LANGUAGE,

CULTURE
and SOCIETY
Plurality of language
Plurality of English
Lesson objectives:
• Compare and contrast the two common approaches in defining
language universals,
• Differentiate Standard English from World Englishes and highlight their
importance, and
• Identify the concentric circles according to Kachru
 Do you believe there will be
similarity among all languages even
though there are almost 6,000 that
exist around the world?
There is an underlying unity among language as
there are specific features that are common to all
human languages in the world-this are the
language universal.
Noam Chomsky
• Every human being has the language ability that is already innate so that
we can acquire the large amount of knowledge by hearing just a part of it
without enough experiences; there has to be some genetic determinacy/
biological properties that makes the phenomenon possible.
Noam Chomsky
• Every human being has the language ability that is already
innate so that we can acquire the large amount of knowledge by
hearing just a part of it without enough experiences; there has
to be some genetic determinacy/ biological properties that makes
the phenomenon possible.
Noam Chomsky
• Every human being has the language ability that is already innate so
that we can acquire the large amount of knowledge by hearing just a
part of it without enough experiences; there has to be some genetic
determinacy/ biological properties that makes the phenomenon
possible.
• Deals with deep structure and patterns of the language in the brain
(abstract)
Noam Chomsky
• Every human being has the language ability that is already innate so that we can
acquire the large amount of knowledge by hearing just a part of it without enough
experiences; there has to be some genetic determinacy/ biological properties that
makes the phenomenon possible.
• Deals with deep structure and patterns of the language in the brain (abstract)
• His study showed that human are born with the linguistic units in their brains to
have a language and these linguistic units are the language universals.
Joseph greenberg
• Language universals are the general principles or rules that govern all the spoken languages
around the world. It stales what is possible in human language and what is not.
• Deals with data collected from worldwide languages (concrete)
• From his analysis of world languages, he has found out some commonality – in declarative
sentences with normal subject and object, the dominant order is almost always one in which
the subject precedes the object.
• e.g.when a yes-no question is differentiated from the corresponding assertion by an
intonational patterns, the distinctive intonational features of each of these patterns are
reckoned from the end of the sentences rather than from the beginning.
World English vs. World Englishes
World Englishes refers to the
World English is the varieties of English from the
language used in different regions of the world. It is a
business, trade and term referring to the emerging
Englishes which are products of
diplomacy and other influences by the United Kingdom or
international activities. the United States.

Globalization is considered an important factor in the spread of English

(Schneider, 2011). Additionally, Quirk (1988, cited in Kachru 1990) states
that because of the demographical, economic, cultural, and imperia factor,
language spreads.
Nativization Continuum of World Englishes (NCWEs)
Native
Diffusion Induction Customization
Recognition
English is spread English is officially L1 and other local People start to use
languages start to
as a result of accepted as a English
reshape English slowly
colonization or by language used for by giving it a local touch. unconsciously
any other means. education, trade, Indigenous words form without associating
communication, and and structure get with its parent
incorporated into English.
so on. varieties.
STANDARD ENGLISH
• both an actual variety of language and an
idealized norm of English
• acceptable in many social situations.
• used in public discourse like media, legal
profession, or any social institutions.
WORLD ENGLISHES
• The differences in the English language that
emerge as it is used in various contexts across the
world
• It varies on different sociolinguistic contexts,
analyzing the history, background, function, and
influence.
• Philippine English, South African English,
Spanglish.
STANDARD ENGLISH
American English British English
first floor ground floor
Center Centre
Color Colour

There is no such thing (at present) as a Standard English which is not British or
American or Australian, etc. There is no International Standard (yet), in the
sense that publishers cannot currently aim at a standard which is not locally
bound." -(Gunnel Melchers and Philip Shaw, World Englishes An Introduction
Arnold, 2003)
WORLD ENGLISH
• English lacks any official body setting and prescribing the
norms of the language.
• a useful shorthand for classifying contexts of English
worldwide
• World English has been defined as a phase in the history of
the English language. This phase has witnessed the
transformation of English from the mother tongue of a
handful of nations to a language being used by far more
speakers in non-mother tongue settings.
Which do you think is better?
Establishing Standard English
or accepting World Englishes?
Kachru (1985) Concentric Circle

1. Inner Circle (ENL)

The Inner Circle Englishes in the model refer to the
parent countries of English. These countries are the
colonizing nations in our history. Through colonization,
they have spread English to the other regions of the
world. For example, Britain carried the language to
Australia, New Zealand, and North America.
2. Outer Circle (ESL)

The Outer Circle belongs to the territories

colonized by the parent countries of English. English in
this circle, is considered to be a second nonnative
language and is used for functions like education, law,
and government transactions.
3. Expanding Circle (EFL)

The Expanding Circle considers English as a

foreign language. This encompasses countries
where English has no historical or governmental
roles. Nevertheless, English is still used for very
limited transactions and mostly for international
communications only.
The Power of English
Kachru (1986) establishes the authority of the English
language by looking into its ‘range’ and ‘depth’.
❑ Range of English refers to the totality of functions which it has
acquired as it spreads around the globe.
❑ Depth of English refers to the amount of societal penetration it
has achieved.

Note: Although difficult to assess, depth can be gleaned through the pluricentricity of English and
the development of varieties within an educated variety in the Outer Circle.
The Power of English
Kachru’s useful parameters of the power of the language.
✓ Demographical and numerical: unprecedented spread across cultures and languages; on
practically even continent
✓ Functional: provides access to the most important scientific, technological and cross -cultural
domains of knowledge and interaction
✓ Attitudinal: symbolizes-certainly to a large group across cultures – one or more of the
following: neutrality, liberalism, status and progressivism
✓ Accessibility: provides international mobility across regions
✓ Pluricentricity: resulted in the nativization and acculturation of the language. These two are,
then, responsible for the ‘assimilation’ of English across cultures.
✓ Material: a tool for mobility, economic gains, and social status.
Kachru’s
Concentric
Circles
 Philippine English
Philippine English is one of the very few
American-transplanted Englishes. It is a variety of
English used by around 42 million or 70% of the
population. The Filipinos were able to adapt and
learn English after being colonized by the
Americans (Gonzalez, 1996).
Unique Characteristics
• In spoken English, the consonants f and p are often
interchanged. Same for b and v.
• long and short vowels are often not differentiated
• Colloquial Filipino English:
a. Nosebleed
b. Traffic
c. "As in!"
 Multilingualism
❖ Maximal Multilingual
These are speakers who are equally proficient in two or more
languages.
❖Minimal Multilingual
These are speakers who can successfully cut across their
message even if they are not fluent in the second or third
language. For example, the tourists. They can communicate
and make themselves be understood although some of them
are not very proficient in the language.
Causes of Multilingualism
✓ Globalization and cultural exchanges
✓ Colonialism
✓ Migration of people
✓ Intermarriages
Non-Human Communication
❑Animals communicate differently to the others
by the use of their body parts or by making
sounds.
❑Their manner of communication affects the
behavior of the receiver and the sender of the
information or message.
❑Above all the animal researches conducted, the
ones on apes are the most extensively done.
Fun Facts: (Let’s Do it!)
❖ Deathwatch beetle taps its head against the wood to signal each other.
❖ Red squirrels warn intruders by making a series of loud rattles and
screeches.
❖ Each bottlenose dolphin has a unique whistling sound that can be used
to identify itself.
❖ Peacocks maneuver their tails during courting ritual.
❖ Male whales communicate with the females using songs.
❖ Wolves call each other wolves by howling.
❖ Elephants talk using their trunks.
▪ The Lana Project
A female chimpanzee, named Lana was trained to manipulate a
keyboard. The research was done in the 1970’s and the aim was to
train her on the language system, which is computer-based. The
team introduced her to a Lexi gram and she was able to distinguish
many terms and symbols.
Those who worked with Lana consider her an amazing chimp
who has extraordinary skills in communication. She could
communicate to the researchers or lab assistants to do things for her
such as adding food on her plate or request items to be brought to
her. All these she learned through the Lexi gram keyboard designed
by Duane Rumbaugh in Decatur, Georgia. It has three-panels with
400 symbols to select from.
▪ The Washoe Project
The University of Nevada in Reno spearhead the Washoe project experimenting with
chimpanzees on communication. After years of experimentations, they concluded that chimps did
not possess the physical ability to form a spoken language; thus they adhered to body gestures
instead. They decided to teach Washoe ASL or American Sign Language, the same taught to
humans with hearing and speaking impairments.
With the process of repetition, Washoe learned the signs and soon enough she was able to
communicate with the humans using them. For example the word “more”. The researchers began
by teaching her the ASL sign for the word “more” which involves bringing the hands together and
allowing the tips of the fingers to touch. Whenever she does this, the lab assistants would tickle
her as a reward since Washoe finds it amusing. Soon, the researchers needed to make her
understand that doing the gesture, bringing the hands together, does not literally mean tickling; it
mean “more”. So they slowly removed the reward of tickle and making her understand other ways
to relate to the word “more”.
• The Koko Project
The project started with a year old gorilla, Koko. She was
taught sign language, the same as Washoe, however; Koko was also
taught vocal sounds. It was in 1972 when researchers began the
journey with Koko. She was an amazing gorilla with near human
capability. Two weeks from the beginning of their training, she was
able to communicate by making sign for food and water. Her
progress was so fast every month she would learn a new set of signs
and in the span of four years of the project, the researchers recorded
at total of 200 signs. Her ability is amazing; in fact, when she was
tested for comprehension, Koko’s score was high enough to conclude
that there is a high chance for a smooth communication traffic
between humans and gorillas.
 Halliday’s Language Functions
Language is vital in every interaction. People cut across their
purpose of communication through language. These purposes
may include a personal chore or whiling away time indulging in
one’s hobby or sport. It may also be interactions from social
gatherings or pursuing goals for professional and personal
growth.
For Halliday (1978), these functions or purposes are very
important and drive the motivation for children to develop
language. He categorizes these functions or purposes into seven
and the first four help a person to satisfy and address his/her
physical, social and emotional needs.
 Halliday’s
Description Example
Function
Instrumental: - getting things done “I want to drink milk.”
I want - satisfying material needs “Excuse me Mrs. J, can you help me with this
poster?”
Regulatory: - influencing the behavior, feeling, attitudes of others “You must follow all my instructions.”
Do as I tell you - includes the language of rules and instructions “First, gather all the materials you will need.”
Interactional: - getting along with others “Can I please be next after you?”
Me and you - to include or exclude “Do you like pancakes too, Ethan?”
Personal: - expressing individually and personal feelings “I know that movie because I saw that when I
Here I come - making public his/her own individually was 5.”
“I’ve got a pet dog!”
 Halliday’s Description Example
Function
Heuristic: Tell me - seeking and learning “Why do you like that song?”
why - using language to explore his/her environment “Why can’t we live with grandma and grandpa?”
- a way of learning about things
Imaginative: - creating stories, games and new worlds “If we migrate to planet Mars, I will bring my phone
Let’s pretend - linguistic play including poems, rhymes and riddles and charger.”
- not necessarily ‘about’ anything at all “Alice, the camel, has one hump, one hump, one
hump.”
Representational: - communicating information “I made this bracelet to symbolize our friendship.”
I’ve got - conveying a message with specific reference to the “It is raining heavy all day.”
processes, persons, objects, abstractions, qualities,
something to tell
states and relations of the real world around him/her
you
Can you give more examples that
represents Philippine English?
It can be general or specific
words or statements.