ME 231 : Fluid Mechanics: Introduction

Dr. Zubairu Abubakar

zabubakar@ut.edu.sa

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The Course: ME 231

Program Mechanical Engineering

Course Title Fluid Mechanics (theory and practice)
Code/ No ME 231
Credit Hours 3
Level 3rd year: Required
Prerequisite(s) MATH 383-ENG 204
Instructor Email zabubakar@ut.edu.sa
Sundays 11:00 am to 1:00 pm
Office Hours
Wednesdays 12:00 pm – 2:00 pm

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 Assessment Methods: Detailed

• Quizzes and Homework: 20%

• Five (5) Lab reports to be submitted 20%

• Midterm Exam 1: 15% (week 7)

• Midterm Exam 2: 15% (week 11)

• Final Exam: 30% (week 17)

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 Course References

• Fluid Mechanics - Fundamental and applications, Third edition, by Yunus A.

Cengel and John Cimbala, 2014McGraw-HillISBN 978-0-07-338032-2.

• Lecture Notes

Other References:

• Engineering Fluid Mechanics by D.F. Elgar, B.C. Williams, C.T. Crowe, J.A.
Roberson, 11th edition.

• A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics. R. K. Rajput: S. Chand Limited, 2008.

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 ME 231 Course Contents
• Introduction to fluid mechanics and units, properties of fluids, Fluid statics;
Pressure measurements; Buoyancy and stability

• Fluid flow kinematics

• Conservation of mass, energy, and momentum

• Differential form of equations, Stream and potential functions

• Euler's equations, Bernoulli's equation

• Dimensional analysis and similitude.

• Boundary layer Concepts. Pipe flows, Pipe network and water hammer analysis
Note: These are covered in chapters 1-9 of the reference book
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 ME 231 Course Learning Outcomes (CLOs)
• Demonstrate the knowledge of fluid mechanics and units, properties of fluids, Fluid
statics; Pressure measurements and boundary layer Concepts, pipe flows

• Solve static pressure , buoyancy and stability and Fluid flow kinematics problems

• Develop conservation of mass, energy, and momentum, differential form of

equations, stream and potential functions, Euler's equations, Bernoulli's equation.

• Apply conservation of mass, energy, and momentum, differential form of equations,

stream and potential functions, Euler's equations, Bernoulli's equation.

• Analyze fluid flow and water hammer in pipe network.

• Conduct experimentation to measure fluid flow properties in different components

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Course Motivation- Application of Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Mechanics have an
unlimited number of
applications the flow in human
body; water flow in households;
household appliances like ACs,
vacuum cleaners, refrigerators;
airplanes; ships; cars; power
plants; are all impossible to
design and operate without the
knowledge of fluid mechanics

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 Course Motivation- Application of Fluid Mechanics
The heart is constantly pumping blood through the arteries and veins to all parts of the body (5.6 L total
blood circulating through the body 3 times in one minute; blood in our body travels 19,000 km a day!!),
Lungs are the sites of airflow in alternating directions. All artificial hearts, breathing machines, and
dialysis systems are designed using fluid dynamics

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 Fluid Mechanics History
One of the first engineering problems humankind faced as cities were developed was the supply of
water for domestic use and irrigation of crops. Hence fluid mechanics is as old as human civilization.

• Archimedes formulated the buoyancy principle

in first nondestructive test to determine the
gold content of the crown of King Hiero I.
• Newton formulated equation of motion
• Leibniz theorem allows for the transformation
of conservation equations from Lagrangian into
Eulerian forms
• Bernoulli and his associate Leonard Euler built
from Newton’s work, their work defined the
energy and momentum equations.
• Lord Osborne Reynolds developed the
dimensionless number that bears his name
• In parallel Navier and George Stokes completed
the general equation of fluid motion
• German Ludwig Prandtl showed that fluid flows
can be divided into layers
• Taylor helped with statistical study of turbulent
flow using velocity fluctuations.
• Many others also contributed

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 What is a Fluid?
Distinction between a solid and a fluid is made on the basis of the
substance’s ability to resist an applied shear (or tangential) stress that tends
to change its shape.

A solid can resist an applied shear stress by deforming, whereas a fluid

deforms continuously under the influence of a shear stress, no matter how
small. See rubber deformation in the figure.

If this experiment were repeated with a fluid (with two large parallel plates
placed in a large body of water, for example), the fluid layer in contact with
the upper plate would move with the plate continuously at the velocity of
the plate no matter how small the force F. The fluid velocity would decrease
with depth because of friction between fluid layers, reaching zero at the
lower plate (no slip Boundary Condition).

The no-slip condition is responsible for the development of the velocity

profile. The flow region adjacent to the wall in which the viscous effects (and
thus the velocity gradients) are significant is called the boundary layer.

Fluid is a substance in the liquid or gas phase.

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 What is a Fluid?
The differences between solid, liquid, and gases is the results of different intermolecular bonds. Liquids
have strong cohesive forces between the molecules, groups of molecules can move relative to each
other, but the volume remains relatively constant. Hence, liquid takes the shape of their containers.

Gas molecules are widely spaces with very small cohesive force; hence, gas expands until it encounters
the walls of the container and fills the entire available space.

Any practical fluid system consists of a large number of molecules, and the properties of the system naturally depend
on the behavior of these molecules. Macroscopic approach does not require a knowledge of the behavior of individual
molecules and provides a direct and easy way to analyze engineering problems. Microscopic or statistical approach, is
based on the average behavior of large groups of individual molecules.
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 What is Mechanics?

Mechanics is the oldest physical science that deals with both stationary and moving
bodies under the influence of forces. The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies
at rest is called statics, while the branch that deals with bodies in motion is called
dynamics.

Fluid mechanics is defined as the science that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest
(fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with solids or
other fluids at the boundaries.

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 Branches of Fluid Mechanics
The study of the motion of fluids that can be approximated as incompressible (such as liquids, especially
water, and gases at low speeds) is usually referred to as hydrodynamics.

A subcategory of hydrodynamics is hydraulics, which deals with liquid flows in pipes and open channels.

Gas dynamics deals with the flow of fluids that undergo significant density changes, such as the flow of
gases through nozzles at high speeds.

The category aerodynamics deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over bodies such as aircraft,
rockets, and automobiles at high or low speeds.

Some other specialized categories such as meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology deal with naturally
occurring flows

Note: In all of the above categorizations, we study fluid mechanics by studying either the forces on the
fluid at rest (Hydrostatics), the forces that cause the fluid motion (Dynamics) , or the geometry of the
fluid motion without regard to the forces acting or causing it (Kinematics).
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 Classifications of Fluid Flow
There is a wide variety of fluid flow problems encountered in practice, and it is usually convenient
to classify them on the basis of some common characteristics to make it feasible to study them in
groups, some general categories are as follows with bolded ones being simpler to analyze:

• Viscous and Inviscid flow; The internal resistance to flow is quantified by the fluid property
viscosity, inviscid flow have negligible viscosity relative to the flow inertia. Viscosity is caused
by cohesive forces between the molecules in liquids and by molecular collisions in gases.

• Laminar and Turbulent Flow; Some flows are smooth and orderly while others are chaotic. The
highly ordered fluid motion characterized by smooth layers of fluid is called laminar while high
velocity flows characterized by fluctuations are called turbulent flow. Reynold’s number is used
to characterize this flow categories.

• Steady and Unsteady flow; The term steady implies no change of properties with time. The
opposite of steady is unsteady. Uniform flow implies no change of properties with location.

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 Classifications of Fluid Flow
• Compressible and incompressible flow; flow is said to be incompressible if the density
remains nearly constant throughout. Subsonic flows at low Mach numbers (V/c <0.3), air can
be treated as incompressible (velocity less than 100 m/s compared to sound speed of 340 m/s)

• Internal and External flow; The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a plate, a
wire, or a pipe is external flow. The flow in a pipe or duct is internal flow if the fluid is
completely bounded by solid surfaces. Open-channels flow is bounded but with a free surface

• Natural and forced flow; In forced flow, a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe by
external means such as a pump or a fan. In natural flows, fluid motion is due to natural means
such as the buoyancy effect (density variation).

• One-, two-, and three-dimensional flow; A flow field is best characterized by its velocity
distribution, and thus a flow is said to be one-, two-, or three-dimensional if the flow velocity
varies in one, two, or three primary dimensions, respectively

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 Can you identify these classes of Flow?

A plate inserted parallel to

uniform flow creates BL

(a) Instantaneous snapshot of an unsteady

flow, and
(b) long exposure picture of the
same flow.

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Primary Dimensions and Units

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 Derived Dimensions and Units

All physical quantities can be expressed

in terms of these basic dimensions e.g.,
force can be expressed using Newton’s
second law as:
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

Using brackets to denote “the dimension

of,” this is written dimensionally as:

𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑎

𝐿
𝐹=𝑀 2
𝑇
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 Modeling in Engineering

As an engineer, why do you always

solve problems by calculating
variables?

You either want to design and

construct a physical system or you
want to evaluate the performance of
an existing system.

Both of these involves solving

equations that describe that system

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Problem solving Techniques

• Problem Statement

• Draw a Schematic Diagram

• State your Assumptions and Approximations

• Physical Laws describing the problem

• Determine Unknown Properties

• Substitute and solve for unknowns

• Check, verify, and discuss your results

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 ME 231: Chapter 2 : Fluid Properties

Dr. Zubairu Abubakar

zabubakar@ut.edu.sa

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 Properties

Any characteristic of a system is called a property.

Properties can be categorized as intensive

(independent of the mass of the system) or extensive
properties (values depend on the size-or extent-of the
system).

For the purpose of this course, we can also categorize properties as fluid properties
(the properties of the fluid like density and viscosity) or flow properties (the
characteristics of the flow like velocity and flow rate).

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 The Continuum Assumption
The continuum assumption treats a fluid as a continuous, homogeneous matter with no holes
by disregarding the spaces between the individual atoms or molecules that makes up the fluid
(even for gases where the molecules may be widely spaced apart).

The continuum idealization allows us to treat properties as point functions and to assume that
the properties vary continually in space with no jump discontinuities

The continuum idealization is valid as long as the characteristic length of the system (e.g.
diameter) we deal with is large relative to the space between the molecules (mean free path,
MFP). This holds for almost all of the physical flow systems we are interested in.

As an example, the diameter of an oxygen molecule is about 3 x 10-10 m and its mass is 5.3 x
10-26 kg. The MFP of oxygen at 1 atm pressure and 20°C is 6.3 x 10-8 m. Hence, an oxygen
molecule travels, on average, a distance of 6.3 x 10-8 m (about 200 times its diameter) before
it collides with another molecule.
The MFP is so small compared to the size of any real, practical flow!!!!!!!!
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 Fluid Properties
Density is defined as mass per unit volume. That is,
𝒎
Density: 𝝆 = Ѵ (kg/m3)
The reciprocal of density is the specific volume v, which is defined as volume per unit mass. That is,
Ѵ 1
ѵ= =
𝑚 𝜌
Sometimes the density of a substance is given relative to the density of a well-known substance. Then it is called
specific gravity, or relative density, and is defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of
some standard substance at a specified temperature (for liquid; usually water at 4°C, for which 𝜌𝐻2𝑂 =
1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 and for gases we use air density at atmospheric pressure and 20oC 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.205 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ) That is;
𝜌
𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌𝐻2𝑂
The density of a substance, in general, depends on temperature and pressure. The density of most gases is
proportional to pressure and inversely proportional to temperature. Liquids and solids densities, on the other
hand does not change much with pressure but changes with temperature.

The weight per unit volume of a substance is called specific weight or weight density and is expressed as; 𝛶𝑠 =
𝜌𝑔 where g is the gravitational acceleration.

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 Density and Specific Volume

100 g of water are mixed with 150 g of another

fluid (ρ = 790 kg/m3 ). What is the specific
volume of the resulting mixture, assuming that
the volumes are additive and the mixture is
homogeneous?

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 Density and Specific Gravity

100 g of water are mixed with 150 g of another

fluid (ρ = 790 kg/m3 ). What is the specific
gravity of the resulting mixture, assuming that
the volumes are additive and the mixture is
homogeneous?

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 Fluid Properties
The vapor pressure Pv of a pure substance is defined as the pressure exerted by its vapor in phase
equilibrium with its liquid at a given temperature. Pv is a property of the pure substance and turns out to
be identical to the saturation pressure Psat of the liquid (Pv = Psat).

The rate of evaporation from open water bodies such as lakes is controlled by the difference between the
vapor pressure and the partial pressure of H2O in air.

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 Fluid Properties
For example, the vapor pressure of water vapor in air at 20°C is 2.34 kPa (N2 = 78
kpa, O2 = 21 kpa). Therefore, a bucket of water at 20°C left in a room with dry air (1
atm:101.325 kpa) will continue evaporating until one of two things happens:

1. The water evaporates away (there is not enough water to establish phase
equilibrium in the room), or

2. The evaporation stops when the partial pressure of the water vapor in the room
rises to 2.34 kPa at which point phase equilibrium is established
This fact is used for vacuum cooling!!!

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 Vapor pressure and Cavitation
• At lower pressures, liquids vaporizes at lower temperatures. Cavitation occurs as a result of
liquid vaporization in lower pressure (below Pv or Psat) regions of the flow (e.g. accelerated
flow due to sudden pipe contraction or other flow obstructions that reduces pressure), so
that vapor bubbles are generated withing the liquid flow.

• The collapse of those bubbles at regions of higher pressure generates highly destructive,
extremely high-pressure waves called cavitation; which can cause drop in performance
(causing vibrations) and even the erosion of pump impeller blades, pipes or other flow
passages. Cavitation is a limiting factor for maximum possible lift

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 Vapor pressure and Cavitation
Cavitation can be predicted using cavitation index (CI, σ, or KT), which is the ratio of potential to resist
vapor formation to the potential for causing the formation of the vapors.
For an upstream pressure, P1 and downstream pressure, P2,
the Pressure reduction due to flow acceleration;
𝟏
𝑷𝑺 = 𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 = 𝝆(𝒗𝟐𝟐 − 𝒗𝟐𝟏 )
𝟐

Cavitation index, KT
𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝒗
𝑲𝑻 =
𝑷𝑺
The Table gives example for the range of KT values for valves

Flashing is total vaporization of the liquid due to sudden

drop in pressure (sometimes used in water desalination)

To avoid cavitation, gradual decrease in pressure is key (not sudden large drops).
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 Coefficient of Compressibility
We know from experience that the volume (or density) of a fluid changes with a change in
its temperature or pressure. Fluids usually expand as they are heated or depressurized and
contract as they are cooled or pressurized.

Two properties that relate volume changes to the changes in pressure and temperature are;

The coefficient of compressibility (also called the bulk modulus of compressibility or bulk
modulus of elasticity) for fluids, 𝜅, and the coefficient of volume expansion β.
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃
𝜅 = −Ѵ =𝜌 ≅− ≅ (𝑝𝑎)
𝜕Ѵ 𝑇 𝜕𝜌 𝑇 ∆ѴΤѴ ∆𝜌Τ𝜌
A large value of 𝜅 indicates that a large change in pressure is needed to cause a small
fractional change in volume, and thus a fluid with a large 𝜅 is essentially incompressible.

For example, 𝜿 for water at normal atmospheric conditions is 21, 000 atm, which means
that the pressure of water must be raised to 210 atm to compress it 1 percent.

Hence substance compressibility is inversely proportional to 𝜿

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 Water Hammer
Water hammer occurs when a liquid in a piping network encounters an abrupt flow restriction (such as a
closing valve) and is locally compressed (small change in density).

The acoustic waves (amplitude, ∆𝑃 = ρ𝑐𝑣 where 𝑐 = 𝜅Τ𝜌 is the pressure wave speed and 𝑣 is flow
velocity) that are produced strike the pipe surfaces, bends, and valves as they propagate and reflect along
the pipe, causing the pipe to vibrate and produce the familiar sound like the pipe is being hammered.

In addition to the irritating sound, water hammering can

be quite destructive, leading to leaks or even structural
damage.

The effect can be suppressed with a water hammer

arrestor, which is a volumetric chamber containing
either a bellows or piston to absorb the shock. For large
pipes, a vertical tube called a surge tower often is used.
A surge tower has a free air surface at the top.
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 Sound Speed
An important parameter (for compressible flow studies) in the study of
compressible flow is the speed of sound (or the sonic speed), defined as the speed
at which an infinitesimally small pressure wave travels through a medium.
𝑐 = 𝜅Τ𝜌 = 𝑘𝑅𝑇
The speed of sound in air increases with temperature. At typical outside
temperatures, c is about 340 m/s. Therefore, the sound of thunder from a lightning
strike travels about 1 km in 3 seconds. If you see the lightning and then hear the
thunder less than 3 seconds later, you know that the lightning is close, and it is time
to go indoors!

A second important parameter in the analysis of compressible fluid flow is the Mach
number Ma, named after the Austrian physicist Ernst Mach (1838–1916). It is the
ratio of the actual speed of the fluid (or an object in still fluid) to the speed of sound
in the same fluid at the same state:
𝑀𝑎 = 𝑉 Τ𝑐

Fluid flow regimes are often described in terms of the flow Mach number. The flow
is called sonic when Ma = 1, subsonic when Ma < 1, supersonic when Ma > 1,
hypersonic when Ma >> 1
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 Coefficient of Volume Expansion
The density of a fluid, in general, depends more strongly on temperature than it does on
pressure, and the variation of density with temperature is responsible for numerous
natural phenomena such as winds, currents in oceans, rise of plumes in chimneys, the
operation of hot-air balloons, and heat transfer by natural convection.

The coefficient of volume expansion (or volume expansivity), β.

1 𝜕Ѵ 1 𝜕𝜌 ∆ѴΤѴ ∆𝜌Τ𝜌
β= =− ≅ ≅− (1Τ𝐾)
Ѵ 𝜕𝑇 𝑃
𝜌 𝜕𝑇 𝑃
∆𝑇 ∆𝑇

A large value expansion β means a large change in density with temperature, and the
product β∆T represents the fraction of volume change of a fluid that corresponds to a
temperature change of ∆T at constant pressure.

For ideal gases, β𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒈𝒂𝒔 = 𝟏Τ𝑻 where T is the absolute temperature
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 PRESSURE
Absolute pressure is measured relative to absolute vacuum. Most pressure-measuring devices,
however, are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate the difference
between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. This difference is called
the gage pressure. Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressures.

Pgage = Pabs - Patm

Pvac = Patm - Pabs

In thermodynamic relations and tables, absolute pressure is almost always used. In these
notes, the pressure P will denote absolute pressure unless specified otherwise
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 PRESSURE

What is the atmospheric pressure on a planet if the absolute pressure is 100 kPa and the gage
pressure is 10 kPa?

Patm = Pabs – Pgage = 100kPa -10kPa = 90kPa

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 Viscosity
VISCOSITY refers to the internal resistance to flow. High internal resistance to flow means a higher
viscosity such as honey.

The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction is called the drag force,
and the magnitude of this force depends, in part, on viscosity.

Without VISCOSITY, there will not be a velocity gradient and

strain to the flow. A frictionless flow will have no drag!!

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 Viscosity

It can be shown that:

𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝜷
𝝉∝ ∝
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒕
Where dt = da/V from the figure

Note that for differential angle:

𝒅𝒂 𝑽𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒖 Fluids for which the rate of deformation is linearly proportional to the shear
𝒅𝜷 ≅ 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝜷 = = = 𝒅𝒕
𝒍 𝒍 𝒅𝒚 stress are called Newtonian fluids after Sir Isaac Newton, who expressed it
first in 1687
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 Viscosity

Most common fluids like water, oxygen, nitrogen, and glycerin are
Newtonian

e.g. of Bingham plastics are: Chocolate mixtures, paints,

paper pulp, drilling muds, soap, and toothpaste

e.g. of pseudoplastics (shear thinning fluids) are: Greases,

Dynamic viscosity has a unit of kg/m·s, or mayonnaise, and starch suspensions
N·s/m2 (or Pa.s where Pa is the pressure
unit pascal).
A common viscosity unit is poise, which is
equivalent to 0.1 Pa.s (or centipoise, which e.g. of Dilatants (shear thickening fluids) are: Wet beach
is one-hundredth of a poise). sand, starch in water, and water solutions with powder
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 Determination of Viscosity

Viscosity of fluids can be determined with a sliding plate viscometer test. Consider two plates
of area A separated by a fluid with thickness, δ. The bottom plate is fixed, and the top plate is
kept in motion at a constant velocity, V, by a force, F.

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 Determination of Viscosity
A sliding-plate viscometer is used to measure the viscosity of a Newtonian fluid. A force of 25
N is required to keep the top plate moving at a constant velocity of 5 m/s. What is the
viscosity of the fluid?

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 Determination of Viscosity
The shear force acting on a Newtonian fluid layer in-between two parallel plates (or, by
Newton’s third law, the force acting on the plate) is:
𝑑𝑢
𝐹 = 𝜏𝐴 = 𝜇𝐴
𝑑𝑦
where again A is the contact area between the plate and the fluid. Then the force F required to
move the upper at a constant speed of V while the lower plate remains stationary is:
𝑉
𝐹 = 𝜏𝐴 = 𝜇𝐴
𝑙
This relation can alternately be used to calculate μ when the force F is measured. Therefore,
fluid confined in-between two concentric cylinders with the outer cylinder stationary while the
inner one is rotating can be used to measure the viscosity of fluid (a viscometer) in-between
the cylinders. For cylinders of length L and fluid layer with thickness ℓ,

Where torque; 𝑻 = 𝑭𝑹, Tangential velocity 𝑽 = 𝝎𝑹, 𝑨 = 𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑳 and 𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝑵Τ𝟔𝟎 N is the
rpm in revolution per minutes and 𝝎 is angular velocity in radians per second
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Viscosity

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Viscosity

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 Viscosity - Example

A 50-cm x 30-cm x 20-cm block weighing 150 N is to be moved at a constant velocity of 0.80
m/s on an inclined surface with a friction coefficient of 0.27. (a) Determine the force F that
needs to be applied in the horizontal direction. (b) If a 0.40-mm-thick oil film with a dynamic
viscosity of 0.012 Pa.s is applied between the block and inclined surface, determine the
percent reduction in the required force.

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Viscosity - Example

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Viscosity - Examples

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Viscosity

In fluid mechanics and heat transfer, the

ratio of dynamic viscosity to density
appears frequently.

For convenience, this ratio is given the

name kinematic viscosity ν and is
expressed as:
ν = μ/ρ
Two common units of kinematic viscosity
are m2/s and stoke (1 stoke = 1 cm2/s =
0.0001 m2/s).

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 Surface Tension and Capillary Action

It is often observed that a drop of blood forms a hump on a horizontal glass; a drop of
mercury forms a near-perfect sphere and can be rolled just like a steel ball over a
smooth surface; water droplets from rain or dew hang from branches or leaves of
trees.

In these and other observances, liquid droplets behave like small balloons filled with
the liquid, and the surface of the liquid acts like a stretched elastic membrane under
tension.

The pulling force that causes this tension acts parallel to the surface and is due to the
attractive forces between the molecules of the liquid. The magnitude of this force per
unit length is called surface tension or coefficient of surface tension σs and is usually
expressed in the unit N/m (or lbf/ft in English units).

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 Surface Tension and Capillary Action
𝑭
Surface tension 𝝈𝒔 =
𝒃

b is the length of the interface along which

the surface tension acts.

𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒕𝒐 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂

or 𝝈𝒔 =
𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂

Water droplets, soap bubbles, needle floating on water, and filled cup are
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 Surface Tension and Capillary Action
Typical range of values for σs : 0.001 – 0.1 N/m. For water @ 20 °C, σs = 0.073 N/m.

Surface tension:
• It decreases with temperature.
• Strongly affected by impurities. e.g. Adding soap to water

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 Surface Tension Measurement
Wire frame Apparatus: Surface tension is determined by measuring the force
necessary to keep the sliding side stationary against the surface tension pull of the
film. Since the film has two surfaces (i.e two surface tensions), the surface tension is:

𝑭
𝝈=
𝟐𝑳

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 Surface Tension

The film width in a surface tension experiment is 10 cm. If mercury is the fluid (surface
tension = 0.52 N/m), what is the maximum force that can be applied without breaking the
membrane? Neglect gravitational force.

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 Surface Tension Measurement
Du Nouy Ring Apparatus: Alternatively, surface tension can also be measured by
measuring the force required to a Du Nuoy wire ring out of the liquid as shown in the
figure. Because the ring's inner and outer sides are in contact with the liquid, the
wetted perimeter is twice the circumference, the surface tension is:

𝑭
𝝈=
𝟒𝝅𝒓

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 Surface Tension and Capillary Action
Another interesting consequence of surface tension is the capillary effect, which is the
rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted into the liquid. Such narrow
tubes or confined flow channels are called capillaries. The curved free surface
of a liquid in a capillary tube is called the meniscus.

Liquid is said to wet the surface when ϕ < 90° and not to wet the surface when ϕ > 90°

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Surface Tension and Capillary Action

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Surface Tension and Capillary Action

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University of Tabuk, Mechanical Engineering Department
 Surface Tension and Capillary Action
To derive an equation for capillary rise,
define a system comprised of the water
inside the capillary tube. Then, draw a free
body diagram (FBD). As shown, the pull of
surface tension lifts the column of water.

Applying force equilibrium gives:

Weight of the liquid column = vertical
component of surface tension force

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Surface Tension and Capillary Action

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University of Tabuk, Mechanical Engineering Department
Surface Tension and Capillary Action

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University of Tabuk, Mechanical Engineering Department
 Surface Tension and Capillary Action
Notes:
• The capillary rise is inversely proportional to the radius of the tube. Therefore, the thinner the tube is,
the greater the rise (or fall) of the liquid in the tube.

• In practice, the capillary effect for water is negligible in tubes whose diameter is greater than 1cm.

• When pressure measurements are made using manometers and barometers, it is important to use
sufficiently large tubes to minimize the capillary effect.

• The capillary rise is also inversely proportional to the density of the liquid, as expected. Therefore, in
general, lighter liquids experience greater capillary rises.

• In atmospheric air, the contact angle of water (and most other organic liquids) with glass is nearly zero.
The contact angle is 130° for mercury–glass and 26° for kerosene–glass in air. The contact angle, in
general, is different in different environments.

• Keep in mind that the equation for column rise (h) is derived for constant-diameter tubes and should
not be used for tubes of variable cross section
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Summary – Fluid Properties

Fluid Properties

Density or
Specific Vapor Modulus of Volume Surface
Specific Viscosity
Weight Pressure elasticity Expansivity Tension
Gravity

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Summary - Forces

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University of Tabuk, Mechanical Engineering Department
 Exercises

2-81- A thin 30-cm x 30-cm flat plate is pulled at 3 m/s horizontally through a 3.6-mm-thick oil
layer sandwiched between two plates, one stationary and the other moving at a constant velocity
of 0.3 m/s, as shown in Fig. P2–81. The dynamic viscosity of the oil is 0.027 Pa.s. Assuming the
velocity in each oil layer to vary linearly, (a) plot the velocity profile and find the location where
the oil velocity is zero and (b) determine the force that needs to be applied on the plate to
maintain this motion.

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Exercises

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University of Tabuk, Mechanical Engineering Department
 Exercises

2-87- For flow over a plate, the variation of velocity with vertical distance y from the plate is given
as u(y) = ay - by2 where a and b are constants. Obtain a relation for the wall shear stress in terms of
a, b, and µ.

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 Exercises

2-94-A thin plate moves between two parallel, horizontal, stationary flat surfaces at a constant
velocity of 5 m/s. The two stationary surfaces are spaced 4 cm apart, and the medium between
them is filled with oil whose viscosity is 0.9 N.s/m2. The part of the plate immersed in oil at any
given time is 2-m long and 0.5-m wide. If the plate moves through the mid-plane between the
surfaces, determine the force required to maintain this motion. What would your response be if the
plate was 1 cm from the bottom surface (h2) and 3 cm from the top surface (h1)?

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Exercises

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University of Tabuk, Mechanical Engineering Department
 Exercises

2–103- A 1.2-mm-diameter tube is inserted into an unknown liquid whose density is 960 kg/m3,
and it is observed that the liquid rises 5 mm in the tube, making a contact angle of 15°.
Determine the surface tension of the liquid.

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 Exercises

2-109- Contrary to what you might

expect, a solid steel ball can float on
water due to the surface tension
effect. Determine the maximum
diameter of a steel ball that would
float on water at 20°C. What would
your answer be for an aluminum ball?
Take the densities of steel and
aluminum balls to be 7800 kg/m3 and
2700 kg/m3, respectively

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