.
ENUMERABLE LANGUAGES:
Output of turing machine can be one of the
following three.
 It will halt and accept the string
 It will halt and reject the string
 It will go into an infinite loop

RECURSIVELY ENUMERABLE LANGUAGE:

TURING RECOGNIZABLE

Recursively Enumerable (r.e) language: (or Closure properties of

TM-recognizable language or semi- Recursive Languages:
decidable language ). Simply speaking, a Recursive languages are closed under
language L is recursively enumerable if Union, intersection, complement,
some Turing Machine accepts it. Formally, concatenation, kleene closure.
the class of r.e. languages is defined as
{L | L  * and  TM M such that L= L(M)} Closure of Recursively Enumerable
 So, on input string w  L , M enters an Languages:
accepting ID and halts. Recursive languages are closed under
 But, on input strings w  L ,M either Union, intersection, concatenation, kleene
halts entering a ID (i.e. without entering closure.
an accepting ID), or it never halts (i.e. it
loops for ever). 3.4 UNRESTRICTED GRAMMARS:
An unrestricted grammar is a 4-tuple G = (V,
RECURSIVE (OR DECIDABLE) LANGUAGES:
Σ, S, P), where V and Σ are disjoint sets of
TURING DECIDABLE
variables and terminals, respectively.
A language L is recursive if there is some TM
M that halts on every input w * and L = S is an element of V called the start symbol,
L(M). and P is a set of productions of the form
Formally, the class of recursive language is α→β
defined as {L | L  * and TM M such that M where α, β ∈ (V ∪ Σ)∗ and α contains at least
one variable.
halts  w * and L =L(M)}

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 Example: brackets or to move its tape head to the left
A Grammar Generating the language of the [ or to the right of the ].

3.6 CHOMSKY HIERARCHY:

S → LaR L → LD Da →aaD DR →R L→^ R→ ^

Derivation of string aaaa

S ⇒ LaR ⇒ LDaR ⇒ LaaDR ⇒ LaaR ⇒
LDaaR
⇒ LaaDaR ⇒ LaaaaDR ⇒ LaaaaR ⇒ aaaaR
⇒ aaaa

Example:

A Grammar Generating {anbncn | n ≥ 1}

3.7 COMLEXITY THEORY:
S → SABC | LABC
BA→ AB CB → BC CA→ AC Time complexity: is a measure of how long
LA →a aA → aa aB → ab bB → bb bC → bc cC a computation takes to execute. For a Turing
→ cc machine, this could be measured as the
number of moves required to perform a
3.5 CONTEXT SENSITIVE GRAMMAR AND computation. For a digital computer, it could
LINEAR BOUNDED AUTOMATA: be measured as the number of machine
cycles required for the computation.
Context Sensitive Grammar:
A context-sensitive grammar (CSG) is an Space complexity: is a measure of how
unrestricted grammar in which no much storage is required for a computation.
production is length-decreasing. In other For a Turing machine, the obvious measure
words, every production is of the form α →β, is the number of tape squared used; for a
where |β| ≥ |α|. digital computer, the number of bytes used.

A language is a context-sensitive language Both of these measures are functions of a

(CSL) if it can be generated by a context- single input parameter, the size of the input.
sensitive grammar. Again, this can be defined in terms of
squares or bytes.
Linear Bounded Automata:
A linear-bounded automaton (LBA) is a 5- For any given input size, different inputs
tuple M = (Q,Σ,L,q0, δ) that is identical to a typically require different amounts of space
nondeterministic Turing machine, with the and time. Hence we can discuss for either
following exception. There are two extra the average case or for the worst case.
tape symbols, [ and ], assumed not to be Usually we are interested in worst-case
elements of the tape alphabet L . The initial complexity because
configuration of M corresponding to input x
is q0[x], with the symbol [ in the leftmost It may difficult or impossible to define an
square and the symbol ] in the first square "average" case. For many problems, the
to the right of x. During its computation, M is notion of "average case" doesn't even make
not permitted to replace either of these sense.

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 It is usually much easier to compute worst- Finding the shortest path between two
case complexity. vertices in a graph.

In complexity theory we generally subject Decision Problem

our equations to some extreme There are many problems for which the
simplifications. For example, if a given answer is a Yes or a No. These types of
algorithm takes exactly 5n 3+2n2-n+1003 problems are known as decision problems.
machine cycles, where n is the size of the For example,
input, we will simplify this to O(n 3) (read:
Order n-cubed). This is called an order Whether a given graph can be colored by
statistic. Specifically, we: only 4-colors.

Drop all terms except the highest-ordered Finding Hamiltonian cycle in a graph is not
one, and a decision problem, whereas checking a
graph is Hamiltonian or not is a decision
Drop the coefficient of the highest-ordered problem.
term.
Justifications for this procedure are: What is Language?
Every decision problem can have only two
For very large values of n, the effect of the answers, yes or no. Hence, a decision
highest-order term completely swamps the problem may belong to a language if it
contribution of lower-ordered term. We are provides an answer ‘yes’ for a specific input.
interested in large values of n because, from A language is the totality of inputs for which
a strictly practical point of view, it is the the answer is Yes. Most of the algorithms
large problems that give us trouble. Small discussed in the previous chapters are
problems are almost always feasible to polynomial time algorithms.
compute.
For input size n, if worst-case time
Tweaking the code can improve the complexity of an algorithm is O(n k), where k
coefficients, but the order statistic is a is a constant, the algorithm is a polynomial
function of the algorithm itself. time algorithm.

3.8 P, NP, NP-HARD AND NP-COMPLETE Algorithms such as Matrix Chain

PROBLEMS: Multiplication, Single Source Shortest Path,
All Pair Shortest Path, Minimum Spanning
In Computer Science, many problems are Tree, etc. run in polynomial time. However
solved where the objective is to maximize or there are many problems, such as traveling
minimize some values, whereas in other salesperson, optimal graph coloring,
problems we try to find whether there is a Hamiltonian cycles, finding the longest path
solution or not. Hence, the problems can be in a graph, and satisfying a Boolean formula,
categorized as follows − for which no polynomial time algorithms is
known. These problems belong to an
Optimization Problem interesting class of problems, called the NP-
Optimization problems are those for which Complete problems, whose status is
the objective is to maximize or minimize unknown.
some values. For example,
Finding the minimum number of colors In this context, we can categorize the
needed to color a given graph. problems as follows −

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 P-Class Every problem in this class can be solved in
The class P consists of those problems that exponential time using exhaustive search.
are solvable in polynomial time, i.e. these
problems can be solved in time O(n k) in P versus NP
worst-case, where k is constant. Every decision problem that is solvable by a
deterministic polynomial time algorithm is
These problems are called tractable, while also solvable by a polynomial time non-
others are called intractable or deterministic algorithm.
superpolynomial.
All problems in P can be solved with
Formally, an algorithm is polynomial time polynomial time algorithms, whereas all
algorithm, if there exists a polynomial p(n) problems in NP - P are intractable.
such that the algorithm can solve any
instance of size n in a time O(p(n)). It is not known whether P = NP. However,
many problems are known in NP with the
Problem requiring Ω(n50) time to solve are property that if they belong to P, then it can
essentially intractable for large n. Most be proved that P = NP.
known polynomial time algorithm run in
time O(nk) for fairly low value of k. If P ≠ NP, there are problems in NP that are
neither in P nor in NP-Complete.
Regarding O(n log n) time, note that
The problem belongs to class P if it’s easy to
 The base of the logarithms is find a solution for the problem. The problem
irrelevant, since the difference is a belongs to NP, if it’s easy to check a solution
constant factor, which we ignore; that may have been very tedious to find.
and
 Although n log n is not, strictly Polynomial-Time Reducibility:
speaking, a polynomial, the size of n Let L1 and L2 be languages over alphabets
log n is bounded by n2, which is a Σ1 and Σ2, respectively. We say that L1 is
polynomial. polynomial-time reducible to L2 if and only
if there is a function f from Σ1* to Σ2* such
Probably all the programming tasks you are that for any string x ∈ Σ1* , x ∈ L1 if and only
familiar with have polynomial-time if f(x) ∈ L2 and f can be computed in
solutions. This is not because all practical polynomial time.
problems have polynomial-time solutions.
Rather, it is because your courses and your NP-Hard
day-to-day work have avoided problems for A problem is said to be NP-Hard if every
which there is no known practical solution. problem in NP are polynomially reducible to
it.
NP-Class
The class NP consists of those problems that NP-Complete
are verifiable in polynomial time. NP is the A problem is said to be NP-Complete if it is
class of decision problems for which it is both NP and NP-Hard.
easy to check the correctness of a claimed
answer, with the aid of a little extra NP-complete Problems:
information. Hence, we aren’t asking for a 1. Satisfiability Problem for
way to find a solution, but only to verify that Propositional Logic
an alleged solution really is correct. 2. Graph Color Problem

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 3. Committee Meeting Schedule 9. Knapsack Problem: Given a knapsack
Problem. In fact most scheduling of size S, a set of objects, their sizes,
problems are NP-complete. their values and an integer V, is it
4. Traveling Salesman Problem: Given possible to select objects so that the
cities and traveling times between sum of their sizes does not exceed S
cities, a traveling salesman wants to and the sum of their values is V or
know a shortest route to visit all larger ?
cities exactly once and come back to 10. 3-Dimensional Matching : Given
where he/she started. three sets A, B and C of the same size,
5. Bin Packing Problem: Given a set of and a subset S of the Cartesian
objects, their sizes and a number of product A X B X C. Is there a subset
bins of the same size, find out T, called a matching, of S such that
whether or not the objects can be put every element of A, B, and C appears
into the bins. exactly once in T ?
6. Partition Problem: Given a set of
integers, group them into two groups For example, let A = {1,2}, B = {a,b},
so that the sum of the numbers of one and C = {x,y}, and S = {(1,b,x),(1,b,y),
group is equal to that of the other (2,a,x), (2,b,y)}.
group.
7. Subgraph Isomorphism Problem: Then T = {(1,b,y), (2,a,x)} is a
Given two graphs, find out whether desired set satisfying all the
or not one is a subgraph of the other. requirements. Note that
8. Set Cover Problem: Given a set S, a {(1,b,x),(2,a,x)} is not a matching.
collection of subsets of S and an
integer k, find out whether or not
there are k or less subsets in the
collection whose union is S.

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 GATE QUESTIONS

Q.1 The C language is c) The complement of a recursive

a) A context free language language is either recursive or
b) A context sensitive language recursively enumerable.
c) A regular language d) The complement of a context-
d) Parsable fully only by a Turing free language is context-free.
machine [GATE-2002]
[GATE-2002]
Q.5 A single tape Turing machine M has
Q.2 Consider the following decision
two states q 0 and q1 , of which q 0 is
problems
P1 : Does a given finite state machine the starting state. The tape alphabet
of M is {0, 1, } and its input alphabet
accept a given string
P2 : Does a given context free is 0,1. The symbol  is the blank
grammar generate an infinite symbol used to indicate end of an
number of strings. input string. The transition function
Which of the following statement is of M is described in the following
true? table.
a) P1 and P2 are decidable 0 1 
b) Neither P1 nor P2 are decidable
q0 q1 ,1, R q1 ,1, R Halt
c) Only P1 is decidable
d) Only P2 is decidable q1 q1 ,1, R q1 ,1, L q0 , , L
[GATE-2002]
The table is interpreted as illustrated
Q.3 Consider the following Problem X. below.
“Given a Turing machine M over the The entry (q1 ,1, R) in row q 0 and
input alphabet  . Any state q of M column 1 signifies that if M is in state
and a word  * , does the q 0 and reads 1 on the current tape
computation of M on w visit the state square, then it writes 1 on the same
q” Which of the following statements tape square, moves its tape head one
about X is correct?
position to the right and transitions
a) X is decidable
to state q1
b) X is undecidable but partially
decidable Which of the following statements is
c) X is undecidable and not even true about M?
partially decidable a) M does not halt on any string in
d) X is not a decision problem  0  1 
[2002:2 Marks] b) M does not halt on any string in
Q.4 Which of the following is true?  00  1
a) The complement of a recursive c) M halts on all strings ending in a 0
language is recursive. d) M halts on al l strings ending in a 1
b) The complement of a recursively [GATE-2003]
enumerable language is
recursively enumerable.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Q.6 If the strings of a language L can be decidable and P2 is undecidable.
effectively enumerated in Which one of the following is true?
lexicographic (i.e., alphabetic) order, a) P3 is decidable if P1 is reducible
which of the following statements is
true? to P3
a) L is necessarily finite b) P3 is undecidable if P3 is
b) L is regular but not necessarily reducible to P2
finite
c) P3 is undecidable if P2 is reducible
c) L is context-free but not
necessarily regular to P3
d) L is recursive but not necessarily d) P3 is decidable if P3 is reducible
context-free to P2 ’s complement.
[GATE-2003]
[GATE-2005]
Q.7 Nobody knows yet, if P=NP. Consider
Q.10 Let L1 be regular language, L 2 be a
the language L de as follows:
deterministic context-free language
and L 3 a recursively enumerable,
Which of the following statement is but not recursive, language. Which
true? one of the following statements is
a) L is recursive false?
b) L is recursively enumerable but a) L1  L2 is a deterministic CFL
not recursive
b) L3  L1 is recursive
c) L is not recursively enumerable
d) Whether L is recursive or not will c) L1  L2 is context free
be known after we find out if P = d) L1  L2  L 3 is recursively
NP enumerable
[GATE-2003] [2006:2 Marks]

Q.8 Let L1 be a recursive language, and Q.11 For S  0  1 * let d  s  denotes

let L 2 be a recursively enumerable the decimal value of s (e.g;d(101)= 5)
but not a recursive language. Which Let L  {s  0  1 *| d s  mod 5  2
one of the following is true?
and d  s  mod 7  4}
a) L1 is recursive and L 2 is
Which one of the following
recursively enumerable. statements is true?
b) L1 is recursive and L 2 is not a) L is recursively enumerable but
recursively enumerable not recursive
c) L1 and L 2 are recursively b) L is recursive but not context-free
c) L is context-free but not regular
enumerable
d) L is regular
d) L1 is recursively enumerable and [GATE-2006]
L 2 is recursive
[GATE-2005] Q.12 Which of the following problem is
undecidable?
Q.9 Consider three decision problems P1 a) Membership problem for CFGs
b) Ambiguity problem for CFGs
, P2 and P3  it is known that P1 is
c) Finiteness problem for FSAs
d) Equivalence problem for FSAs

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 [2007:1 Marks] a) Diterministic finite automata
Q.13 Which of the following is true for the (DFA) and non-deterministic
language {ap| p is a prime}? finite automata (NFA)
a) It is not accepted by a Turning b) Deterministic push down
Machine automata (DPDA) and non-
b) It is regular but not context-free deterministic push down
c) It is context -free but not regular automata (NPDA)
d) It is neither regular nor context c) Deterministic single-tape Turing
free, but accepted by a Turning machine and Non-deterministic
machine single-tape Turing machine
[2008:1 Marks] d) Single-tape Turing machine and
multi-tape Turing machine
Q.14 Which of the following are [2011:1 Marks]
decidable?
1. Whether the intersection of two Q.18 Which of the following problem are
decidable?
regular languages in infinite
1. Does a given program ever
2. Whether a given context-free
produce an output
language is regular
3. Whether two push-down 2. If L is a context-free language,
automata accept the same then is L also context-free?
language 3. If L is a regular language, then is
4. Whether a given grammar is L also regular
context-free 4. If L is a recursive language, then
a) 1 and 2 b) 1 and 4 is L also recursive?
c) 2 and 3 d) 2 and 4 a) 1,2,3,4 b) 1,2
[2008:1 Marks] c) 2,3,4 d) 3,4
[2012:1 Marks]
Q.15 If L and L' are recursively
enumerable, then L is Q.19 Which of the following is/are
a) regular b) context-free undecidable?
c) context-sensitive d) recursive 1. G is CFG. Is L  G   ?
[GATE-2008] 2. G is a CFG. Is L  G  *?
Q.16 Let L1 be a recursive language Let 3. M is a Turing machine. Is L(M)
L 2 and L 3 be languages that are regular?
4. A is a DFA and N is an NFA. Is
recursively Enumerable but not L(A)=L(N)?
recursive. Which of the following a) 3 only b) 3 and 4 only
statements is not necessarily true? c) 1, 2 and 3 only d) 2 and 3 only
a) L2 – L1 is recursively enumerable. [2013:1 Marks]
b) L1 – L3 is recursively enumerable
c) L2 ∩ L1 is recursively enumerable Q.20 Which of the following statements
Is/are false?
d) L2 ∪ L1 is recursively enumerable
1. For every-non-deterministic
[GATE-2010] Turing machine, there exists an
equivalent deterministic Turing
Q.17 Which of the following pairs have machine.
DIFFERENT expressive power? 2. Turing recognizable languages
are closed under union and
complementation.

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 3. Turing decidable languages are c) If A  m B and B is recursively
closed under intersection and enumerable then A is recursively
complementation. enumerable.
4. Turing recognizable languages d) If A  m B and B is not recursively
are closed under anion and
enumerable then A is not
intersection.
recursively enumerable.
a) 1 and 4 b) 1 and 3
[GATE-2014]
c) Only 2 d) Only 3
[GATE-2013]
Q.24 Let  be a
finite non-empty
Q.21 Let L be a language and L be its 
alphabet and let 2 be the power
complement. Which one of the
following is NOT a viable possibility? set of  *. Which one of the following
a) Neither L nor L is recursively is TRUE?

enumerable (r.e.) a) Both 2 and  *. are countable

b) One of L and L is r.e. but not b) 2 is countable and  * is
recursive; the other is not r.e. uncountable
c) Both L and L are r.e. but not 
c) 2 is uncountable and  * is
recursive.
countable
d) Both L and L are recursive
d) Both 2 and  * are
*
[GATE-2014]
uncountable
Q.22 Let  M  be the encoding of a [GATE-2014]
Turing machine as a string over
Q.25 Which one of the following problems
0, 1. is undecidable?
Let L  { M | M is a Turing a) Deciding if a given context-free
machine that accepts a string of grammar is ambiguous.
length 2014}. Then, L is b) Deciding if a given string is
a) decidable and recursively generated by a given context-free
enumerable grammar.
b) undecidable but recursively c) Deciding if the language
enumerable generated by a given context-free
c) undecidable and not recursively grammar is empty.
enumerable d) Deciding if the language
d) decidable but not recursively generated by a given context-free
enumerable grammar is finite.
[GATE-2014] [GATE-2014]
Q.23 Let A  m B denotes that language A
Q.26 Consider the following statements.
is mapping reducible (also known as I. The complement of every Turing
many-to-one reducible) to language decidable language is Turing
B. Which one of the following is decidable
FALSE? II. There exists some language
a) If A  m B and B is recursive then which is in NP but is not Turing
A is recursive. decidable
b) If A  m B and A is undecidable III. If L is a language in NP, L is Turing
then B is undecidable. decidable

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 Which of the above statements is/are a) W can be recursively enumerable
true? and Z is recursive.
a) Only II b) Only III b) W can be recursive and Z is
c) Only I and II d) Only I and III recursively enumerable.
[GATE-2015] c) W is not recursively enumerable
and Z is recursive.
Q.27 For any two languages L1 and L2 d) W is not recursively enumerable
such that L1 is context-free and L2 is and Z is not recursive.
recursively enumerable but not [GATE-2016]
recursive, which of the following
is/are necessarily true? Q.30 Consider the following types of
I. L1 (complement of L1) is recursive languages:
L1: Regular,
II. L2 (complement of L2) is recursive
L2:Context-free,
III. L1 is context € free L3:Recursive
IV. L1  L2 is recursively enumerable L4: Recursively enumerable.
a) I only b) III only Which of the following is/are TRUE?
c) III and iv only d) I and IV only I. L3’  L4 is recursively enumerable
[GATE-2015] II. L2  L3 is recursive
Q.28 Consider the following languages. III. L1 *  L2 is context-free
 L1  {M | M takes at least 2016 IV. L1  L2 ’ is context-free
steps on some input} a) I only b) I and III only
 L2  {M | M takes at least 2016 c) I and IV only d) I, II and III only
steps on all inputs} and [GATE-2016]
 =L3{ M M accepts }
Q.31 Let L(R) be the language represented
Where for each turning machine M, by regular expression R. Let
M denotes a specific encoding of M. L(G) be the language generated by a
Which one of the following is TRUE? context free grammar G. Let L(M) be
a) L1 is recursive and L 2 , L 3 are the language accepted by a Turning
not recursive machine M.
b) L 2 is recursive and L1 , L 3 are not Which of the following decision
problems are undecidable ?
recursive
I. Given a regular expression R and
c) L1 , L 2 are recursive and L 3 is
a string w, is w ∈ L (R) ?
not recursive II. Given a context-free grammar G,
d) L1 , L 2 , L 3 are recursive is L(G) = Φ?
[GATE-2016(2)] III. Given a context-free grammar G,
is L(G)= ∑* for some alphabet ∑ ?
Q.29 Let X be a recursive language and Y IV. Given a Turning machine M and a
be a recursively enumerable but not string w, is w ∈ L(M) ?
recursive language. Let W and Z be a) I and IV only b) II and III only
two languages such that Y reduces to c) II,III and IV d)III and IV only
W, and Z reduces to X (reduction [GATE-2017(2)]
means the standard many-one
Q.32 Let A and B finite alphabets and let
reduction). Which one of the
following statements is TRUE? # be a symbol outside both A and B.
Let f be a total function from A*to B*.

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 We say f is computable if there exists
a Turing machine M which given an
input x in A*, always halts with f(x )
on its tape. Let L f denote the
language {x#(f(x))|x ∈ A*}.

Which of the following statements is

true:
a) f is computable if an only if L f is
recursive
b) f is computable if and only if L f
is recursively enumerable.
c) If f is computable then L f is
recursive, but not conversely.
d) If f is computable then L f is
recursively enumerable, but not
conversely.
[GATE-2017(2)]

Q.33 The set of all recursively enumerable

languages is

a) closed under complementation.

b) closed under intersection.
c) a subset of the set of all recursive
languages.
d) an uncountable set.
[GATE-2018]

ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
(b) (a) (b) (a) (a) (d) (a) (b) (c) (b) (d) (b) (d) (b) (d)
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
(b) (b) (d) (d) (c) (c) (b) (d) (c) (a) (d) (d) (c) (c) (d)
31 32 33
(d) (a) (b)

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 EXPLANATIONS

Q.1 (b)
The C language is context sensitive Option (d) False: The complement of
language. All the feature of C context free language is never
language comes under CFL except context free.
following two which makes the C
language as CSL: Q.5 (c)
a) Declaration of variable before Transition function of M
use 0 1 B
b) The matching of actual and
formal parameters. q0 q1 ,1, R q1 ,1, R Halt
Q.2 (a)
P1 is membership of FSM i.e., regular q1 q1 ,1, R q1 ,1, R q1 , B, L
language. P2 is finite/infiniteness of
The graphical representation of M is
context free grammar. Membership as
of FSM and finiteness of CFG, both
are decidable problems.
So P1 and P2 both are decidable.

Q.3 (b)
Problem X is state entry problem.
Halting problem of turing machine
can be reduced to state entry
problem. Since halting problem of The original configuration of tape of
turing machine is undecidable , the M is as follows
state-entry problem must also be BBB q0 000 . 111 . BBB
undecidable. The language
corresponding to state-entry BBB1q1 00 .. 111 .... BBB
problem is RE but not REC. So X is S(q0 ,0  q1,1, R 
undecidable but partially decidable. BBB1q1 00 . 111 .. BBB
Q.4 (a) BBB11q1 00 .. 111 . BBB
Option (a) True: The complement of S(q0 ,0)  q1,1, R 
recursive language is always
recursive. If tape is finite, then after K right
Option (b) False: The recursively move all 0's will be changed to 1's
enumerable language is the language, and M remains in state q1 .
when taken its complement; lose its BBB 111 . q1111  BBB
recursively enumerable nature. BBB 111 . q01111  BBB
Option (c) False: The complement of
recursive language is always S(q1,1)  q0 ,1, L
recursive and never recursively BBB 111 .1q1 11111  BBB
enumerable. S(q0 ,1)  q1 ,1, R 
BBB 111 . q01111  BBB

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 S(q1,1)  q0 ,1, L Consider (b) L1 as REC & L2 is not
So, machine M moves one step right RE:
and one step left and goes in infinite If L 1 is REC, then L1 is REC.
loop
So M cannot reach a configuration Also, if L 2 is RE but not REC, then L2
(q 0 , B) and M does not halt on any is not RE.
Therefore (b) is true.Clearly, (c) and
string in  0  1 .

(d) false since L2 is not RE.

Q.6 (d) Q.9 (c)

The strings of a language L can be According to the option, P2 is
effectively enumerated means a reducible to P3. Also it gives that P2
Turing machine exists for language L is undecidable. From (a) and (b), P3
which will enumerate all valid is undecidable.
strings of the language. If the string is
in lexicographic order then TM will
accept the string and halt in the final Q.10 (b)
state. But, if the string is not Given L1 be regular, L 2 is DCFL and
lexicographic order then TM will L 3 is RE but not Rec.
reject the string and halt in non-final
1. “ L1  L2 is a DCFL” is true since
state.
Thus, L is recursive language. DCFL’sw are closed under
We cannot construct PDA for regular intersection.
language L. So, the given language is 2. “ L3  L1 is recursive” is false since
not context free. Thus, option (d) is L3 is RE but nt REC and therefore
correct. L3  L1 is surely. RE according to
Q.7 (a) closure of RE under regular
intersection, but we cannot be
Consider the case where L   0  1 *
sure that L3  L1 is REC.
Here the answer of any Turing
machine would be Yes since some 3. “ L1  L2 is CFL” is true, since L 2 is
output is displayed. DCFL and hence a CFL and L1 is
Consider the case where L   regular. Therefore, by closure of
Here, the answer of any Turing CFL’s on regular union, we can
machine would be No, since no say that L1 L2 is surely CFL.
output is displayed.
4. “ L1  L2  L3 is RE” is true since
This type of behaviour is displayed
by the recursive language and all three are surely RE and RE
therefore, the language L is recursive. languages are closed under
intersection.
Q.8 (b)
Q.11 (d)
Since, L1 is REC, clearly L1 is also
Given that,
REC.
d  s  mod 5  2 and d{s)mod 7  4
Since, L1 is RE but not REC, its
Both the languages are regular
complement has to be RE. languages, since there exists
∴ But (a) claims that L2 is RE. deterministic finite automata for
Therefore, (a) is false. both of them. We also have an
algorithm to check the regular

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 nature of the language therefore L is ∴ 1 and 4 are decidable.
regular.
Q.15 (d)
As per the theorem, a language is
Q.12 (b) recursive if that language and its
a) Membership problem for CFG’s is
complement are recursively
decidable (CYK algorithm exists). enumerable. Therefore, L is
b) Ambiguity problem of CFG’s is
recursive.
undecidable.
c) Finiteness problem of FSA’s is
Q.16 (b)
decidable, since there exist an (a)L2−L1=L2∩L1'
algorithm to check if a given
Recursive languages are closed
regular language L is finite or
infinite. under complement, and so L1' is
d) Equivalence problem for FSA’s is recursive and hence recursively
decidable, since there exist an enumerable also. So, L2∩L1' is
algorithm to check where recursively enumerable is always
L  M1   L  M2  or not. TRUE.
(b)L1−L3=L1∩L3'
Q.13 (d)
Recursively enumerable languages

Let L  a P | p is a prime . There is no are not closed under complement. So,
DFA which recognizes L, since to
L3' may or may not be recursively
check whether a number is prime or
enumerable and hence we can't say
not requires division to be
performed, which neither FA nor anything if L1∩L3' is recursively
PDA can do. It is a CSL and can be enumerable or not.
accepted by a turing machine. Option (c) Intersection of two
recursive enumerable is recursive
Q.14 (b) enumerable.
1. “Intersection of two regular
Option (d) Union of two recursive
languages is infinite” is decidable,
since we can construct a product enumerable is recursive enumerable.
DFA of the 2 given DFAS and then, This implies that option (b) is
using the algorithm to check incorrect
finiteness or infiniteness on this
DFA, we can Qve the problem. Q.17 (b)
2. “Whether a given CFL is regular” DFA  NFA
is undecidable. DPDA  NPDA
3. “Whether two PDA’s accept the DTM  NTM
same language” is undecidable, Single tape TM ≡ Multi-tape TM
since equivalence of CFL’s is
Q.18 (d)
undecidable.
Statement (1) is undecidable (since it
4. “Whether a given grammar is
is the halting problem of TM).
context-free” is decidablesince
Complement of a context free
we can easily check using a TM,
language, may or may not be context
whether the LHS of every
free. So statement number (2) is not
production has a single variable
only a non trival problem but is also
and, then it is a CFG, else it is not
a CFG. undecidable..

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 If L is regular, L is surely regular. Q.21 (c)
So statement number (3) is If both L and its complement are Re
(trivially) decidable. Also if L is then both are REC.
recursive, L is also surely recursive.
Q.22 (b)
So statement number (4) is also
There are finite numbers of strings of
(trivially) decidable.
length ‘2014’. So, a turing machine
So, correct option is (d) i.e. only 3 and
will take the input string of length
4 are decidable.
‘2014’ and test it. If, input string is
Q.19 (d) present in the language then turing
1. G is CFG, is L  G   ? machine will halt in final state. But, if
2. This is the emptiness problem of turing machine is unable to accept
CFLs which is decidable. the input string then it will halt in
non-final state or go in an infinite
3. G is CFG, is L  G  *.
loop and never halt.
This is the Kleene closeness Thus, ‘L’ is undecidable and
problem of CFL’s which is recursively enumerable
undecidable.
4. M is turning machine, Is L  M Q.23 (d)
regular. This is the regularity A mB means language A is
problem of REs which is mapping reducible to language B.
undecidable. Thus, A cannot be harder than B.
5. A is a DFA and N is NFA, Is L  A  Since, A can be reduced to B, instead
 L  N ?. of deciding A we can now decide
B. So, the first three options are
This is the equivalence problem of
correct.
regular languages which is As B is not recursively enumerable, it
decidable.
doesn't guarantee A is not
So, only 2 and 3 are undecidable. recursively enumerable. Thus, if
A  m B and B is not recursively
Q.20 (c) enumerable then A is not recursively
1. Non - deterministic Turing
enumerable. Therefore, answer is D
Machine can be simulated by a is correct.
deterministic Turing Machine
with exponential time true.
Q.24 (c)
2. Turing recognizable language are
“not” closed under
2* is uncountable and  * is
complementation. For any Turing countable
recognizable language the Turing
Machine T recognizing ‘L’ may Q.25 (a)
not terminate on inputs   L  Ambiguity is not an operation and
hence we can never say that CFG is
False
closed under ambiguity. Thus,
3. Turing decidable languages are
deciding ambiguity of CFG is
CLOSED under union and
undecidable.
complementation. It is easy to
determine if Turing machine is
Q.26 (d)
decidable – True
I and III are true. The definition of NP
So, answer is option (c) only 2.
itself says Qvable in polynomial time

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 using non-deterministic Turing Turing machine will make 2017th
machine. move depends on its initial state and
Q.27 (d) the contents of the first 2016 cells of
1. L1' (complement of L1) is the tape.
recursive is true L1 is context
free. Every context free language Now the first 2016 cells can have |Σ +
is also recursive and recursive 1|^2016 (+1 for the blank symbol)
languages are closed under different combinations. Out of these
complement. only some combinations will be
4. L1'  L2 is recursively
valid(eg. if the first square is blank
enumerable is true Since L1' is
then any subsiquent square can't
recursive, it is also recursively
enumerable and recursively have an input symbol).
enumerable languages are closed
under union. So we can simulate the machine on
3. L1' is context-free: Context-free all these valid combinations and if it
languages are not closed under does not make 2017th move in any of
complement, intersection, or those combinations then we accept
difference. <M> in L1' and reject it otherwise.
2. L2' (complement of L2) is
Hence L1' and thus L1 is Recursive.
recursive is false: Recursively
Similarly, we can prove that L2' is
enumerable languages are not
closed under set difference or Recursive. L3 is not Recursive(Rice
complementation Theorem).
Q.28 (c)
Consider L1 = {<M>| M halts in < Q.29 (c)
2017 steps on some input}. Then L' = X  recursive
Y  REL but not recursive
{<M>|M takes >= 2017 steps for all
Y reduces to W
inputs}. Now whether or not a Turing Z reduces to X
Machine makes 2017th move By the following theorem:
depends on the state it is in after the Theorem: If P1 reduces to P2 then,
2016th move and the content of the • If P1 is Non-Recursively
first 2016 cells of the input tape(as enumerable then so is P2.
• If P2 is Non-Recursively
the Turing machine could have
enumerable then so is P1.
processed the atmost n cells after n
• If P1 is Recursive then so is P2.
moves). • If P2 is Recursive then so is P1.
Z is recursive and W is REL but not
However the state that a Turing recursive.
machine is after the 2016th move
depends on its state after the 2015th Q.30 (d)
move and the contents of the first L1: Regular
L2: CFL
2015 cells. L3: Recursive language
L4: REL
Reasoning like this all the way back
(i) L3 ’ is Recursive
to before the first move was made we
can conclude that whether the L3’  L4 is REL

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 (ii) L 2 ’ is recursive Q.32 (a)
L3 ’ is recursive If f is computable and let M be the
Turing machine that computes it
L2 ’  L3 is also recursive then when given a string of the form
(iii) L1 * is regular x#y we can calculate f(x) using M and
L 2 is CFL accept it if y = f(x) or else reject it.
Hence if f is computable then L is
L1 *  L2 is CFL
recursive. Now assume that L is
Since CFL is closed under recursive. Then we can list all of it
intersection with RL. strings in lexciographical order.
RL  CFL is CFL Then when we are given x we can
(iv) L1 is RL & L 2 ’ is recursive compare it with the left part of each
L1  L2 ’ is CFL is not possible string(the part before #). Once we
So (i), (ii), & (iii) are correct find a match we return the right hand
portion as f(x). Hence if L is recursive
Q.31 (d) then f is computable. Hence f is
I. Membership of regular language computable iff L is recursive.
(Decidable)
II. Emptiness of CFL (Decidable)
III. L=∑* problem of
CFL(Undecidable)
IV. Membership of RE language
(Undecidable)
So ,only III and IV are undecidable
.So, correct answer is (d).

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 ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

Q.1 The word “formal” in formal d) For a given input string, length of
languages the output string generated by a
means Moore machine is one more than
a) the symbols used have well- the length of the output string
defined meaning generated by that of a Mealy
b) they are unnecessary, in reality machine.
c) only the form of the string of
symbols is significant Q.6 The recognizing capability of
d) none of the above NDFSM and DFSM
a) may be different
Q.2 Let A = {0, 1} the number of possible b) must be different
strings of length “n” that can be c) must be the same
formed by the elements of the set A d) none of the above
is
a) n! b) n2 Q.7 FSM can recognize
c) n n d) 2n a) any grammar
b) only CFG
Q.3 Choose the correct statements c) any unambiguous grammar
a) Moore and Mealy machines are d) only regular grammar
FSM’s with output capability. Q.8) Pumping lemma is generally used
b) Any given Moore machine has an for proving
equivalent Mealy machine. a) a given grammar is regular
c) Any given Mealy machine has an b) a given grammar is not regular
equivalent Moore machine. c) whether two given regular
d) Moore machine is not an FSM. expressions are equivalent
d) none of the above
Q.4 The major difference between a
Moore and a Mealy machine is that Q.9 Which of the following are not
a) The output of the former regular?
depends on the present state and a) string of 0’s whose length is a
the current input perfect square
b) The output of the former b) set of all palindromes made up of
depends only on the present 0’s and 1’s
state c) strings of 0’s, whose length is a
c) The output of the former depends prime number
only on the current input d) string of odd number of zeroes
d) None of the above
Q.10 Which of the following pairs of
Q.5 Choose the correct statements. regular expressions are equivalent?
a) A Mealy machine generates no a) 1(01) * and (10) * 1
language as such b) x(xx) * and (xx) * x
b) A Moore machine generates no c) (ab) * and a*b
language as such d) x+ and x*x+
c) A Mealy machine has no terminal
state.

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 Q.11 Choose the correct statements. c) of finite tape length, without
a) A = {anbn|n=0, 1, 2, 3,…..} is a rewinding capability and
regular language. bidirectional tape movement
b) The set B, consisting of all d) of finite tape length, rewinding
strings made up to only a’s and capability and bidirectional tape
b’s having equal number of a’s movement
and b’s defines a regular
language. Q.16 TM is more powerful than FSM
c) L(a*b*) B gives the set A. because
d) none of the above a) the tape movement is confined
to one direction
Q.12 Pick the correct statements. b) it has no finite state control
The logic of pumping lemma is a c) it has the capability to remember
good example of arbitrary long sequence of input
a) The Pigeon-hole principle symbols.
b) The divide & conquer technique d) none of the above
c) Recursion
d) iteration Q.17 The FSM pictured in below figure
recognizes
Q.13 The basic limitation of an FSM is
that
a) it can’t remember arbitrary large
amount of information
b) it sometimes recognizes
grammars that are not regular a) all strings b) no string
c) it sometimes fails to recognize c) ε- alone d) none of above
grammars that are regular
d) all of the above Q.18 The FSM pictured in below shown fig
is a
Q.14 Palindromes can’t be recognize by
any FSM because
a) an FSM can’t remember
arbitrarily large amount of
information
b) an FSM can’t deterministically fix a) Mealy machine
the mid-point b) Moore machine
c) even if the mid-point is known, c) Keene machine
an FSM can’t find whether the d) none of the above
second half of the string matches Q.19 The above machine
the first half a) complements a given bit pattern
d) None of the above b) generates all strings of 0’s and 1’s
Q.15 An FSM can be consider a TM c) adds 1 to a given bit pattern
a) of finite tape length, rewinding d) none of the above
capability and unidirectional Q.20 The language of all words (made up
tape movement of a’s and b;s ) with at least two a’s
b) of finite tape length, without can be described by the regular
rewinding capability and expression
unidirectional tape movement a) (a+b)*a(a+b)*a(a+b)*
b) (a+b)*ab*a(a+b)*

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 c) b* ab* a(a+b)*
d) a(a+b)* a(a+b) * a(a+b)*

Q.21 Which of the following pairs of

regular expression are not
equivalent?
a) (ab) * a and a(ba) *
b) (a+b)* and (a+b*)* a) Any string of odd number of a’s
c) (a* +b)* and (a+b)* b) Any string of add number of a’s
d) none of the above and even number of b’s
c) Any string of even number of a’s
Q.22 Consider the two FSM’s in fig. and even number of b’s
d) Any string of even number of a’s
and odd number of b’s

Pick the correct statement Q.27 Any given transition graph has an
a) Both are equivalent equivalent
b) The second FSM accepts only a) regular expression
b) DFSM
c) The first FSM accepts nothing
c) NDFSM
d) None of the above
d) none of the above
Q.23 Set of regular languages over a given
Q.28 The following CFG S →aS|bS|a|b
alphabet set, is not closed under
Is equivalent to the regular
a) union b) complementation
expression
c) intersection d) none of above
a) (a* + b)* b) (a + b)+
Q.24 The machine pictured in fig. c) (a + b)(a + b)* d) (a + b)* (a + b)
Q.29 Any string of terminals that can be
generated by the following CFG
S →XY
X →aX |bX|a
a) Complements a given bit pattern Y →Ya |Yb|a
b) Finds 2’s complement of a given a) Has at least one b
c) Increments a given bit pattern by 1 b) should end in an ‘a’
d) Change the sign bit c) Has no consecutive a’s or b’s
d) has at least two a’s
Q.25 For which of the following
application regular expressions Q.30 The following CFG
can’t be used? S→aB|bA
a) Designing compliers A →a|aS|bAA
b) Developing text editors B→b|bS|aBB
c) Simulating sequential circuits Generates strings of terminals that
d) Designing computers have
a) Equal number of a’s and b’s
Q.26 The FSM pictured in fig. recognizes b) Odd number of a’s and odd
number b’s
c) Even number of a’s and even
number of b’s

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 d) Odd number a’s and even Q.36 The set A = {anbnan | n = 1, 2, 3, …….}
number of a’s is an example of grammar that is
a) regular
Q.31 Let L(G) denote the language b) context free
generated by the grammar G. to c) not context free
prove set A=L(G) d) none of the above
a) it is enough to prove that an
arbitrary member of A can be Q.37 Let L1 = {anbnam | m, n = 1, 2, 3, ….}
generated by grammar G L2 = {anbmam | m, n = 1, 2, 3, …….}
a) It is enough to prove that an L3 = {anbnan | n = 1, 2, 3, …….}
arbitrary string generated by G, Choose the correct statements,
belongs to set A a) L3 = L1 L2
b) Both the above comments (a) b) L1 and L2 are CFL but L3 is not
and (b) are to be prove a CFL
c) Either of the above comments c) L1 and L2 are not CFL but L3 is
(a) or (b) is to be proved a CFL
d) L1 is a subset of L3
Q.32 The set {anbn | n = 1, 2, 3…..} can be
generated by the CFG Q.38 L = {anbnan|n = 1,2,3,…….} is an
a) S→ ab | aSb example of a language that is
b) S→aaSbb | ab a) context free
c) S →ab | aSb |ε b) not context free
d) S→aaSbb | ab | aabb c) not context free but whose
complement is CF
Q.33 Choose the correct statements. d) context free but whose
a) All languages can be generated complement is not CF
by CFG
b) Any regular language has an Q.39 The intersection of a CFL and a
equivalent CFG regular language
c) Some non-regular languages a) need not be regular
can’t be generated by any CFG b) need not be context free
d) Some regular languages can’t be c) is always regular
generated by any CFG d) is always CF
Q.34 Which of the following CFG’s can’t
be simulated by an FSM? Q.40 A PDM behaves like an FSM when
a) S → Sa | a the number of auxiliary memory it
S  abX has is
a) 0 b) 1
b) X  cY b) 2 d) none of above
Y  d | aX
c) S → aSb| ab Q.41 A PDM behaves like a TM when the
d) None of the above number of auxiliary memory it has
is
Q.35 CFG is not closed under a) 0 b) 1 or more
a) union c) 2 or more d) none of the above
b) Kleene star
c) complementation Q.42 Choose the correct statements.
d) concatenation a) The power of DFSM and NDFSM
are the same

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 b) The power of DFSM and NDFSM a) proving whether a primitive
are different recursive function is turning
c) The power of DPDM and NDPDM computable
are different b) proving whether a primitive
d) The power of DPDM and NDPDM recursive function is a total
are the same function
c) generating primitive recursive
Q.43 Which of the following is accepted functions
by an NDPDM, but not by a DPDM? d) generating partial recursive
a) All strings in which a given functions
symbol is present at least twice.
b) Even palindromes Q.48 Which of the following is not
c) Strings ending with a particular primitive recursive but computable?
terminal. a) Carnot function
d) none of the above b) Riemann function
c) Bounded function
Q.44 CSG can be recognized by a d) Ackermann function
a) FSM
b) DPDM Q.49 Which is the following is not
c) NDPDM primitive recursive but partially
d) linearly bounded memory recursive?
machine a) Carnot function
b) Riemann function
Q.45 Choose the correct statements. c) Bounded function
a) An FSM with 1 stack is more d) Ackermann function
powerful than an FSM with no
Q.50 Choose the correct statements.
stack
a) A total recursive function is also
b) An FSM with 2 stack is more
a partial recursive function
powerful than an FSM with 1
b) A partial recursive function is
stack
also a total recursive function
c) An FSM with 3 stack is more
c) A partial recursive function is
powerful than an FSM with 2
also a primitive recursive
stack
function
d) All of these.
d) A primitive recursive function is
also a partial recursive function
Q.46 Choose the correct statements
a) An FSM with 2 stacks is as Q.51 A language L for which there exists a
powerful as a TM TM, T that accepts every word in L
b) DFSM and NDFSM have the same and either rejects or loops for every
power word that is not in L is said to be
c) A DFSM with 1 stack and an a) recursive b) recursively
NDFSM with 1 stack have the enumerable
same power c) NP-HARD d) none of the above
d) A DFSM with 2 stack and an
NDFSM with 2 stacks have the Q.52 Choose the correct statements
same power a) L = { anbnan | n = 1, 2, 3, …….}
is recursively enumerable
Q.47 Bounded minimization is a b) recursive languages are closed
technique for under union

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 c) every recursive language is yes and may or may not terminate
recursively enumerable otherwise is said to be
d) recursive languages are closed a) stable b) unsolved
under intersection c) partially solved d) unstable
Q.53 Choose the correct statements Q.60 The number of states of the FSM
a) Set of recursively enumerable required to simulate the behavior of
languages is closed under union a computer, with a memory capable
b) if a language and its complement of storing ‘m’ words each of length
are both regular then language ‘n’ bits is
must be recursive a) M × 2n b)2mn
c) recursive languages are closed c) 2 m + n d) none of the above
under complementation
d) none of the above Q.61 The vernacular language English, if
considered a formal language is a
Q.54 pick the correct answers. Universal a) regular language
TM influenced the concept of b) context free language
a) Stored-program computers c) context sensitive language
b) Interpretive implementation of d) none of the above
programming languages
c) Computability Q.62 Let P, Q and R be three languages. If
d) None of the above P and R are regular and if PQ = R
then
Q.55 The number of internal states of a a) Q has to be regular
UTM should be at least b) Q cannot be regular
a) 1 b) 2 c) Q need not be regular
c) 3 d) 4 d) Q has to be a CFL
Q.56 The number of symbols necessary to
simulate a TM with m symbols and n Q.63 Consider the grammar
states is S PQ | SQ | PS
a) m + n b) 8mm + 4m P x
c) mn d) 4mn + m Q y
To get a string of n terminals the
Q.57 Any TM with m symbols and n states
number of production to be used is
can be simulated by another TM
a) n2 b) n + 1
with just 2 symbols and less than
c) 2n d) 2n – 1
a) 8mn states b) 4mn + 8 states
b) 8mn + 4 states d) mn states
Q.64 Choose the correct statements.
A class of languages that is closed
Q.58 The statements – “A TM can’t solve
under
halting problem” is
a) Union and complementation has
a) true
to be closed under intersection
b) false
b) Intersection and
c) still an open question
complementation has to be
d) none of the above
closed under union
c) Union and intersection has to be
Q.59 If there exists a TM which when
closed under complementation
applied to any problem in the class,
d) Al of the above
terminates if the correct answer is

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 Q.65 The following grammar is c) non-deterministic PDA to
S→ a α b|b α c|aB deterministic PDA
S→ aS|b d) non-deterministic Turing machine
S→ α bb| ab to deterministic Turing machine
bα→bdb| b
a) Context free b) regular Q.70 An FSM can be used to add two
c) context sensitive d) LR (k) given integers. This remark is
a) true b) false
Q.66 Which of the following definitions c) may be true d) none of the above
generates the same language as L,
where Q.71 A CFG is said to be in Chomsky
L = {xnyn, n ≥ 1} ? normal
I. E →xEy | xy form(CNF), if all the productions are
II. xy | x+xyy+ of the form A→BC or A→a. let G be a
III. x+y+ CFG in CNF. To derive a string of
a) I only b) I and II terminals of length x, the number of
c) II and III d) II only production to be said is
a) 2x – 1 b) 2x
Q.67 A finite states machine with the c) 2x + 1 d) 2x
following state table has a single
input X and a single output Z Q.72 Determine the regular expression
over ∑ = {0, 1}
a) 1* 2* b) 0+ 1-
c) 0 – 1 d) None of these.

Q.73 The r.e. (a + b).(a + b) represents the

set
a) ∑ b) {(a + b).(a + b)}
c) {ab, ca,cb,bb} d) None of these.
If the initial state is unknown then
the shortest input sequence to reach Q.74 The NFA for the r.e. ϕ is
the final state C is a)
a) 01 b) 10
c) 101 d) 110

Q.68 Let A = (0,1} and L =A*. let R = {0n1n, b)

n>0}. The language L R and R are
respectively
a) regular, regular
b) not regular, regular c)
c) regular, not regular
d) not regular, not regular
d) None of these.
Q.69 Which of the following conversion is
not possible algorithmically? Q.75 The regular expression for the set {ζ,
a) regular grammar to context free ζ, ζ, ζ ζ ζ,….} is
grammar a) 1 (1)* b) ζ *
b) non-deterministic FSA to c) ζ(ζ)* d) None of these.
deterministic FSA

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 Q.76 Obtain the regular expression for Q.82 Which of the following equation will
L  a b2n 2m1
| n  0,m  0 be generated using Arden's
Method to the automata ?
a) (a)2n (b)2m1
b) (aa)* (bb)* b
c) No regular expression exists for
the language a) A= ε
d) None of these. b) B= A ε
c) Both a) and b) above
Q.77 Describe the set represented by the d) None of these.
regular express (00 + 1)* (11 + 0)*.
a) The set of all strings having 0's Q.83 Which of the following equation will
and 1's occuring in pairs be generated using Arden's Method
b) The set of all strings having 0's to the automata?
in pairs
c) The set of all strings having 1's
in pairs
d) None of these. a) B = aA
b) C = aB
Q.78 Given r.e. for strings over {0, 1, 2} c) Both a) and b) above
containing at 7 single 1. d) None of these.
a) (0 + 2)* 1 b) 1 (0+ 2)*
c) (0 +1 + 2)* d) None of these. Q.84 What are the sub expression to be
joined by + operator of the regular
Q.79 Find the regular expression for the expression accepted by the
language following automata?
L = {w : w I mod 2 = 0}, wϵ {a, b, c}*.
a) aa+ab+ac+ba + bb+bc+ ca+cb +cc
b)(a + b + c) (a + b + c)
c) Both a) and b) above
d) None of these. a) a b) ab
c) aab d) None of these.
Q.80 Given P and Q two regular
expression. Which of following Q.85 In the following automata
identity hold ?
a) A* = A
b) (PQ)* P = P (QP)*
c) Both a) and b) above
d) None of these.
a) the r.e corresponding to the
Q.81 Find the incorrect identity of regular states A and B are same
expression f: the following : b) the r.c. corresponding to the
a) (R + S)* = R* + S* states B and C are same
b) ϕ*= ε c) the r.c. corresponding to the
c) Both a) and b) above are wrong states C and A same
d) None of these. d) None of these

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 Q.86 Find the regular expression for the Should be removed first from the
automata following automata?
a) A →B b) B→C
c) C→B d)Noneof these

Q.90 Which ε-move should be removed

a) (a  a(b  aa)*b)*a(b  aa)*a first from the following automata>?
b) (a  a(b  aa)*b)*(b  aa)*a
c) (a  a(b  aa)*b)*a(b  aa)*
d) None of these
Q.87 Describe in English the set accepted a) A →B b) B→C
by the following FA: c) C→B d) None of these
Q.91 Which of the following accept the
language L (a*b*)?
a)
a) The strings of ‘0’s followed by
strings of 1s’
b) The strings of 0’s (possibly no
zero) followed by string of 1’s
c) The strings of ‘0’s followed by
string of 1’s (possibly no one.) b)
d) None of these

Q.88 Find the automata after removal of

ε-move
c)Both a) and b) above
d) None of these

Q.92 Construct the regular expression

a)
corresponding to the state A in the
following automata

b)

a) (a  b(b  ab)*aa)*
c)
b) (0 1(1 01)*00)*
c) Both a) and b)
d) None of these

d) None of these Q.93 Construct the FA equivalent to the

regular expression (a+b)*(aa+bb).
Q.89 Which ε-move

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 a) b)

b)

c)Both a) and b)above

d) None of these

Q.96 We may have increased number of

states when
c)Both a) and b) above a) we convert Moore Machine to
d) None of these Mealy machine
b) we convert Mealy Machine to
Q.94 How many states at most will be Moore Machine
there in the Moore machine c)Both a) and b) above
converted from the following Mealy d) None of these
machine ?
Q.97 The length of output string is … in
equivalent Moore and Mealy
Machines for the same input string
(A ) same b) different
c) zero d) None of these

a)5 b) 6 Q.98 Determine the output of the

c) 7 d) None of these following Mealy machine .

Q.95 Moore machine corresponding to

the following Mealy machine is

a) Green /Blue if total number of

1’s encountered is odd/ even
b) Blue/Green if total number of 1’s
encountered is odd/ even
c) Green / Blue if total number of
0’s encountered is odd/ even
d) None of these
a)
Q.99 Determine the Moore Machine that
determine residue mod 2 for each
binary string treated as a binary
integer.
a)

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 Q.102 In a finite automata of n states , a
str0ng of length more than
a) will always be accepted
b) will result in revist of a set of
states
b) c) Both a) and b) above
d) None of these
Q.103 Which of the following in a regular
language?
a) L  {a n b : n  0}
c) Both a) and b) above
d) None of these b) L  {a n b : n  0}
c) Both a) and b) above
Q.100 Convert the following Moore d) None of these
machine to a DFA
Q.104 Which of the following is a regular
language?
a) L  {a n bn : n  0}
b) L  {a n bn : n  0}
a) c) Both a) and b) above
d) None of these
Q.105 Which of the following is a regular
language?
a) L ={w:wϵ{a,b}*}
b) L ={ww:wϵ{a,b}*}
b) c) L ={w3:wϵ{a,b}*}
d) None of these

Q.106 Design the automata for the


language L  ln 2n : n  0 
c)Both a) and b) above a)
d) None of these

Q.101 When will you get y a output in the

following Mealy Machine?

b)

a) a pair of 0’s occur

c)
b)a pair of 1’s occur
c)Both a) and b) above
d) None of these

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 d) None of these. Q.115 The intersection of the two regular
Language L1  a  b  *a  &
Q.107 Let L’ be complement of a language.
L2  b  a  b  *b  is
Find the language L for which
corresponding L’ is regular. a) L  b  a  b  *a 

a) L  w2 : w a,b*  b) L  a  a  b  *b 
b) L  w : w a, b * c) Both a) and b) above
d) None of these.
c) Both a) and b) above
d) None of these.
Q.116 Let a language L  0*  0  11* and a

Q.108 Is L  02n : n  1 regular?  mapping f given by f(0) =a & f(1)
=b*.
a) Yes b) No Find f (L).
c) Can’t be known d) None of these.
a)  ab *  ba  *3*
Q.109 Is the set of prime numbers regular? b)  ab  *  ba  *
a) Yes c) Both a) and b) above
b) No, as it is infinite set d) None of these.
c) Can’t be known
d) None of these. Q.117 Let L is language of regular
expression 10*1, and
Q.110 Let L be a regular set, Is the set homomorphism defined by
a1 a3 a5...a2n 1: a1 a2 a3..a2n are in L h  0  ab and h 1   then h(L) is
a) Yes b)No a) h(L)() b) h(L)(ab)
c) Can’t be known d) None of these. c) h(L)((ab)*) d) None of these
Q.111 Is the set strings not containing two
consecutive zeros regular? Q.118 Find h 1  L , where language is
a) Yes b) No L  a  a  b  * and homomorphism h
c) Can’t be known d) None of these is defined by h(0) = ab and h (1) = a.
Q.112 Given L1   a  b  *a  and a) h 1 (L)((0  1))
L2  a  b  *b  . Is L1  L2 regular? b) h 1 (L)((0  1)*)
a) Yes b) No c) h 1 (L)((0  1)  0  1)
c) Can’t be known d) None of these d) None of these.
Q.113 Given L1   a  b  *a  & L2  a  b  *b  Q.119 Let L1 / L2 denote the Quotient of
is L1  L2 regular? the languages L1 and L 2 . Find it for
a) Yes b) No
L1 (0*0*)and L2 (10*1)
c) Can’t be known d) None of these
a) ϕ
Q.114 Let L    a  a  b  * be regular b) ε
language over   a, b Then L'is c) Both a) and b) above
d) None of these
a) L’(ϕ) b) L'((a  b)*)
c) L'((a  b)*b) d) None of these

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Q.120 Given
1
 L  {x for some y such Q.126 Let L  w : w  10, w a,b*,
2 then L may be accepted by an
that x  y , xy is in L}, find such L. automata of at least…states
a) ϕ a) 8 b) 9
b) ε c) 10 d) None of these
c) Both a) and b) above.
Q.127 Given a language L and a relation
d) None of these.
RLsuch that xRLy iff for each z,
either both or neither xz and yz are
Q.121 Find L/a for L  a,aabb, baa
in L, where x ,y ϵ L. The relation RL
a)  b) ba is.
c) , ba d) None of these. a) irreflexive b) asymmetric
c) non-transitive d) None of these

Q.122 Let a / L  w : aw  L. Find a/L for Q.128 Let a language L(0)* and are a
relation RL as defined in above
L  a,aab baa equation. Find the number of
a)  b) ab, ba equivalence classes of L.
c) , ba d) None of these a) 2 b) 3
c) 1 d) None of these
Q.123 Which of the following identities are
Q.129 Let M   Q, , ,qo, F be a DFA and
true?
a)  L / a  a  L a relation RM such that xRMy if f
  q0, x     q0y  . Find the index of
b)  La  / a  L
the relation RM for the following
c) Both a) & b) above automata
d) None of these.

Q.124 True or False  L / a  a  L

a) True
b) False
c) Depends on the language L a) 1 b) 2
d) None of these. c) 3 d) None of these.

Q.125 Let half (L) = Q.130 Let M   Q, , ,qo, F bean automat

w : wx  L, x  w for some x. accepting the language L, which of
the following relations are right
Which of the following is correct invariant?
always? a) xRy such that ∀z either both or
a) only odd length strings of L as in neither xz and yz are in L
half (L)
b) xRy such that   q0, x     q0y  .
b) only even length strings of L as
in half (L) c) Both a) and b)above
c) Both a) and b) above d) None of these.
d) None of these. Q.131 Determine the type of the grammar
G   V,T, P,S where V  v0 ,

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 T  a and Q.136 Determine the automata for the
grammar
P  v0  aav0, v0  aa.
S  aSA,S  bS,A  c,S 
a) type 0 b) type 1 a)
c) Type 2 d) None of these

Q.132 Which of the following is true for a

type 1 `grammars having the
production of the form   ?
b)
a)    b)    always
c)    d) none of these.

Q.133 Determine language of the grammar

S  xS,S  yA,A  yA,A  z. c) Both a) and b) above
a) L  x*y*z  b) L  xy*z  d) None of these.
c) L  xyz  d) None of these
Q.137 Let a grammar be
Q.134 Determine the automata for the S  S ,S  a  A,
grammar S  aS,S  bS,S  c. A  a  B,B  a  C,C  a . Is the
a) corresponding language finite?
a) Yes
b) No
c) Can’t be known as the grammar
b) definition is not complete
d) None of these.

Q.138 Let a grammar G be

S  S ,S  a  A,
c) Botha) and b) above A  a  B,B  a  C,C  a
d) None of these.
Is  a   a  a   L(G)?
Q.135 Determine the automata for the a) Yes
grammar S  aSA,S  bS,A  c. b) No
a) c) Can’t be known as the grammar
definition is not complete
d) None of these.
Q.139 Let a grammar G be S  S ,
b) S  a  A, A  a  B, B  a  C,
C  a.
Find wϵL(G) having the minimum
length.
a) (a + a + a) b) (a + a + a +a)
c) Both a) and b) above c) a + a + a + a d) None of these.
d) None of these.
Q.140 Let a grammar G be S → a + A, A→ a
+B, B→ a + C, C→ a+ D, D→ a + and
set of terminals be T  a .

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 Construct the automata
corresponding to G.
a) Automata cannot be constructed
as the grammar is of type 1
b) Automata cannot be constructed
as the grammar is of type 2
c) Automata cannot be constructed
as the grammar definition is
incomplete
d) None of these.

Q.141 Determine the left and right context b)

in a production AC  A of a type1
grammar.
a) A, A
b) A, A
c) Both a) and b) above
d) None of these.
Q.142 In the type 1production
 A   
a)   A
b) erasing of A is not permitted c) Both a) and b) above
c) Both a) and b) above d) None of these.
d) None of these.
Q.147 Determine the yield of the
Q.143 Is the grammar S⟶ε. aSb⟶aabb,
derivation tree for the grammar
S⟶(S) of type 1?
a) Yes b) No S  aAS a, A  SbA SS ba
c) Can’t be known d) None of these.
Q.144 Which of the following is a
monotonic grammar?
a) aSb  aAb,bAc  bc
b) aSb  aAb|Λ, A⟶S, bAc⟶bcc
c) Both a) and b) above
d) None of these.
Q.145 Find the highest type number which
a) 2a2b2a
can be applied to the grammar
b) aabaa
S  ASB d, A  aA c)Both a) and b) above
a) 0 b) 1 d)None of these.
c) 2 d) None of
Q.148 Determine the derivation tree of the
these.
string abab for the grammar
S  aSb bSa SS  .
Q.146 Find the parse tree of  id  id  *id
for thee grammar
E  E  E E*E  E  id.
a)

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 a) C  0B 1D 0, D  0D 1D
Will correspond to a dead state in
the automata of the grammar?
a) A b) B
c) C d) None of
these.

Q.153 Find the corresponding left-linear

b) grammar of the right-linear
grammar
S  0A, A  10A .
a) S  S10  b) S  10 S 
c) S  01 S 0 d) None of
these.
Q.154 Construct the left-linear grammar
for the automata
c) Both a) and b) above
d) None of these.

Q.149 Is the grammar S  S S, Sa

ambiguous?
a) Yes b) No
c) Can’t b known d) None of
these. a) S  Aaa Abb,A  Aa Ab a b
Q.150 Find the sentential form of the b) C  Ba Db, B  Aa a, D  Ab b,
grammar A  Aa Ab a b
S  aAS a, A  SbA SS ba.
c) Both a) and b) above
a) aabAS d) None of these.
b) aabbaS Q.155 Construct the language generated by
c) Both a) and b)above the left – linear grammar
d) None of these. S  Abbb | Sb,A  Aa | aa
a) L{a n bm : n  2, m  3}
Q.151 Construct the right-linear grammar
from the following automata b) L{a n bm : n  2, m  3}
c) Both (A ) and b) above
d) None of these
Q.156 Let a grammar G be S→aSb|Λ. Find
a) S  aA, A  baA  L(G).
b) s  S10 0  a) {a b : n  0}
n n

c) Both a) and b) above b) {0n1n : n  0}

d) None of these. c) Both (A ) and b) above
d) None of these
Q.152 Which variable of the grammar
A  0B 1D 0, B  0D 1C

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 Q.157 The L(G){a n ba n } for G given b c) Both a) and b) above
S  aAa, A  aAa | b. Find the d) None of these
condition on n.
Q.164 Given a grammar G with
a) n >0
productions S  aaB,A  bBb | Aa
b) n ≥ 1
c) Both a) and b) above then
d) None of these a) aabbabba ∉ L(G)
b) aabbabab ∈ L(G)
Q.158 True or False L(G) = Φ c) aabbabbb ∈L(G)
a) True b) False d) None of these
c) Can’t be known d) None of these
Q.165 True or False: A regular grammar
Q.159 Construct the grammar generating can be ambiguous
a) True b) False
L{xax r : w {0.1}*} Where x r is
c) Can’t be know d) None of these
reverse of string x
a) A  0A0|1A1| 0 Q.166 Which variable does not drive a
b) A  0A0|1A1|1 terminal string in the grammar
c) A  0A0|1A1| a S  AB,A  a,B  b,B  C,E  C
d) None of these a)A b) B
c) S d) None of these
Q.160 Construct the grammar of
palindromes of odd length Q.167 Modify the grammar S  AB,
generated over {0,1}. A  a, B  b, E  C such that
a) A  | a | b | aAa | bAb *

b) A  a | b | aAa | bAb x  V  T,  T* and S

c) A  | aAa | bAb a) S  AB,A  a,B  bc
d) None of these b) S  AB,A  a,B  b
c) Both a) and b) above
Q.161 A regular language is also d) None of these
a) a CFL b) a CSL
c) Both a) and b) d) None of these Q.168 Determine the dependency graph of
the reduced grammar for
Q.162 Given the CFG equivalent to the
S  aS| A| C,A  a,B  aa,C  aCb
regular expression (011+1)*(01)*
S  BC, B  AB| , A  011 a)
a)
C  DC | , D  01
B  AB| , A  011|1,
b) b)
D  DC | , D  01
S  BC, B  AB| ,
c)
A  011|1,C  DC |  c) Both a) and b) above
d) None of these d) None of these

Q.163 Find the grammar for {abc,bca,cab} Q.169 Find the grammar with non-null
Whose terminals are in {a,b,c} productions from the grammar
a) S  acb | bac | cba S  aAb,A  aAb | 
b) S  aS| bS| cS|  a) S  aAb | ab,A  aAb

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 b) S  ab,A  aAb | ab Q.174 How many minimum new variables
c) S  ab,A  aAb will be added to convert the
d) None of these S  ab,A  aAb grammar S  ABa,A  aab,B  Ac
into CNF.
Q.170 Determine the nullable variable in a) 1 b) 2
the grammar given by c) 3 d) None of these
S  ABaC,A  BC,B  b| ,C  D| ,D  d
Q.175 Convert the grammar
a) A b) B
c) Both a) and b) d) None of these S  ABa,A  aab,B  Ac into CNF:
Q.171 Find the equivalent grammar of S  AB, B  CD, A  DF, D  a,
a)
S  Aa | B,B  A| bb,A  a | bc | B F  DE, E  b,C  AG,G  c
free from unit – productions. S  AB, B  CD, A  DF, D  a,
S  a | bc | bb | Aa, A  a | bb | bc, b)
a) F  DE, E  b,C  A
B  a | bb | bc c) Both (A ) and b) above
S  a | bc | bb |, A  a | bb | bc, d) None of these
b)
B  a | bb | bc
c)Unit-free productions can’t obtained Q.176 Which of the following productions
d) None of these are not in Greibach Normal Form?
a) A  AAa b) A  aAaA
Q.172 Which of the following productions c) Both a) and b) d) None of these
are in Chomsky Normal From?
a) A→a|b b) S → AB|c
c) Both a) and b) d) None of these

Q.173 Find the CNF of the grammar

S  AB,B  C,B  b,C 
a) S  AB,B  b,C 
b) S  AB,B  C,C 
c) S  A| b
d ) None of these

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
(c) (d) (a) (b) (a) (c) (d) (B) (a) (a) (c) (a) (a) (a) (b)
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
(c) (c) (a) (a) (a) (d) (d) (d) (c) (a) (c) (a) (b) (d) (a)
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
(c) (a) (b) (c) (c) (c) (a) (b) (c) (a) (c) (a) (b) (d) (a)
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
(a) (c) (d) (d) (a) (b) (a) (a) (a) (b) (d) (a) (a) (c) (b)
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75
(b) (c) (d) (a) (c) (a) (b) (c) (c) (b) (a) (d) (d) (c) (c)
76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
(b) (d) (d) (c) (c) (a) (d) (d) (d) (d) (a) (d) (d) (d) (b)
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105
(c) (a) (a) (c) (d) (b) (b) (a) (b) (c) (d) (b) (c) (d) (a)
106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
(d) (b) (a) (d) (a) (a) (a) (a) (d) (d) (c) (c) (d) (a) (b)
121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135
(d) (d) (c) (c) (d) (d) (d) (c) (c) (b) (c) (d) (d) (c) (d)
136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150
(d) (b) (b) (c) (d) (d) (c) (b) (d) (c) (d) (d) (c) (a) (c)
151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165
(a) (d) (d) (c) (a) (d) (c) (a) (c) (b) (c) (d) (d) (a) (a)
166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176
(d) (b) (b) (b) (c) (c) (c) (d) (c) (a) (c)

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 EXPLANATIONS

Q.6 (c) transition from any state to itself.

DFSM is a special case of NDFSM. So, the only string that could be
Corresponding to any given accepted is Ɛ.
NDFSM, one can construct an
equivalent DFSM. Corresponding Q.22 (d)
to any given DFSM, one can In the second diagram, the final
construct an equivalent NDFSM. So state is unreachable from the state.
they are equally powerful. So not even Ɛ could be accepted.

Q.9 (a, b, c) Q.24 (c)

Strings of odd number of zeroes Let 011011 be the input to the FSM
can be generated by the regular and let it be fed from the right (i.g.,
expression Least significant digit first). If we
(0 0)*0. Pumping lemma can be add 1 to 011011 we should get
used to prove the non-regularity of 011100. But did we obtain it?
the other Whenever we add 1 to an 1, we
make it 0 and carry 1 to the next
Q.10 (a) stage (state) and repeat the
Two regular expression R1 and R2 process. If we add 1 to a 0, then
are equivalent if any string that can first make it 1 and all the more
be generated by R1 can be significant digits will remain the
generated by R2 and vice-versa. In same, i.g., a 0 will be 0 and an 1 will
(c), (ab)* will generate abab, which be 1.
is not of the form a nbn (because a’s That’s what the given machine
and b’s should come together). All does. Hence the answer is (c).
other s are correct (check it out)
Q.26 (c)
Q.12 (a) Here the initial and the final state
Pigeon-hole principle is that if ‘n’ are one and same. If you carefully
balls are put in ‘m’ boxes, then at examine the transition diagram, to
least one box will have more than move right you have to consume a
one ball if n>m. Though this is ‘b’, to move left a ‘b’, to
obvious, still powerful. go up an ‘a’ and to go down an ‘a’.
Whenever we move right, we have
Q.13 (a) to move left at some stage or the
That’s why it can’t recognize other, to get back to the initial-
strings of equal number of a’s and cum-final state. This implies, a ‘b’
b’s, well-formed ness of nested essentially has an associated
parenthesis etc. another ‘b’. Same is the case with
‘a’ (since any up (down) has a
Q.17 (c) corresponding down (up)). So
Here the final state and start state even number of a’s and b’s have to
are one and the same. No be present.
transition is there. But by
definition, there is an (implicit) Ɛ-

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 Q.29 (d) disproved by the following
S is the start state. X→a, Y→a are counter-example. Let the universal
the only production that could set be (a, b, c, d}. Let A = {{a},
terminate a string derivable from X {d}, {a, d}, {b, d}, {a, b, d}, {}}. A is
and Y respectively. So at least two closed under union and
a’s have to come anyway. Hence intersection but is not closed
the answer is (d). under complementation. For
example complement of {a, d} is {b,
Q.30 (a) c}, which is not a member of A.
We have S→aB → aaBB → aabB →
aabb. Q. 66 (a)
So (b) is wrong. II generates strings like XXYYY,
A careful observation of the which are not supposed to be III
productions will reveal a generates strings like XYY, which
similarity. Change A to B, B to A, a are not supposed to be. I can be
to b and b to a. The new set of verified to generate all the strings
productions will be the same as the in L and only those.
original set. So (d) is false
and (a) is the correct answer. Q. 67 (b)
Draw the transition diagram and
Q.32 (a) verify that the using 1 0 from A,
(b) is wrong because it can’t leads to C.
generate aabb (in fact any even
power). (c) is wrong since it Q. 68 (c)
generates Ɛ also. Both (a) and (d) L is the set of all possible strings
are correct made up of 0’s and 1’s (including
the null string).
Q.34 (c) So L R is L, which can be
(c) generates the set {a nbn,n = 1, 2,
generated by the regular
3,….} which is not regular. (a) and expression (a + b)*, and hence a
(b) being left linear and right linear
regular language. R is not a regular
respectively. Should have
expression. This can be proved by
equivalent regular expressions.
using Pumping Lemma or simply
by the fact that finite state
Q.60 (b) automata, that recognizes regular
Totally there are mn bits. Each bit
expressions, has no memory to
will be in one of the two possible
record the number of 0’s or 1’s it
states- 1 or 0. So the entire has scanned. Without this
memory made up of mn bits will be information 0n1n cannot be
in one of the possible 2 mn states.
recognized.
Q.62 (c) Q. 69 (c)
For example, p = a*; Q = a nbnb*; R = In general, a language (or
PQ = a*b*
equivalently the machine that
recognize it) cannot be converted
Q. 64 (a) to another language that us less
The first two positions can be powerful
proved to be correct using De
Morgan’s laws. (c) can be

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 Q. 70 (b) Q.80 (c)
FSM is basically a language Follows from the definitions of
acceptor. As such, it does not have regular expressions.
any output capability. So it cannot Q.81 (a)
add and output the result. The correct identity is
(R+S)*=(R*+S*)*.
Q. 71 (a)
This can be proved using induction Q.82 (d)
An important assumption in the
Q.72 (d) method is non-existence of e
The regular expression must moves.
contain only members of input
alphabet set and predefined Q.83 (d)
operators. A term on the right hand side of
the equation should have a state
Q.73 (d) followed by a input alphabet.
The expression represents the set
{ab, bb, ac, bc}. Q.84 (d)
The sub expression are a and
Q.74 (c) a(ab)*.
Follows from definition.
Q.85 (d)
Q.75 (c) None of the states are equivalent,
The members of input alphabets so their corresponding r.e.'s
set can be anything, even the cannot be same.
symbol ∑ itself.
Q.86 (a)
Q.76 (b) On solving the equations A = Aa +
Language L contains the strings Bb + A, B = Aa + Bb + Ca and C = Ba
having any number of pairs of a's using Arden's theorem, the
followed by at least one but odd expression will be obtained.
number of b's.
Q.87 (d)
Q.77 (d) The strings of any number of 0's
The set of all strings of the xy, (possibly A) followed by string of
where 0's are in pairs in x and l's any number of l's (possibly A).
are in pairs in y.
Q.88 (d)
Q.78 (d) The automata is :
The regular expression is
(0+2)*+(0 +2)* 1(0+2)*.

Q.79 (c)
The (b) when expanded will result Q.89 (d)
in (a), and the strings are of length Here either of the two can be
exactly two. removed.

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 Q.90 (b) the string in corresponding Mealy
The moves should be removed Machine for the same input string.
first, which does not have ε-moves
from the destination state. Q.98 (a)
Every time we reach to state A
Q.91 (c) even number of total I's are
As (b) above is obtained from (a) encountered and for state B they
by the removal of ε-moves. must be odd.

Q.92 (a) Q.99 (b)

Solve the equation A = Aa + Ca + A, The odd 1 in the input string will
B =Ab+Bb+Cb and C=Ba using take us to state B and even 1
Arden's theorem. back to state A, as they result in
residue 1 and 0 respectively.
Q.93 (a)
We may consume any number of Q.100 (c)
a's and b's after that a pair of A state q can be designated as
either a's or b's must occur, so as accepting/rejecting state
to reach the final =state. iff λ(q)=0/1.

Q.94 (c) Q.101 (d)

If we have m-output, n-state Mealy Either two consecutive 1's or two
machine, the corresponding in- consecutive 0's must occur.
output Moore machine has no
more than in n+1 states. Here Q.102 (b)
stages B and D need not be In a finite automata with n states,
splitted. the states must be joined by least n
- 1 arcs. Whenever nth input
Q.95 (d) alphabet is encountered, any one
The corresponding Mealy machine state will be revisited, and is true
is : for all the following input
alphabets. This also holds if the
number of arcs are increased.

Q.103 (c)
In fact (a) and (b) above are a *b
and a+ b respectively, which are
obviously regular.

Q.104 (d)
Q.96 (b) The automata corresponding to a
Because we split the states which regular expression could not
remember anything.
correspond to different outputs in
this conversion.
Q.105 (a)
The language in (a) above contains
Q.97. (b)
all strings over { a, b }
The length of output string in
Moore Machine is one more than

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 Q.106 (d) Q.117 (c)
The language is not regular and no Here h drops the 1's, since they are
automata can be designed for such replaced by ε, and turns each 0 into
languages. ab.

Q.107 (b) Q.118 (d)

For (b) above L' = ϕ, which is The language is given by the
regular. regular expression (0 + 1) (0 + 1)*.

Q.108 (a) Q.119 (a)

For n≥ 1, we can write 0 2n as 0 (02)i Since every y in L 2 has two 1's and
0, where i ≥0, hence the language is every string xy is in L 1 can have
{(02)i : i ≥0}, which is clearly only one 1, there is no x such that
regular. xy is in L 1 and y is in L 2.

Q.109 (d) Q.120 (b)

Use pumping lemma to prove the As|ε|= 0 and ε.ε = ε.
set to be non regular.
Q.121 (d)
Q.110 (a) L/ a = { ε, ba}
In the automata for L, add ε-moves
from δ(A, ai) to δ (B, ai +1), where Q.122 (d)
i=1 (2) m, m is a natural a/L = {E, ab}.
number.
Q.123 (c)
Q.111 (a) Follows from the definition of
As the set of strings containing quotient languages.
two zeros regular and its
complement set is a regular set. Q.124 (c)
Let L={a,aab,&la}, then
Q.112 (a) (L/a)(a)={ε,a,ba.a)≠L. We could
Union of regular sets is regular. have taken L={a,baa} as other
Hence L1 ∪ L2 ((a + b)*) is regular.
cases.
Q.113 (a) Q.125 (d)
Here L 1 ∩ L2 (ϕ), and is regular. The fact is odd-length strings of L
do not contribute to half (L).
Q.114 (d)
The language is L' (b (a + b)*) Q.126 (d)
The number of states must be
Q.115 (d)
greater than 10.
L1 ∩ L2 (ϕ)
Q.127 (d)
Q.116 (c)
The relation is an equivalence
a* (a + b*) (b*)* relation.
= a* a(b*)*+a* b*(b*)*
= a* ab*+aT b* b* Q.128 (c)
= a*ab* + a*b* = a*b*
The relation RL is independent of
the choice of z for this L.

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 Q.129 (c) Q.140 (d)
The index will always be equal to Set of terminals contains only one
number of states in the automata. element denoted by 'a+'. The
corresponding automata is
Q.130 (b)
Every finite automata induces such
right invariant relation.

Q.131 (c)
All productions contain a variable
on the left hand side and one or Q.141 (d)
more variables or terminals on For a production ϕ A ψ → ϕ α ψ,
the right hand side. left and right contexts are ϕ and ψ
respectively. Hence here ϕ=A, ψ=A
Q.132 (d) and α = A.
For the grammar |β|≤|α|
Q.142 (c)
Q.133 (d) Follows from the Chomsky
The language is L (x* yy*z). Classifications.

Q.134 (c) Q.143 (b)

The automata in (b) above is In type 1 grammars the production
obtained from automata in (a) S→A can be included provided S
above by removing ε-move. does not appear on right hand side
of any of the production of the
Q.135 (d) grammar.
The definition of the grammar is
not complete. Q.144 (d)
For the grammars all productions
Q.136 (d) are of the form α → β with |α|≤|β|
The grammar of type 2, and for or S → A, in the second case S does
such grammars automata does not appear on the right-hand side
not exist. of any production of the grammar.
Q.145 (c)
Q.137 (b)
S→ASB is type 2, S→d, A→aA are
We can introduce infinite number
type. Therefore, the highest type
of pairs of braces in the strings of number is 2.
the language by the first
production, hence the language Q.146 (d)
is infinite. The parse tree is:

Q.138 (d)
Braces can be introduced only in
the beginning and the end.

Q.139 (c)
Braces are optional, and the
production of A, B, C introduces at
one a each.

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 Q.151 (a)
Grammar in (a) is obtained from
the automata directly and the
variables have been renamed.

Q.152 (d)
The corresponding automata is
shown below and the dead state is D:

Q.147 (d)
The yield is aabbaa and is obtained
by the taking leaf nodes from left
to right of the derivation tree. Q.153 (d)
The corresponding left linear
Q.148 (c) grammar is S →S10|0.
Both the trees has the same yield
abab. Q.154 (c)
The grammar is (b) above is
Q.149 (a) directly obtained from the
The string abababa has two automata and in (a) it is further
derivation trees as shown below: simplified.
Q.155 (a)
As production S→Abbb
introduces at least three b's and
production A→4 aa introduces at
least two a's in the derived strings.

Q.156 (d)
The L (G) = {anbn: n ≥0} , as the
production S →A is present.

Q.157 (c)
After the first production if we
apply A→b, we get aba, otherwise
equal number of a's are added on
both side of b.

Q.158 (a)
Consider the grammar S→SS
Q.150 (c)
having no terminal on the right
The sentential forms are obtained
hand side, which will generate
in the derivation of the string
language ϕ.
aabbaa.

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 Q.159 (c) Q.168 (b)
The strings in L are such that nth The corresponding reduced
symbol from the start and end are grammar is S →aS| A, A →a.
same.
Q.169 (b)
Q.160 (b) The productions are obtained by
In a palindrome nth symbol from substituting for A wherever it
either end is same, and in the end occurs on the right hand side.
of the derivation the variable must
be replaced by a terminal, to get Q.170 (c)
the palindrome of odd length. The nullable variables in the
grammar are B and C as we have
Q.161 (c) productions B→A, C→A which
Let ℒ0, ℒcsl, ℒefl and ℒ rl denote the further makes A as nullable as we
family of type 0 languages, context have another production A -3 BC.
sensitive languages, context free
languages and regular languages, Q.171 (c)
then ℒ0 ⊇ ℒcsl ⊇ ℒefl ⊇ ℒrl For each unit production A B add
Q.162 (d) production A→y1|y2|....|yn to the
The grammar is S→BC, B→AB|ε, new grammar, where
A→011|1, C→DC|ε, D → 01. B→y1|y2|….|yn are the all
productions with B on the left.
Q.163 (d)
The grammar will have the Q.172 (c)
productions S→AB|bcC|CaD, A→a, The productions are in CNF if they
B→bc, C→a, D→b. are of the form A→BC or A →a.

Q.164 (a) Q.173 (d)

The grammar cannot generated Only a reduced CFG without λ and
strings having aa followed by bb in unit productions can be converted
the beginning. to CNF.

Q.165 (a) Q.174 (c)

Let the grammar be S→aA|aB, A→a, The new variable added will be
B→b, then for the string aa we one each for a terminal and we
have two derivation trees. have three terminals.

Q.166 (d) Q.175 (a)

The variables are C and E as C does Follows from the CNF construction.
not have a occur on left hand side
of any production and also we Q.176 (c)
cannot have E in any sentential All productions in GNF are of the
form. form A→a α, where a ∈ T and a is ϕ
or ∈ V*.
Q.167 (b)
The symbol E & c does not occur in
any sentential form.

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