CONTEMPO WORLD – FINALS different forms of mass media, it created a steady influx of ideas

which are usually western in nature, as argued by many reviews

LESSON 9: The Intercontinental Drift: Culture, Media & of globalization. It is through media and advertising that people
Globalization from all walks of life in the Philippines came to know products
such as iPhones, Nike, Starbucks, Samsung and other foreign
Globalization is “a process through which events, decisions, and merchandises.
activities in one part of the world can come to have significant
consequences for individuals and communities in quite distant The global sphere is continuously being bombarded and
parts of the globe. affected with media messages carrying western ideology to a
point that, some would believe, intimidates the rest of the
Globalization creates an avenue where the fraternization of world‟s native thoughts and philosophies. Being rational
cultures become possible despite the evident constraints due to creatures faced with the real threat of losing a nation‟s identity
geographical segregation. Martin Khor, the former President of due to cultural imperialism, several coping mechanism come
the Third World Networks in Malaysia, considers globalization into play. One of these movements is dedicated toward
as a form of colonization. opposing the blind acceptance of foreign cultures is called
contra-flows and to better understand this concept, let us
The fast-paced import and export of products and services and consider the case of the music industry.
of course the prevalence of social media are some of the many
obvious manifestations of this 2 diffusion of cultures. Just recently, a South Korean all-girls group known to many as
Everywhere you turn, people are always plugged in to the World Blackpink has taken the global music industry by storm.
Wide Web. A wide array of information is made available at the Suddenly, the South Korean Popular Culture such as their
palm of our hands. With a simple tap of the finger, the world music, hairstyle, fashion, food etc., emerged and it found itself
opens up offering infinite possibilities. Globalization allows this making a scene in the global arena. The usual trend is to
penetration of one culture into another culture and unknowingly, patronize western media, but with rising acts coming from the
cultural exchange becomes a by-product of these progressions. east, it shows the capability of nations to challenge the dominant
mainstream media.
The Role of Social Media
Another alternative to cultural imperialism is known as cultural
Writers and academics alike consider the past, our history, as a hybridity or hybridization, this perspective highlights the
proof that social interaction is vital to the survival of mankind. interface of globalization and localization as traditions and other
Looking back to where we started from simple tribes into cities cultural forms diffuse with the mainstream. This entails changing
to what we now recognize as nation-states. In each of these some of the aspects of mainstream culture to match the needs
developmental phase, people establish social infrastructures of locality.
manifested through community, government, and mass media
to mention a few. These institutions enable us to accomplish According to research, the following are the key features of
tasks we couldn‟t do for ourselves, under normal hybridization:
circumstances, such as protection from foreign invaders and A. Mixing previously separate cultural systems, such as mixing
promote peace amidst all the chaos happening all around. elite art of opera with popular music;
B. Deterritorialization of cultural processes from their original
At the onset of globalization, globalists prophesized a world with physical environment to new foreign contexts and;
permeable borders, and connections unhindered by physical C. Impure cultural genres that are formed out of the mixture of
difficulties. Coupled with technological innovations like several cultural domains.
satellites, the internet, computers, and mobile cellular phones,
the intercontinental exchange of ideas, philosophies and But up to this point, the question that continues to baffle scholars
advocacies have been intensified a hundred folds. The is the extent of the role of media in propagation of transnational
predicted explosion of rapid interconnectedness of peoples cultures. Provided that cultures have already come in contact
around the world is now a booming reality. through histories of trading, warfare, and bondage, aren‟t
cultures hybrid prior to the explosion of technology? Did media
Function just amplify the already existing process of cultural diffusion?

The understanding of the relation between media and

globalization should not be restricted to the differences of Lesson 10: Globalization of Religion
internet speed among countries; it could as well be which
country is the leading giant in technology production; or to the The link between religion and globalization is one of the most
number of views a worldwide movie premiere has. Being active fraught and contentious. The development of the latter that
users of media, it is also our duty to look into the effects of this leads to the creation of a number of influences on the former,
consumerist attitude to our cultural identity, ideology, and value which in turn lead to shifts in the characteristics of modern
systems. Aside from the evident „uneven‟ process of media society. In this lesson, we will learn how globalization affects
globalization occurring worldwide, which implies that its effects religious practices and beliefs, as well as how religion and
and consequences are not identically experienced, globalists modern state politics affect each other.
recognize a certain “power geometry” at work. Accordingly, it
talks about the idea that some groups are more in-command Religion, much more than culture, has the most difficult
than others in terms of the proliferation of ideas and to an extent relationship with globalism. Fist, the two are entirely contrasting
specific interests - a dictator. belief systems. Religion is concerned with the sacred, while
globalism places value on material wealth. Religion follows
More than Cultural Imperialism: Contra-Flows and divine commandments, while globalism abides by human-made
Hybridization laws. Religion assumes that there is “the possibility of
communication between humans and the transcendent.” This
The rise and fall of the Roman Empire, to some historians, link between the human and divine confers some social power
support the birth of the idea of cultural imperialism but it did not on the latter. Furthermore, “God,” “Allah,” or “Yahweh” defines
appear on scholarly articles up until the 1990s. Cultural and judges human action in moral terms (good vs. bad).
imperialism as defined by anthropologist and sociologist, as “the Globalism‟s yardstick, however, is how much human action can
imposition by one usually politically or economically dominant lead to the highest material satisfaction and subsequent wisdom
community of various aspects of its own culture onto another, that this new status produces.
non-dominant community.” With the assistance from the
Religion and globalism clash over the fact that religious Globalization Engendering Greater Religious Tolerance
evangelization is in itself a form of globalization. The globalist
ideal, on the other hand, is largely focused on the realm of Globalization brings a culture of pluralism, meaning religions
markets. The religious is concerned with spreading holy ideas “with overlapping but distinctive ethics and interests” interact
globally, while the globalist wishes to spread goods and with one another. Essentially, the world‟s leading religious
services. traditions –Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and
Islam – teach values such as human dignity, equality, freedom,
Religion For and Against Globalization peace, and solidarity. More specially, religions maintain the
Golden Rule: “what you do not wish done to yourself, do not do
There is hardly a religious movement today that does not use to others.” Through such religious values, globalization
religion to oppose ”profane” globalization. Yet, two of the so engenders greater religious tolerance in such areas as politics,
called “old world religions” – Christianity and Islam –see economics, and society.
globalization less as an obstacle and more as an opportunity to
expand their reach all over the world. Globalization has “freed” In political areas, globalization has built global political forums
communities from the “constraints of the nation-state,‟ but in the that integrate cultural, ethnic, and religious differences –
process, also threatened to destroy the cultural system that bind ideologies that were once perceived as dividing the world –
them together. Religion seeks to take the place of these broken through a large number of international organizations such as
“traditional ties” to either help communities cope with their new United Nations (UN) and the World Health Organization (WHO),
situation or organize them to oppose this major transformation as well regional organizations like the European Union (EU), the
of their lives. It can provide the groups “moral codes” that Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), or the African
answer problems ranging people‟s health to social conflict to Union (AU).
even “personal happiness.” Religion is thus not the “regressive
force” that gives communities a new and powerful basis of When discussing issues such as international peace and
identity. It is an instrument with which religious people can put security, health issues, poverty, and environment, these
their mark in the reshaping of this globalizing world, although in organizations generally share many of the same basic
its own terms. commitments as religious traditions –mainly peace, human
dignity, and human equality, as well as conflict resolution in
Religious fundamentalism may dislike globalization‟s which they actively engage in negotiation, mediation, and
materialism, but it continues to use “the full range of modern diplomacy.
means of communication and organization” that is 9 associated
with this economic transformation. It has tapped “fast long- In terms of economics, as the economy of the major countries
distance transport and communications, the availability of of the world has grown, the main religious of each of those
English as a global vernacular of unparalleled power, the know- countries have also grown financially, providing more financial
how of modern management and marketing” which enabled the resources for religions to spread their beliefs. For example,
spread of “almost promiscuous propagation of religious forms although it may seem as an old tactic, missionary work –
across the globe in all sorts of directions.” It is, therefore, not especially in light of globalization –is strong in many Third World
entirely correct to assume that the proliferation of “Born-Again” countries where religious representatives convert natives.
groups, or in the case of Islam, the rise of movements like Daesh
(more popularly known as ISIS, or Islamic State in Iraq and As the result, the major religions today have scattered across
Syria) signals religion‟s defense against the materialism of the globe – Christianity turning “southern” and “black,” Islam
globalization. It is, in fact, the opposite. These fundamentalist turning “Asian,” and Buddhism turning “white” and “western.”
organizations are the result of the spread of globalization and Still holding on to their original territorial spaces where their
both find ways to benefit or take the advantage of each other. shrines exist, religions are fulfilling their general purpose of
spreading their beliefs to people all over the world.
While religions may benefit from the process of globalization,
this does not mean that its tensions with globalist ideology will Religion has tremendously benefited from technological
subside. Some Muslims view “globalization” as a Trojan horse advancements. For example, websites provide information and
hiding supporters of Western values like secularism, liberalism, explanations about different religions to any person regardless
or even communism ready to spread these ideas in their areas of his or her geographical location, as well as provide the 11
to eventually displace Islam. The World Council of Churches – opportunity to contact others worldwide and hold debates which
an association of different Protestant congregations –has allow religious ideas to spread. Furthermore, television allows
criticized economic globalization‟s negative effects. It vowed for religious channels that provide visual religious teachings and
that “we as churches make ourselves accountable to the victims practices. Hence, by making the leap onto the information
of the project of economic globalization,” by becoming the superhighway, which brings religious teachings into every home
latter‟s advocates inside and outside “the centers of power.” and monitor in a global setting, religions have come together into
one setting.
The Catholic Church and its dynamic leader, Pope Francis,
likewise condemned globalization‟s “throw-away culture” that is What is Religion Nowadays?
“fatally destined to suffocate hope and increase risks and • It is no longer a set of beliefs that people arrive by reflection.
threats.” The Lutheran World Federation 10th Assembly‟s 292- • It is symbolic system which carries our identity and marks out
page declaration message included economic and feminist social/ethnic and other boundaries.
critiques of globalization, sharing the voices of members of the • It marks crucial moments in the life cycle with rituals.
Church who were affected by the globalization, and • It provides powerful mechanism for psychological and social
contemplation on the different “pastoral and ethical reflections” tension.
that members could use to guide their opposition. It warns that
as a result of globalization: “Our world is split asunder by forces Looking around the world today, it is clear that religion plays a
we often do not understand, but that result in stark contrasts role in many of the major conflicts going on at various levels. It
between those who benefit and those who are harmed, is clear that religion plays an important role in people‟s lives
especially under forces of globalization. Today, there is also worldwide, and has become one of the major ways people
desperate need for healing from „terrorism,‟ it‟s causes, and connect with each other across the globe. However, the role of
fearful reactions to it. Relationships in this world continue to be religion in contemporary societies is still not sufficiently
ruptured due to the greed, injustices, and various forms of understood in academic research and in the work of policy-
violence.” makers, NGO‟s and journalists.
 Global cities are also has the greatest number of business
Lesson 11: The Global City infrastructures housing international organizations, and
business alike. They undoubtedly become seats of power where
Images of trendsetters living the life, travelling from one well- political, economic, cultural and religious engagements are
known city to the next, and tasting delicacies each has to offer overseen. To make this characteristic clearer, let us consider
can be lavishly seen in the internet and other social media sites. the United Nations, a powerful organization capable of providing
Some of you might have already visited such places. Others international humanitarian aids to countries in need. Its
may have relatives living abroad who send them items in headquarters is strategically located in New York. As with
balikbayan boxes offering a taste of how they live in the foreign London who has advantageously positioned itself as a global
countries. For some, these and other similar sights fuel their banking and financial center, they are also centers of innovation
desire to partake in what life has to offer. But have you once and higher learning. Global cities boasts having the world‟s top
stopped and think of why people prefer some cities over the universities like Boston‟s Harvard University and Cambridge
others to go to and visit and eventually migrate into? What University in England. These and several other features make
makes these top destinations appealing and to a degree up the characteristics of what a global city must have.
important?
Challenges to Global Cities
Prior to the existing competition among major cities of the world
to reign supreme and be branded as the most powerful, the By this time, you might have an idea of what a global city is and
study of global cities has its humble beginnings. It arose in the so we move to the next challenge of carefully examining the
1980s when researchers concerned themselves with identifying challenges that comes with the rise of global cities.
common attributes found among cities considered as front liners The first of these challenges is the significant rise in the city
in development. Compared to the rural areas of nation-states, population as people flock towards cities trying their luck to
cities are seen as the avenues where global networks and improve their financial status. However, not all who migrates to
transactions transpire. It is where financial cash flows of cities are rewarded, for many ends up contributing to the slum
massive scales take place attracting companies and populace. Globalization creates a rush of high paying jobs within
multinational corporations to invest in infrastructures and other global cities creating a chain reaction demanding low income
business endeavors which in turn generate employment employment to attend to their growing needs. These low income
opportunities for their citizens. Other individuals become jobs comprise of domestic helpers, maids, cooks, food
attracted as well to migrate into these global cities because it attendants. Thus implying that flocking to global cities does
comes with a promise of a better life than that of which they necessarily mean a good life for everyone.
already have. With the significant rise in the population, several other issues
spring out which leads us to the next challenge which is food
Global City refers to an urban centre that enjoys significant and water shortage. Researches reveal that 2.5 billion
competitive advantages and that serves as a hub within a individuals have no access to clean water and sanitation. Many
globalized economic system. The term was first used by a people still go hungry as food is unevenly distributed all over the
sociologist named Saskia Sassen in 1884; she primarily used world bringing into question global food security.
economics as the main criteria for determining which of the cities
all over the world is to be labelled as such. In her research in the Lastly, the problem about climate change and rising
said period, she was able to identify three cities considered as temperatures. Cities are considered as the greatest contributor
centers of capitalism and global financial transactions: London, of greenhouse gas emissions and climate change affects more
Tokyo and New York. In support to this selection, Manuel people than others for some are more equipped to handle the
Castells stated that: “...London because it is the world’s leading effects more people than others for some are more equipped to
financial market as far as transactions are concerned and also handle the effects of climate change.
constitutes a crucial airport node and is one of the ends of the
economic backbone that crosses Europe; New York for being
the main receiver of capital flows and service exporter; and Lesson 12: Global Demography
Tokyo for being the greatest capital lender and the headquarters
of the most important banks in the world, as well as an According to UNICEF, an estimated 353,000 babies are born
international center in the economy of services, education, each year around the world. It is estimated that 4.3 infants are
advertising, and design.” born every second. In ten years, you may find yourself
contributing to the world's growing population. You might have
However, several changes have occurred since the time the even started your own family and built a private townhouse.
term was coined. Such changes includes the development of Future ambitions that may bolster your drive to excel in school
improved transportation, telecommunications, production, and get a couple of degrees. In several highly developed
science, warfare, the internet, other technological innovations, countries, married couples choose to have one or two children
migration, cultural exchanges - all of which were not included as because they spend the majority of their time saving money to
criterion in determining global cities. The fact is the world today pay for their children's needs. Having fewer children ensures
is characterized mainly of unrelenting progress in numerous that the majority, if not all, of their demands are addressed
aspects of human life. This basically makes it difficult to have adequately. Demography studies numerous components of
just one definition of what a global city is. So in going about this population such as population size, mortality rates, income,
endeavour of determining which city or cities belong to the disease incidence, and fertility rates, all of which have a direct
cluster of global cities let us examine some of its indicators. impact on the society's complicated makeup. Is there a cost to
not checking and controlling world demography? Is it good for
Sassen is not mistaken for considering economics as a major society to have a large elderly population? Is a rising migrant
determining factor of a global city as this primarily becomes the intake an indication of a growing economy? These are only a
most appealing feature that attracts people from all walks of life few of the issues that we hope to address in this lesson.
to move in. The then list of characteristics and attributes that
made a city a forerunner in the global scene has transformed History of man is speckled with stories of people migrating from
and within it included other criterion such as the occurrence if one place to the next either in search for food, escape raiders,
an international population based. Global cities now become conquest or for pleasure. Possibly in this point in your life, some
melting pots of international culture and cuisine. In the image of you may have plans of pursuing a career abroad attracted by
below, a Mongolian BBQ shop is cozily located in the heart of the sights and sounds of the city life. Perhaps, you may have
Dublin. This and other similar establishments offering products lured by friends and families who have successfully rooted
are a familiar scene for a vast majority. As explained in previous themselves in a foreign land. Such is the nature of man -- to be
chapters, this is made possible because of globalization. mobile. Demography is the study of population based on
elements like age, race and sex. With the migration and birth rates lean towards being high whilst in rich countries, birth
unrestrained increase in the population, the natural order of rates tend to decline. Though some policy makers put forward
things gets upset, and changes have to be made in order to solutions like one child policy, legalization of abortion and other
offset these imbalances. For example, if people flock to the sterilization 23 process to restrain population, differences in
cities, more food, basic commodities and employment are belief and cultural practices make it impossible to come up with
required to accommodate these migrants, if the growing a single answer.
population is kept underfed, undernourished afflicted with
sickness, the future manpower of the society may not be as B. Demographic Pressures on the Environment
effective. Lawmakers and policy makers alike consider the Demographers and researchers alike agree in saying that the
demography of their nation when drafting bills, acts and existing and still growing number of people in the world
ordinances to be executed for the maximum benefit of the surpasses the maximum number of inhabitants that the planet
people. can actually sustain. Naturally, people need resources in order
to survive. Resources that only nature and the environment
Countries all over the world experience the entry of foreigners could provide. Man, millenniums ago, discovered agriculture
at an unprecedented rate. Surveys show that more than 160 which enabled him to exploit the land towards his own benefit.
million individuals live out of their country of origin. Factors Being able to produce food for himself eventually resulted to the
accounting for this transition can range from simple employment increase in population. Nowadays, technology even furthered
opportunities to flight from human rights abuses and political such developments in agriculture including livestock raising,
repression. Motivations for migration have been categorized into creating a variety of produce, increasing the yield and producing
either the Push Factor or Pull Factor. food for consumption. However, nature has its limits and over
exploiting it can have a catastrophic consequences. With the
Push Factor substantial use of fertilizers and other detrimental chemicals
Survival for themselves, or for their family, is one of the most with the goal of increasing food production, land and water
obvious motives which explain migration. Escape either from resources becomes polluted giving rise to a great number of
man-made disasters, civil war and decline of economic global concerns. Nature is unable to heal herself because of the
opportunities threatening them of starvation can be prime relentless desire of man to satisfy his needs and wants.
motivators. They leave their land in order to secure safety for
themselves because their communities can no longer sustain C. Slum Urbanization
life for its people. To put it simply, push factors refers to causes Whilst globalization stirs the flow of financial capital generating
that drive droves of people to abandon their residences. income and wealth, not all individuals are given a fair share in
these riches. Wealth tends to accumulate on the upper strata of
Pull Factor the social hierarchy benefiting a specific social class of the
In highly industrialized countries, fertility levels still continue to society making upward mobility impossible and widening the
decline posing a possible collapse in the population in the times gap of social inequality. So what happens when people move
to come. European countries suffer an aging population into cities and they don‟t find jobs to support themselves, they
meaning fewer people are able to work given the circumstances. become an addition to the people living in slum areas. These
Immigration, or the movement of people in the country, may help shanty towns are a common sight in areas like Manila, and
ease the labor deficiency but not enough to solve this persistent places in India.
problem. Nonetheless, it serves as a gateway for employment
seekers to benefit from it. In the contrary, continents like Africa D. Spread of Diseases
and parts of Asia with high fertility rates create emerging Generation and spread of diseases and other terminal illnesses,
communities unable to cope with the demands of the population like HIV/AIDS, also hasten keeping pace with globalization.
like employment, health, services, and education. People opt to However, international aids and programs have been organized
leave these densely populated areas and take their chances in order to extend help and contain the further creation and
elsewhere. circulation of an epidemic.

Global Demographic Issues Migration

Migration means crossing the boundary of a political or
The following are listed as the leading global demographic administrative unit for a certain minimum period (Boyle et al.
issues facing the world today. They become problems because 1998, chapter 2). It is classified as either internal migration
they are the outright consequence of globalization and which refers to a move from one area (a province, district or
uncontrolled economic growth and decline. municipality) to another within one country or International
migration which means crossing the frontiers which separate
A. Uneven Population Growth Worldwide one of the world‟s approximately 200 states from another. Many
Because of the lack of population growth control scholars argue that internal and international migrations are part
mechanisms, education and freedom to decide for themselves, of the same process, and should be analyzed together (Skeldon
some developing countries‟ population like Niger and Tanzania 1997, 9-10).
tend to grow at an alarming rate. Africa has one of the highest
incidents of birth rates with an average of 6.49 children per Migration is thus both a result and cause of development.
mother. It has been projected that Africa‟s overall population Development leads to migration, because economic and
would have exceeded Europe‟s in 2050. educational improvements make people capable of seeking
better opportunities elsewhere. It simply means that people from
Many of developing countries in Asia rely on agriculture, as the different walks of life, either for purposes of business
major driving force of the economy thus having more number of opportunities, family affairs or even unwanted reasons, are
children is necessary to maintain farm operation. On the experiencing migration as agents of cultural or political change.
contrary, residents of high income and developed countries tend As history will tell us, migration has already been a practice ever
to limit their progenies to one or two. Aside from the abundant since the world began.
supply and selection of birth control methods, parents in this part
of the world tend to focus their attention to saving enough money One of the reasons of migration is disparity in levels of income,
for future needs such as medical expenses, insurances, employment and social well-being between differing areas. With
matriculation and retirement funds to mention a few. Meaning a family to feed or responsibility to earn, the individual is keen
having more than two children can become too expensive. to exert the effort to look for better jobs with better pay. Thus in
his search for the greener pasture, he becomes motivated to
To put it simply, there is a converse relationship between the relocated himself whatever it might cause him. In his search, he
economic level of a country and its population. In poor countries, will find himself in a certain 25 neighborhood that has been the
center of immigrant settlement, with significant business these reasons, the government must create and have strong
openings, services and convenience which are not usually teeth for its implementations of policies and laws that prevent
found in their place of origin. Significantly, these new place abuses or exploitation of their citizens while they are abroad. If
houses everything, from the places of worship, ethnic groupings the government will be able implement the policies and laws, it
and socio cultural linkages, thus no new immigrant is left out will guarantee the safety and well-being of its citizens. In
because he can easily blend in. a new perspectives set in where addition to these, the government must provide assistance in
women are likewise given the same opportunities as that of men cases of death, illness, accidents and other similar cases of
thus female migration is accommodated as they moved in same nature to its citizens. It is a way to show the gratitude of
independently or as heads of households. the government as to help these emigrants are doing for the
economic growth of the country.
1. Temporary labor migrants – they are popularly known as
overseas contract workers who migrate for a limited period in Many of the emigrants who finds good paying employment
order to work and send remittances to their families at home. abroad still wishes to come home to be with their families. The
money acquired or have been saved from work abroad used as
2. Highly skilled and business migrants – they are the people an investment for a new business or enterprise. However, many
with special skills and qualification who seek employment 27 countries do not have policies to assist returning migrants to
through international labor markets for scarce skills. start anew in their own country. Usually, they are left on their
own on how to manage their own affairs. Some become
3. Irregular migrants (also known as documented or illegal successful but majority suffers from major setback. They will
migrants): people who enter a country, usually in search of settle in finding a job but face difficulty in finding a job
employment, without the necessary documents and permits. commensurate with the skills they have acquired abroad. Thus
will eventually decide to go back abroad and leave again their
4. Refugees – is a person residing outside his or her country of families. To avoid such chain, the government should
nationality, who is unable or unwilling to return because of a institutionalize a plan of action that will benefit the returning
„well-founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion, emigrants, for them to be given better options in staying in
nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political country than going back.
opinion‟ (1951 United Nations Convention relating to the Status
of Refugees)
Sustainable Development
5. Asylum-seekers – people who move across borders in search Sustainable development may simply means search for
of protection. progress in quality of life, development of services, enough
provision of supply and goods. However, a sustained
6. Forced migration – this included not only refugees and development may be reach only if there is permanence to its
asylum-seekers but also people forced to move by status of development but with no unmanageable economic
environmental catastrophes or development projects. movement, high inflation and most importantly the destruction of
our environment that causes climate change and similar
7. Family members (also known as family reunion or family catastrophes.
reunification migrants) – migration to join people who have
already entered an immigration country under one of the above Stability from Sustainability
categories. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) describes stability as
"avoiding large swings in economic activity, high inflation, and
8. Return migrants: people who return to their countries or origin excessive volatility in exchange rates and financial markets.
after a period in another country. This definition refers to the indexes, which describe the
economy in short-term categories. That excessive highs and
Migration may assist or hinders development lows should be avoided. Extreme bubbles of economic activity
must be calmed down before they burst.
Remittances are considered one of the many massive
contributions to the national accounts of many emigration Sustainable development has been defined in many ways, but
countries. Through the money that they are sending, the the most frequently quoted definition is from Our Common
government earns a bulk that helps finance the development Future, also known as the Brundtland Report:
investment of the country. Emigrants are given the opportunity
to travel aboard and to be able to learn other people‟s culture, "Sustainable development is development that meets the needs
history and environment. They became adaptive with the place of the present without compromising the ability of future
where they are in and were able to obtain additional knowledge generations to meet their own needs."
and insights which cannot be learn thru books but only by
interactions. Countries are mandated to observe international The Brundtland Report (World Commission on Environment and
cooperation to help ensure orderly migration and to heighten the Development, 1987) was prepared for the United Nations in
involvement of migration to development. 1987. In other words, it is about responsible use of resources.
We have now reach the time where we are no longer free to
One on the main disadvantage brought by migration is the “brain expand and exploit resources. It is no longer an earth which can
drain”. Brain drain is a problem for many poor countries losing deliver unlimited goods and can adopt unlimited pollution. We
skilled workers to richer countries. The most skilled and most could no longer enjoy the unchanged patterns of consumption.
talented workers of a certain less developed country are bound Nowadays, the food production, domestic policy and energy
to look for better job opportunities or employment in developed policy alongside problems on environmental issues is in an
countries considering work guarantee and better lives alarming state.
conditions for himself and that of his family. However, the
country where he came from is to settle with those who are left The solution was found in increased productivity of agriculture
as its workforce but cannot do anything because it has no to guarantee food production and consumption. The strong
remedy to the situation. It is to add further that the regulation of countries take responsibility and established themselves as
emigration from less-developed countries is often ineffective powerful factors in domestic and energy policy, and take global
thus allows exploitative employment and abuses. Many of the actions against climate change. But their effectiveness is not
emigrants has stories to tell when it deals with abuses, cruelty very high, among them particularly are the developing
and violence. Crimes like women and child trafficking, economies. The rich countries can always shift its unclean
smuggling, drug related cases and other forms of crimes are production abroad to other, usually poorer countries without
being charged to them or they became victims of such. For
sacrificing their usual mode of enjoyment and consumption of 17 Sustainable Development Goals
goods and services. Goal 1. End Poverty
Economic growth must be inclusive to provide sustainable jobs
Sustainability has now been a major problem not only by the and promote equalit
developing countries but even by the developed countries. The Goal 2. Zero Hunger
issue now is how to come up with solutions that will guarantee The food and agriculture sector offers key solutions for
sustainability and stability. development, and is central for hunger and poverty eradication.
Goal 3. Good Health and Well-Being
Sebastian Plóciennik state the solutions might be depending on Ensuring healthy lives and promoting the well-being for all at all
the kind of economic governance implemented. However, it ages is essential to sustainable development.
must take into considerations the following: Firstly, the issue of Goal 4. Quality Education
what is an "efficient market" needs some new clarification. Obtaining a quality education is the foundation to improving
Secondly, we must accept the fact that there might be different people's lives and Sustainable development.
institutional ways to efficient economic systems, but it does not Goal 5: Gender Equality
necessarily mean that some of them are a priori more efficient, Gender equality is not only a fundamental human right, but a
stable and better for sustainability, than the others. Thirdly, a necessary foundation for a peaceful, prosperous and
redesign needs a wider look at what is economic growth and sustainable world.
what kind of growth is compatible with the idea of sustainability. Goal 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
He stated further that "Markets are the most substantial, Clean, accessible water for all is an essential part of the world
constructional element of economies. However, nowadays we we want to live in. Goal 7: Affordable and Clean Energy
are dealing with biases which make understanding their Goal 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth
functioning puzzling. As a consequence, there are difficulties Goal 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
with efficient economic policy and, obviously with providing Goal 10: Reduce Inequalities
stability and sustainability". Goal 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
Goal 12: Responsible Consumption and Production Goal 13:
Each of the 17 SDGs has specific targets to be achieved by Climate Action
2030. The goals and targets are universal, meaning they apply Goal 14: Life Below Water
to all countries around the world, not just poor countries. Goal 15: Life on Land
Reaching the goals requires action on all fronts - governments, Goal 16: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
businesses, civil society and people everywhere all have a role Goal 17: Partnerships with the Goals
to play. Sustainable development is an approach to economic
planning that attempts to foster economic growth while SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS
preserving the quality of the environment for future generations. Poverty is more than the lack of income and resources to ensure
Despite its enormous popularity in the last two decades of the a sustainable livelihood. Its manifestations include hunger and
20th century, the concept of sustainable development proved malnutrition, limited access to education and other basic
difficult to apply in many cases, primarily because the results of services, social discrimination and exclusion as well as the lack
long-term sustainability analyses depend on the particular of participation in decision-making. Economic growth must be
resources focused upon. inclusive to provide sustainable jobs and promote equality. It is
time to rethink how we grow, share and consume our food. If
The Sustainable Development Goals are the blueprint to done right, agriculture, forestry and fisheries can provide
achieve a better and more sustainable future for all. They nutritious food for all and generate decent incomes, while
address the global challenges we face, including those related supporting people-centered rural development and protecting
to poverty, inequality, climate, environmental degradation, the environment. Right now, our soils, freshwater, oceans,
prosperity, and peace and justice. The Goals interconnect and forests and biodiversity are being rapidl degraded. Climate
in order to leave no one behind, it is important that we achieve change is putting even more pressure on the resources we
each Goal and target by 2030. depend on increasing risks associated with disasters such as
droughts and floods. Many rural women an men can no longer
Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable make ends meet on their land, forcing them to migrate to cities
Development Preamble in search c opportunities. A profound change of the global food
and agriculture system is needed if we are t nourish today's 795
This Agenda is a plan of action for people, planet and prosperity. million hungry and the additional 2 billion people expected by
It also seeks to strengthen universal peace in larger freedom. 2050.
We recognize that eradicating poverty in all its forms and
dimensions, including extreme poverty, is the greatest global CHILD ADO – FINALS
challenge and an indispensable requirement for sustainable
development. All countries and all stakeholders, acting in MODULE 10 - PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRIMARY
collaborative partnership, will implement this plan. We are PUPIL
resolved to free the human race from the tyranny of poverty and
want and to heal and secure our planet. We are determined to Physical growth during the primary school years is slow but
take the bold and transformative steps which are urgently steady. During this stage, physical development involves: (1)
needed to shift the world on to a sustainable and resilient path. having good muscle control and coordination. (2) developing
As we embark on this collective journey, we pledge that no one eye-hand coordination. (3) having good personal hygiene and
will be left behind. (4) being aware of good safety habits.

The 17 Sustainable Development Goals and 169 targets which Height and weight
we are announcing today demonstrate the scale and ambition In this development stage, children will have started their
of this new universal Agenda. They seek to build on the elementary grades, specifically their primary years – Grades 1
Millennium Development Goals and complete what they did not to 3.
achieve. They seek to realize the human rights of all and to
achieve gender equality and the empowerment of all women This period of gradual and steady growth will give children time
and girls. They are integrated and indivisible and balance the to get used to the changes in their bodies. An average increase
three dimensions of sustainable development: the economic, in height of a little over two inches a year in both boys and girls
social and environmental. The Goals and targets will stimulate will introduce them to many different activities that they can now
action over the next 15 years in areas of critical importance for do with greater accuracy.
humanity and th planet.
Weight gain averages about 6.5 pounds a year. Most children MODULE 11: Cognitive Development of Primary
will have slimmer appearance compared to their preschool Schoolers
years because of the shifts in accumulation and location of their
body fats. A child’s legs are longer and more proportioned to the Jean Piaget is the foremost theorist when it comes to
body than they were before. cognitive development. According to him, intelligence is the
basic mechanism of ensuring balance in the relations between
A number of factors could indicate how much a child grows, or the person and the environment. Everything that a person
how much changes in the body will take place: experiences is a continuous process of assimilations and
accommodations. Piaget described four main periods of
• Genes cognitive development. For Piaget, intellectual ability is not the
• Food same at different ages.
• Climate
• Exercise Jean Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage
• Medical conditions
• Disease/illnesses Concrete operation is the third stage in Piaget’s theory of
cognitive development. It spans from ages 7 to approximately
Bones and Muscles 11 years. In this developmental stage, children have better
Childhood years are the peak bone-producing years. This understanding of their thinking skills. Children begin to think
is the best time to teach children of good dietary and exercise logically about concrete events, particularly being their own
habits to help them have strong, healthy bones throughout their experiences, but have difficulty understanding abstract or
lives. Many lifestyle factors, like nutrition and physical activity, hypothetical concepts, thus most of them still have a hard time
can substantially influence the increase of bone mass during at problem-solving/ the child learns rules such as conservation.
childhood.
Because children’s bones have proportionately more water Logic
and protein-like materials and fewer minerals than adults, Concrete operational thinkers, according to Piaget, can already
ensuring adequate calcium intake will greatly help them in make use of inductive logic. Inductive logic involves thinking
strengthening bones and muscles. from a specific experience to general principle. But as this stage,
children have great difficulty in using deductive logic or using a
Motor Development general principle to determine the outcome of a specific event.
Young school-aged children are gaining control over the major
muscles of their bodies. Most children have a good sense of
balance. They like testing their muscle strength and skills. They
enjoy doing real-life tasks and activities. They pretend and
fantasize less often because they are more attumed with
everything that is happening around them.

Children in this stage love to move a lot- they run, skip, hop,
jump, tumble, roll and dance. Because their gross motor skills
are already developed, they can now perform activities like
catching a ball with one hand, tying their shoelaces, they can
manage zippers and buttons.

Performing unimanual (require the use one hand) and bi-manual Reversibility
(require the use of two hands) activities becomes easier. One of the most important development in this stage is an
Children’s graphic activities, such as writing and drawing, are understanding of reversibility or awareness that actions can be
now more controlled but are still developing. They can print their reversed. An example of this is being able to reverse the order
names and copy simple designs, letters and shapes. They hold of relationships between mental categories. (For example in
pencils, crayons, utensils correctly with supervision. arithmetic, 3+4=7 and 7 -4=3).

Motor development skills include coordination, balance, speed, Cognitive Milestones

agility, and power. Elementary-aged children encounter developmental
milestones. They develop certain skills within a particular time
Let us look into the definitions of the motor skills. frame. The skills they learn are in a sequential manner, meaning
Coordination is a series of movements organized and timed to they need to understand numbers before they can perform a
occur in a particular way to bring about a particular result mathematical equation. Each milestone that develops is
(Strickland, 2000). The more complex the movement is, the dependent upon the previous milestone they achieved. Up until
greater coordination is required. Children develop eye-hand and age 8, a child learns new skills at a rapid pace. Once they reach
eye-foot coordination when they play games and sports. the age of 8, the skills they learn start to level off and it usually
Balance is the child’s ability to maintain the equilibrium or is a steady increase of new skills.
stability of his/her body in different positions. Balance is a basic
skill needed especially in this stage, when children are very Specifically, young primary school-aged children can tell left
active. During this time, children have improved balancing skills. from right. They are able to speak and express themselves
Static balance is the ability to maintain equilibrium in a fixed develops rapidly. In school, they share about themselves and
position, like balancing on one foot. Dynamic balance is the their families. During play, they practice using the words and
ability to maintain equilibrium while moving (Owens, 2006). language they learn in school. They start to understand time and
Speed is the ability to cover a great distance in the shortest days of the week. They enjoy rhymes, riddles, and jokes. Their
possible time while agility is one’s ability to quickly change or attention span is longer. They can follow more involved stories.
shift the direction of the body. These skills are extremely They are learning letters and words. By six, most can read
important in most sports. Power is the ability to perform a words or combinations of words.
maximum effort in the shortest possible period.
Information-Processing Skills
All these motor skills are vital in performing different activities, Several theorists argue that like the computer, the human mind
games, and sports. Development of these skills may spell the is a system that can process information through the application
difference between success and failure in future endeavors of of logical roles and strategies. They also believe that the mind
the child. receives information, performs operations to change its form
and content, stores and locates it and generates responses from they think of themselves more than that other. They may play
it. well with groups but may need some time to play alone.

Module 12: Socio-Emotional Development of Primary Primary school children prefer to belong to peer groups of the
Schoolers same gender. Many children will use their surroundings to
observe and mingle with other children. Some will see this as an
The developmental theorist, Erik Erikson, formulated eight opportunity to make friends while others remain a bit of a loner.
stages of man's psychosocial development. Each stage is
regarded as a "psychosocial crisis" which arises and demands Antisocial Behavior
resolution before the next stage can be achieved. Preschool Some adult may perceive that some children's behavior towards
children belong to the fourth stage of Erikson's psychosocial other children as antisocial. When children poke, pull, hit or kick
stage, here, children have to resolve the issue on Industry other children when they are first introduced, it is fairly normal.
Inferiority. Remember that children at this stage are still forming their own
world views and other children may seem like a curiosity that
Erik Erikson's Fourth Stage of Psychosocial Development they need to explore. Parents and teachers can help children
Industry vs. inferiority is the psychosocial crisis that children will make friends. You can consider the following:
have to resolve in this stage. Industry refers to a child's • Expose the children to kid-rich environments (e.g.
involvement in situations where long. patient work is demanded playgrounds, park).
of them, while Inferiority is the feeling created when a child gets • Create a play group in your class and let the children
a feeling of failure when they cannot finish or master their mingle with their classmates.
schoolwork. • When your children hit other children, remind them that
their behavior hurts others.
In this stage, children, will most likely, have begun going to • Coordinate with the parents and other teachers so that the
school. School experiences become the priority, with children so children will have greater opportunity to interact with other
busy doing school work. The encouragement of parents and children.
caring educators helps to build a child's sense of self-esteem,
strengthening their confidence and ability to interact positively in Self-control
the world. Once children reach school age, they begin to take pride in their
ability to do things and their capacity to exert effort. They like
Understanding the Self receiving positive feedback from their parents and teachers.
One's self-concept is the knowledge about the self, such as This becomes a great opportunity for parents and teachers to
beliefs regarding personality traits, physical characteristics, encourage positive emotional responses from children by
abilities, values, goals and roles. What does the comic strip acknowledging their mature, compassionate behaviors.
depict?
LATE CHILDHOOD (Intermediate Schooler)
It also involves a sense of belonging and acceptance, a sense
of good and a sense of being capable doing good. Having a
MODULE 13: Physical Development of the Intermediate
healthy self-concept does not mean that a child thinks he is
Pupil
better than others. It means that he likes himself, feels accepted
by his family and friends and believes that he can do well.
The period of late childhood is the period of calm before the
growth spurt of adolescence"
Primary school children's self-concept is influenced not only by
-Anonymous
their parents, but also by the growing number of people they
begin to interact with, including teachers and classmates.
The steady and gradual changes happening in children at this
Children have a growing understanding of their place in the
stage, especially with their increasing familiarity with schoolwork
world. They already know that they an please their parents and
and other possible activities provide them with a greater
teachers. They are comfortable and show confidence in doing
opportunity to develop their motor skill functioning.
things they are good at, but also show frustration in things that
they find difficult.
Physical Changes
Children in their late child-hood stage always seem to be in a
School Years
hurry. They get so busy with their schoolwork, interacting with
In the transition from pre-elementary to primary school, children
their friends, exploring other possible activities, but this period
tend to become increasingly self-confident and able to cope well
of physical development seems to take on a leisurely pace.
with social interactions. They are not focused on themselves
anymore but are also aware of the needs and desires of others.
On the average, girls are generally as much as two (2) years
The issues of fair- ness and equality become important to them
ahead of boys in terms of physical maturity. Puberty may begin
as they learn to care for people who are not part of their families.
early. Budding breasts for girls- which is the initial sign of
Characteristics like loyalty and dependability are being
puberty. Some girls may also start with their menstrual period
considered as well as responsibility and kindness.
as early as 8 and some as late 13.
Building Friendships
Many of the bodily structures like the liver, muscles, skeletons,
"What is a FRIEND? A single soul dwelling in two bodles." -
kidneys, and face follow a normal curve of development for both
Aristotle
girls and boys. Other structures like the brain, intestines and
other organs and bodily systems mature at their own time, thus,
Making friends is a crucial but very important part of children's
affecting growth patterns.
social and emotional growth. As soon as they are able to walk
and talk, they will tend to show natural inclination to be around
Children gain an average of 7 pounds in weight, and average of
other children.
2 ½ inches in height and an average of an inch in head
circumference each year. Children at this stage have growth
Children, during this stage, most likely belong to a peer group.
spurts - sudden boost in height and weight, which are usually
Peer groups are characterized by children who belong
accompanied by increase in appetite and food intake. Increase
approximately to the same age group and same social economic
in body fat also occurs in preparation for the growth that occurs
status It is found along the stages of childhood through
during adolescence. The body fat increase occurs earlier in girls
adolescence. But for children, until the age of seven or eight,
and is greater in quantity.
Girls appear to be "chubby" while boys tend to have more lean are more interested in lobger and more complex reading
body mass per inch of height than girls. These are all normal materials, e:g. fiction books and series books.
part of development. These differences in body composition
become very significant during adolescence. Attention
Order children have longer, and more flexible attention span
At this stage, children may become very concerned about their compared to younger children. Their span of attention is
physical appearance. Girls, especially, may become concerned dependent on how much is required by the given task. In terms
about their weight and decide to eat less. Boys may become of schoolwork, older children can concentrate and focus more
aware of their stature and muscle size and strength. Since, this for longer period of hours.
stage can bring about insecurities, parents and teachers must
be very conscious about their dealings with these children. Creativity
Appropriate activities must be designed so that children will be “Creativity is not the finding of a thing but making
guided into the right direction. Children must be given something out of it after it is found. - James Russell Lowell
opportunities to engage themselves in worthwhile activities that:
Children at this stage are open to explore new things. Creativity
• promote healthy growth is innate in children, they just need a little guidance and support
• give them a feeling of accomplishment from parents, teachers and people them. They are usually at
• reduce the risk of certain diseases their best when the work is done in small pieces.

This stage is also characterized by advanced development of Creativity in children in encouraged when the activities:
their fine and gross motor skills. Muscle strength and stamina ⚫ encourage different responses from each child
increase as they are offered different physical activities. ⚫ celebrate uniqueness
⚫ break stereotypes
Children may become more interested in physical activities ⚫ value process over product
where they can interact with friends and family. Activities which ⚫ reduce stress and anxiety in children
they can share with parents (e.g. biking, running, playing ⚫ support to share ideas, not only with the teacher / parent
basketball) show children that exercising can be fun. but also with their other children.
⚫ minimize competition and external rewards.
MODULE 14: Cognitive Development of the Intermediate
Schoolers The Impact of Media
“Television viewing is a highly complex, cognitive activity during
Since children in this stage are already in their late childhood, which children are actively involved in learning.” -
rapid development of mental skills is evident. According to Jean (Anderson and Collins, 1988)
Piaget, concrete operational thinkers can now organize The dream of having a television unit in every classroom started
thoughts effectively, although, they can only logically perceive in the 1950’s. It was considered as one of the first technological
the intermediate situation. They can apply what they have advancements in schools. The impact of the use of television
learned to situations and events that they can manipulate. Thus, and other media like the computer has gained popularity
their reasoning and logical thinking are still very limited. But with because students ate given more opportunity to:
proper guidance and nurturance from parents, teachers and the ⚫ communicate effectively in speech and writing
rest of the community, these children can easily succeed in their ⚫ work collaboratively
intellectual endeavors. ⚫ use technological tools
⚫ analyze problems, set goals, and formulate strategies for
INTELLEGENCE is.... achieving those goals
⚫ the ability to create an effective product or offer a service ⚫ seek out information or skills on their own, as needed, to
that is valued in a culture: or offer a service that is valued meet their goals
in a culture:
⚫ a set of skills that makes it possible for a person to solve Media and Aggression
problems in life; Violence and aggression are often dubbed as one of the
⚫ the potential for finding or creating solutions for problems, result of media. According to the Public Health Summit in 2000,
which involves gathering new knowledge - Howard the following are some of the negative results of media:
Gardner. ⚫ Children will increase anti-social and aggressive
behavior.
Initial Cognitive Characteristics ⚫ Children may become less sensitive to violence and
Intermediate school children greatly enjoy the cognitive those who suffer from violence.
abilities that they can now utilize. Their thinking skills have ⚫ Children may view the world as violent and meant,
become more effective as compared during their primary years. becoming more fearful of being a victim of violence.
Their schoolwork is now more complicated. Reading text have ⚫ Children will desire to see more violence in entertainment
become longer; problem solving has become an everyday part and real life.
of their lives. Children will view violence as an acceptable way to settle
conflicts.
Their ability to use logic and reasoning give them chances of
thinking about what they want and how to get it. They now The school and the home provide children with unlimited access
become very interested in talking about the future or even their to media, not only television and computers, but also videos,
potential, careers. They develop special interest in collections, movies, comic books and music lyrics. The responsibility now
hobbies, and sports. They are even capable of understanding lies with the parents, teachers, and the whole community. It
concept without having direct hands-on experiences. should be a collective effort among the factors working together
to support children in every aspect of development.
Reading Development
Children in this stage, is marked by a wide application of word Having a role model is extremely important for children at
attack. Because of the presence of previous knowledge, they this stage of transition (from childhood to adolescence). It gives
now have a wide vocabulary, which enables them to understand children an adult to admire and emulate. Role model also
the meaning of unknown words through context clues ( This is provide them with motivation to succeed. One of the most
the Rm”Reading to Learn “ Stage in reading development.) They important roles of teachers is to become a very good role model
are no longer into the fairy tales and magic type of stories but to children.
Teachers..... There are five types of Peer Status:
⚫ need to be an eager participant in children’s growth and • Popular- frequently nominated as the best friend and one
development. who is rarely disliked by peers.
⚫ must understand how to use the children’s natural • Average- receives an average number of positive and
curiosity to help make the appropriate development leaps negative nominations from peers.
in their skills and abilities. • Neglected- very seldom nominated as best friend but one
⚫ must create an atmosphere where risks can be taken and who is dislike by peers.
discoveries made while children remain safe. • Rejected – infrequently nominated as a best friend but one
who is disliked by peers.
MODULE 15: SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF • Controversial- frequently nominated as a best friend but at
INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLERS the same time is disliked by peers.
At this period of socio-emotional development, children are Popular children who find very positive the following skills and
spending less time in the home. The bulk of their time is spent as result they become the most favored into the group.
outside the home, either alone or with other children, rather than 1. They give out reinforcement.
with adults. Older children have already familiarized themselves 2. They act naturally.
with other children. They are already used to interacting with 3. They listen carefully and keep open communication.
different ages and gender. For many of them, these social 4. They are happy and are in control of their negative
networks are not only sources of social support but also different emotions.
forms of learning. 5. They show enthusiasm and concern for others.
Understanding Self-Competence, Self-Identity and Self- On the other hand, here are the characteristics of why the
Concept group or majority of the peers develop negative feelings toward
rejected children.
One of the most widely recognized characteristics of this period 1. They participate less in the classroom.
of development is the acquisition of feelings of self-competence. 2. They have negative attitudes on school tardiness and
This is what Erik Erikson referred to when he described the attendance.
developmental task of middle childhood- the social crisis 3. They are more often reported as being lonely.
industry versus inferiority. Industry refers to the drive to acquire 4. Aggressive.
new skills and do meaningful “work”. A. In boys
1. They become impulsive and have problems in
The child should have a growing sense of competence. The being attentive and disruptive
child’s definition of self and accomplishment vary greatly 2. They are emotionally reactive and slow to calm
according to the interpretations in the surrounding environment. down.
Varied opportunities must be provided in order for the children 3. They have fewer social skills to make and
to develop a sense of perseverance. They should be offered maintain friends.
chances to both fail and succeed, along with sincere feedback Family
and support. Family support is crucial at this stage which characterized by
success and failure. If children do not find a supportive family
During late childhood, children can now describe themselves when they find their interest (e.g. in hobbies like riding a bike or
with internal and psychological characteristics and traits. They playing a musical instrument) they can easily get frustrated. If
are most likely to employ more social comparison – families are seen as a primary support system, failures and
distinguishing themselves from others. In dealing with their setbacks become temporary and surmountable rather than
children, they show increase in perspective-taking. This ability something that is attributed to personal flaws or deficits. This
increases with age. Perspective taking enables the child to: (a) time is a critical time for children to develop a sense of
judge other’s intentions, purposes, and actions, (b) give competence. A high –quality adult relationship, specifically,
importance to social attitudes and behaviors and to (c) increase family relationship enables them to successfully go through this
skepticism of other’s claim. stage of development.
Emotional Development This module stresses that:
Like the other areas of development, children in this stage, show • During late childhood, a wide variety of biological,
improved emotional understanding, increased understanding psychological, and social changes take place across the
that more than one emotion can be experienced in a single developmental domains.
experience. They may also show greater ability to show or • As children progress through late childhood, the family
conceal emotion, utilize ways to redirect feelings and a capacity environment remains extremely important, while the community
for genuine empathy. environment – including the school – also becomes a significant
factor in shaping the child’s development.
Another milestone in this stage is the development of children’s • During the late childhood, peers have an increasingly
emotional intelligence (EQ), which involves the ability to monitor strong impact on developing; peer acceptance becomes very
feelings of oneself and others and use this to guide and motivate important to well-being.
behavior. Emotional Intelligence has four main areas:
• Developing emotional self-awareness MODULE 16: Physical Development of the High School
• Managing emotions (self control) Learners
• Reading emotions (perspective taking)
• Handling emotions (resolve problems) Defining Adolescence
The period of adolescence begins with biological changes of
Building Friendships puberty and ends with the role and work of adult life. The specific
As children go through their late childhood, the time they send age for this period varies from person to person but distinct
in peer interaction increases. For them, good peer relationships phases have been identified. The advent of puberty may come
are very important. The approval and belongingness they early for some and late for some others. But everyone goes
receive contribute to the stability and security of their emotional through these stages. These stages are:
development. Peer size also increases and less supervision by
adults is required. At this stage, children prefer t belong to same-
sex peer’s groups.
1) early adolescence characterized by puberty mostly occurring
between ages 10 and 13:
2) middle adolescence characterized and double lengthening of the vocal cords, is viewed to be the
most obvious aspect of adolescent development.
by identity issues within the ages of 14 and 16: and
In girls, estrogen secretion triggers the beginning of breast
3) late adolescence which marks the transition into adulthood at
enlargement, the appearance of pubic hair, the widening of the
ages 17 and 20.
hips, a growth spurt, and menarche (first menstruation). The
Adolescence is a period of transition in terms of physical, elevation of the female breast is the first external sign of puberty
cognitive and socio-emotional changes, physical transition in girls, while the growth of the uterus and vagina accompanies
being particularly coupled with sexual transformation. This continued enlargement of the breast Generally, girls achieve
Module is focused on physical development that takes place menache beginning 11 to 11.5 years (5 percent), up to 12 and
during adolescence. All the while, the aspect of individuality in 12.5 years (25 percent) and at age 13 (60 percent). There are,
adolescent development is unique to everyone, although there however, differences in reaching menarche in accordance with
are common issues that depend on race and culture, inclusive ethnic differences. Studies show that African American and
of dependence versus independence, changes in parent- European American girls may exhibit secondary sex activities
adolescent relationship, exploration, need for more privacy and as early as 8.87 years and 9.96 years; menarche as early as
idealization of others. 11.6 years and 12.4 years, respectively.

Pubertal changes In contrast with menarche, spermache signals the first sign of
In all cultures, biological change comprises the major transition puberty and sexual maturity in boys At about age 12 or 13, boys
from childhood to carly adolescence. This is manifested by a experience the enlargement of the testis and the manufacture of
change in physical appearance, a more rapid rate of sperms in the scrotum, most likely experiencing their first
development (next to the speed of growth of the fetus in the ejaculation of semen a sticky Fluid produced by the prostate
uterus) known as growth spurts. The phenomenon commonly gland. The need to discharge semen occurs more or less
results in a feeling of awkwardness and unfamiliarity with bodily periodically following pressure caused by the production of
changes. In addition, alterations in sleeping habits and parent- seminal fluid by the prostate gland. Nocturnal emissions or "wet
adolescent relationship may be experienced accompanying dreams" occur during sleep ofen caused by sexual dreams.
puberty changes.
Masturbation or manipulation of physical sexual organs is
The Growth Spurts caused by conscious fantasizing, both among boys and girls. It
Throughout life, the growth hormone conditions gradual is important to note that science and religion differ in their regard
increases in body size, and weight, but hormone flooding occurs to masturbation. Modem medical science sees it as an inevitable
during adolescence causing an acceleration known as the transitional phenomenon among adolescents. On the other
growth spurt. Body changes include change in body dimensions hand, religion generally regards it as gravely sinful, ascribing sin
(leg length, shoulder width, trunk length). In particular, spurt in even to sexual fantasies. To view the issue objectively, a guilt
height is ascribed to trunk growth rather than leg growth. In girls, complex on the matter is unhealthy to growth On the other hand,
the growth spurt generally begins at age 10 reaching its peak at habitual masturbation is an aberration when it can inhibit the
age 11 and-a-half, and decreasing at age 13, while slow annual growing adolescent from confidence in heterosexual (male
growth occurs for several more years. Boys begin their growth female friendship) relationship. In the end, while the growing
spurt later than girls at around age 12, reaching a peak at 14 youth need not feel guilty about natural sexual urges, they need
and declining at age 15 and-a-hall. to be forewarned about habitually giving in these urges.
Outgrowing the acts of masturbation is wholesome especially
At age 16 and girls reach 98 percent of their adult height. while during adulthood when males and females need to relate to
boys do so at age 17 and Growth in height is conditioned by each other in a mature relationship.
stages in bone maturation. The muscles also grow in terms of
size and strength, while a similar spurt occurs for weight, muscle The secular trend
size, head and face maturation, and especially the development The striking tendency for children to become larger at all ages
of the reproductive organs. Briefly, all the muscular and skeletal hus been perceived during the past one hundred years. Known
dimensions appear to take part in the growth spurt during as the Secular Trend, the phenomenon reflects a more rapid
adolescence. maturation compared with that occurring in previous millennia.
In 1880, for example, the average age at which girls had their
Sexual maturity first menstrual period in well- nourished industrial societies was
The series of hormonal changes accompanying puberty is 15 and 17 years. This is not true, however, in depressed
complex Hormones are recognized to be powerful and highly societies wherein this period is a bit later at about 15.5 years.
specialized chemical substances that interact with bodily cells. One hundred years ago, boys reached their adult height at ages
The triggering by hormones of the hypothalamus glands on 23 and 25 and girls at ages 19 and 20. Today, maximum height
hormones of the pituitary glands Signals the entire process of is shed between 18 and 20 years for boys and 13 and 14 for
sexual maturation. During the process, gonadotropie hormones girls.
are secreted by the anterior pituitary, which lies beneath the
base of the brain and are situated approximately at the The occurrence of the secular trend is ascribed to many factors,
geometric center of the human head. Gonads, which are the among which are the complex interaction of genetic and
ovaries in the female and the testis in the male, are then environmental itluences, improvement in health care, improved
stimulated by the poratrotopic hormones, in turn stimulating their living conditions, and the control of infectious diseases. Better
own hormones. When the male testis is stimulated by the nutrition is a major factor, since dis provides more protein and
gonadotropic hormones, testosterone is secreted, while calories for humans from conception upwards. But while Third
estrogen is secreted when the female ovary is stimulated. World countries are still experiencing their kecular trends,
physical maturation and greater height and weight at earlier
Secondary male sex characteristics are stimulated by ages.
testosterone, comprised by the growth of the testis and scrotum
(recognized to be the first sign of puberty), penis and first pubic Adolescent sleeping habit
hair, the capacity for ejaculation, the growth spurt, voice change, Studies show that teenagers are not getting enough sleep, and
facial hair development/ beard growth, and continuing growth of would want more sleep. Actually, lack of sleep is likely caused
pubic hair. The acceleration of the growth of the penis precedes by changes in adolescent behavioural pattems. Teens often
the growth spurt in height. Pubic hair growth precedes the first stay up Into because they enjoy it especially with the advent of
appearance of facial hair growth. Occurring late in puberty, the Internet music listening, video watching, message/photo/e-cam
lowering of the voice, caused by the enlargement of the larynx communication, chatting, and blogging. About 90 percent of
teenager high school student report poing to bed later than vitamins, minerals and protein which vegetable diets cannot
midnight. Socializing with peers add to the problem, causing provide. Vegetable intake is good, but this should be balanced
difficulties in waking up early and causing teenagers to struggle with food intake to form high-quality nutrition including eating
to stay alert and function productively. protein sources such as milk, dairy products and eggs.

Shorter sleep time also contributes to increased levels of It is a recognized fact that teens are the poorest caters among
depression, daytime sleepiness, and problems with sleeping. age groups, as they often skip meals, frequently take snack
The school and teachers should therefore take time to impart foods hamburger, fries, pizza, soft drinks, etc.) at fast-food
healthy sleeping habits, to prevent fluctuations in moodiness eateries.
and anemic conditions among teens.
The ideal body
Exploration It's important that adolescents feel confident about their body
Instinctively, adolescents become aware of changes in image. The physical features of the human body (facial looks,
sexuality, thus undergoing a period of exploration and body size, color of skin, etc.) depend on genetic heritage which
adjustment. Learners from Rotarian (religious and gender must generally be respected. However, with advancement in
exclusive) schools are more likely to consider sexual openness hair and skin technology, change in hair color and skin are no
to be dangerous, if not sinful. The case is not perceived among longer impossible. There is more to body image than physical
non-sectarian or gender mixed schools, although more dangers looks and these con cum good habits in relation to
exist relating to heterosexual relationship and early pregnancy • Cleanliness and grooming Proper wearing of clothes following
among students in non-exclusive schools. The drug culture, current styles
especially in urbanized communities, presents a serious danger • Erect bodily posture Eye contact while communicating
to students who are undergoing the exploratory phase of • Decorum (good form and confidence) and decency.
adolescent development.
MODULE 17: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF THE HIGH
Pluses and Minuses in Early or Late Maturation SCHOOL LEARNERS
Early or late maturation deserves due consideration, as this can
be a factor for adolescent acceptance and comfort or Similarity remarkable as the physical changes in the transitional
satisfaction with his/her body image. Among girls, physical period of adolescence, are changes in thinking patterns. These
changes are more dramatic, but perceptions of not being well changes are marked by the acquisition of new cognitive skills
developed as compared with their peers can be a cause for due to the brain’s increasing in weight and refining synaptic
timidity or shyness, if not frustration. In the case of fate maturing connections (technically known as the corpus collosum) which
boys, the slack in growth in body build, strength, motor join and coordinate the two hemispheres of the brain. Another
performance and coordination may inhibit their performance in brain development is the process of continuous concentration of
curricular and extra-curricular activities, such as in sports. Being the brain cells in the prefrontal cortex and related temporal and
physically weaker, shorter and slimmer would make them less parietal areas (technically known as myelination). This second
apt to be outstanding in leadership activities and in sports. On development covers the brain systems whose executive
top of these, late maturing teens are seen by their peers as functions relate to attention, verbal fluency, language and
being more childish, more inhibited, less independent, less self- planning.
assuring, and less worthy of leadership roles.
Through brain scanning, three peaks in brain maturation have
Meanwhile, teens who develop faster than their peers may be been identified by neurological scientists and these are at 12,
overly conscious of this phenomenon. It helps to know that early age 15, and age 18.5, coinciding with the operational thinking
maturing teens undergo a more intensive growth spurt than late processes of logical reasoning. Accompanying brain changes in
maturing teens. It can be a great plus for boys, who become cognitive capability, the adolescent begins to acquire spatial
bigger than their age, more muscular, more physically attractive awareness and formulate abstract or general ideas involving
and more athletic It is obvious that the early maturing teens can numbers, order, and cause-effect. All these changes people the
gain social advantage, in -esteem and greater inner poise. But adolescent from the world of the sensible and concrete thoughts
there are also some disadvantages, such as greater expectation to the world of the possible and the universal (abstract ideas,
on the part of others, resulting in lessening the experience of such as on the generally good, true and beautiful).
freedom in more steady growth.
Piaget’s Formal Operational Thinker
The Ideal Masculine and Feminine Physiques Piaget formulated the theory of Formal Operational Thinking
Most adolescents desire an ideal body," which is the same as which demonstrates how the cognitive capacity of the
being physically attractive or handsome in face (features of the adolescent allows him/her to go beyond the sensible and
eyes, nose, lips, hair, etc.) and in body (tall and muscular for concrete to dwell on what is abstract, hypothetical,
boys and tall and slender for girls). In the developed countries multidimensional and possible. In this realm of thought, the
like the U.S. about 10 percent of adolescents have been known adolescent begins to attain subtlety in thinking, entering the
to take anabolic steroids in tablet or in injectable form for sphere of possible and futuribles. More specifically, formal
cosmetic and athletic performance purposes. It is important to operational thinking consists of:
forewarm adolescents about the severe harmful effects of long-
term use of steroids: liver dysfunction, cancer, and damage to (a) Propositional thinking- making assertions outside visual
the reproductive system. Short-term effects are hair loss, severe evidence, and stating what may be possible in things not
acne, high blood pressure, shrunken testicles and low sperm seen by the eyes (for example, whether an unseen object
production. Girl users develop irreversible masculine is red or green, big or small, flat or round).
characteristics, such as growth of facial hair. Steroids may also (b) Relativistic thinking- subjectively making an opinion on
foster aggressive and destructive behaviour. Finally, giving up facts- involving one’s own bias, prejudice of distortion of
the drug may lead to depression and suicide. facts- which may be either right or wrong (for example,
arguing for or against the superiority of the races, whether
Adolescents and nutrition white, brown, yellow or black);
Necessary for adolescent years are sufficient amounts of (c) Real versus possible- examining a situation and exploring
vitamin B12 (found in animal proteins), calcium, zinc, iron, the possible in terms of situations or solution and exploring
riboflavin and vitamin D. Magie diet schemes suggested by (e.g. possible success in implementing a student project or
advertising and magazines to lose sight, give a radiant hair a school policy).
whiten the skin, etc. should be met with sation. The vegetarian
fad can also be disastrous especially to adolescents who need
For Piaget one indication of the presence of formal operational supplement poor memory by employing a memory aid, for
thinking is the ability of the adolescent thinker for example, a list of things to do and a mnemonic device. The
combinational analysis, which is his taking stock of the effects learner may also spend time with and attention to a material to
of several variables in a situation, testing one variable at a time, be learned, demonstrating higher thinking skills.
and not randomly. An application of a situation which requires
combinational analysis is the school laboratory experiment Another important information-processing trend is the
activity wherein high school students tests chemical elements adolescent’s ability to acquire an increased amount of
singly and in combination resulting in an understanding of knowledge and skills along many areas of domain. From a
chemical changes. novice, he/she becomes a near-expert. Information is also
processed more rapidly, while showing increased levels of
A new thought capacity, known as Hyphothetic-Deductive memory performance.
Reasoning, emerges in the adolescent reasoning from general
facts/situations to a particular conclusion. The school pendulum Overachievers
experiments an example of deducing from variables and Achievement and IQ tests are standard measurements of the
generating and recognizing a truth, expressed by transitional learner’s abilities, as well as potentials for success in given
process of delivering a conclusion from a hypothesis. areas. While IQ tests do not measure the great number of
abilities that are part of human intelligence, they are still
Scientific evidence shows that while adolescents may obtain the relatively good predictors of success in school achievement.
capacity for formal operational thinking, only experience and Indirectly, IQ tests are a beneficial instrument in identifying
education will allow them to actually practice it. School math and learning deficiencies in learners.
science courses, such as in performing Physics-type problems
(balance scales, pendulums, projections of images and In many societies, students who get IQ scores that place them
shadows, etc.) certainly help in actualizing formal operational in the top 3 and 5 percent on the bell curve are considered
thinking, although only 40 to 50 percent of adults in Western “gifted.” Still, those whose IQ tests are not in the top 3 and 5
cultures have shown evidence of success in formal cognitive percent on the bell curve may actually achieve very high
thinking process. academic grades. The latter type of learners are labelled
overachievers.
Outside formal operational thinking which can be developed by
mathematical and science studies, the adolescent enters into a The case of overachievers serve as a reminder that the IQ test
new capability which makes him a Problem-solving Thinker. is not the only determinant in school achievement. There are
This involves identifying problems and seeking new and creative other factors such as, motivation, interest, work habits, and
solutions for them. The problem-finding thinker is one who is personality development. Beyond what are statistically shown
able to rethink and recognize ideas and ask important questions, by achievement in curricular subjects (in English, Math,
even defining totally new problems not previously seen. Science, Araling Panlipunan, etc.), overachievers demonstrate
superior work habits, greater interest in school work, more
The adolescent may further experience an increase in depth of consistency in doing assignments, and more
thought. Thus, he/she is able to bring what is logically “best” for grade/performance consciousness. Overall, they show more
everyday life, whether or not this may be the objectively correct responsibility, consciousness and planning compared with
solution or response to a situation or problem. “normal” achievers. Listed as characteristics of overachievers
are:
Siegler’s Information-Processing Skills 1. Positive self-value (self-esteem, confidence, optimism)
As in information-processing theorist, Robert Siegler views the 2. Openness to authority (responsive to expectations of
influence of the environment on thinking. He sees cognitive parents and teachers)
growth, not as stages of development, but more of a sequential 3. Positive interpersonal relations (responsive and sensitive to
acquisition for specific knowledge and strategies for problem- feelings of others)
solving. He observes the quality of information the adolescent 4. Less conflict on the issue of self-autonomy (feels freedom
processes, and those information influences him/her in his to make right choices, initiates and leads activities)
facing tasks at hand through strategies or rules. 5. Academic orientation (discipline work habits, high
motivation to discover and learn, interest in study values
In his experiments, Siegler used rule models in relation to and varied fields of study)
balance, weight, distance, conflict weight, conflict-distance, and 6. Goal-orientation (efficiency and energy in organizing,
conflict balance problems. He examined the correct and wrong planning, setting target, prioritizing long-term goals over
answers to each of the problems, drawing out rule models in short-term pleasure)
thinking and knowing. 7. Control over anxiety (well composed and relaxed in
performing organized tasks)
Thereupon, adolescents may show: (a) speed in information
processing, coupled with greater awareness and control and Underachievers
acquired knowledge base-a more efficient kind of thinking Individuals whose performance are below the measured IQ
compared with that of the child (b) complexity by way of levels are labelled underachievers. In spite of possible
considering longer term implications and possibilities beyond potentials to learn and scores in the top quarter on measured
the here-and-now, and (c) increased volume of information academic ability, their grades are below their measured
processing, coupled with longer memory span. aptitudes for academic achievement. Under-achievement
becomes more pronounced with the beginning of adolescent
Metacognition years in high school when class work becomes more
Among the developmental cognitive advances in adolescence demanding.
is metacognition. This involves the ability to think above thinking,
evidenced by awareness of and capacity to identify one’s own As to types of underachievers, the withdrawn underachievers
thinking processes or strategies-perception, comprehension, are described as having a more pronounced tendency to be
memory and problem solving. passive (their overt behavior being submissive and docile). They
follow the path of no-resistance, not reacting against given
The knowledge acquired through experiences is stored in long assignments and actually following school regulations.
term memory and now becomes more declarative (“I know Generally quiet, they tend not to participate in class activities.
that”), as well as procedural (“I know how”). Thus, the learner Meanwhile, the aggressive underachievers tend to talkative, if
becomes aware of his/her poor memory, such that the not disruptive and rebellious.
adolescent may be prodded to muster cognitive capacity to
Parental Involvement identified basic personality factors matched with attitude and
There are many theories on underachievement, but generally work preferences. These personality factors are as follows;
the influence of the parents appears to be the dominant
influence on the adolescent’s achievement level, more than • Realistic- This personality type prefers practical tasks,
peer group influence. A summary of differences between often requiring physical labor and motor coordination, and
parents of high achievers and under-achievers will help teacher less of interpersonal skills, e.g. in construction
educators understand the significance of parental involvement (carpenters, drivers, etc.)
in adolescent learning and involvement in school activities. • Investigative- They prefer to think rather than act, being
interested in tasks that use conceptual skills, e.g. in the
Generally, parents of high achievers demonstrate: field of the sciences and technology (chemists, scientists,
1. Positive attitudes about learning, school, teachers, and technologists, etc.)
intellectual activities, such as by exposing their • Social- They are social and tend to engage in
children to stimulating books, word games, wholesome interpersonal situations and social interaction, e.g. in the
sports, travel, etc. social sciences (social workers, physicians, broadcasters,
2. Harmonious and supportive relationship, inclusive of etc.)
open, free and enjoyable interaction within the family. • Conventional- They prefer structured tasks, and can
3. Their own capabilities for success, conflict subject their needs to those of other, e.g. in office jobs
management, independent choice with which children (clerks, manual workers, etc.)
can identify; • Enterprising- They are skilled and constructive in
4. Encouragement and support for their children’s thoughts and actions, and are capable of leading other,
achievement without undue pressure. e.g. in business, industries (sales, enterprises, etc.)
5. Achieve involvement in the school program and in • Artistic- They prefer unstructured tasks and may show
parent-teacher-community activities. ability for self-expression, e.g. in the arts (artists,
musicians, performers, etc.)
Meanwhile, parents of underachievers show little or none of the
above traits, while possibly showing: It is understood that early enough, an adolescent may show
1. Indifference and disinterestedness in academic and various personality factors making him capable of performing
extracurricular activities of their children. more than a single task. Thus, we have cases of physicians
2. Authoritarian, restrictive and rejecting attitudes or the entering into business ventures, scientists enjoying artistic
opposite, namely being excessively lax so as to leave pursuits and the like.
their children on their own without any involvement or
support; Adolescents can show abilities for gainful work, such as those
3. Excessive indulgence, solicitousness, and who work part-time or full-time in fast-food restaurants as
protectiveness, thus stifling their children’s self- kitchen help, in retail stores as sales clerks, and in offices as
inititative. messengers and utility personnel. High school students who
work can benefit by acquiring the attitudes and abilities needed
Possible adolescent behavior during cognitive growth for gainful occupation. These are:
Accompanying cognitive growth are possible behaviors which • Self-reliance (working without being stressed)
need to be understood for proper guidance of the adolescent:
• Ability to manage money (not spend money on
1. Egocentrism. This is the tendency among adolescents to
luxuries, much less on alcohol or drugs)
think too much of themselves, such as to be too sensitive
• Social responsibility (cooperation and respect for
to social acceptance of their appearance, actions, feelings,
others including superiors)
ideas, etc. Feeling they are being watched like an actor on
a stage, they keep an imaginary audience making them • Mature work orientation (pride in the work done,
anxious about what to wear, how to behave, etc. One quality work)
egocentric strain is one’s feeling exaggeratedly self- • Personal responsibility (Independently competing
important, leading to dangerous situations such as entering tasks)
into early boy-girl relationships, reckless escapades and • Positive attitudes about work (it is not a burden, but
adventures. a gainful and wholesome activity that contributes to
2. Idealism. The adolescent opens thought on the possible, personality growth)
an avenue so possibly imagining what is far-fetched and
less ideal to situations at home, in school, and in society. Extracurricular activities
Imagining the world of the impossible (as a utopia or School activities outside the subjects for classroom study are
heaven on earth), the adolescent may become discouraged mechanism for further development of the adolescent students,
as social realities (e.g. family discord) fall short of the ideal. allowing the acquisition of new attitudes (such as discipline and
motivation), knowledge (such as organization, sports, etc.), and
Developing occupational skills skills (organizing, planning, time-managing, athletics, etc.)
Generally, the high school curriculum tends to focus on
academic cognitive learning, neglecting attention to Extracurricular activities are an for leadership, although there is
occupational skills. In the Philippines, there is evidence that high need to caution students on devoting more time than necessary
school graduates lack skills to directly enter the labor sector. to these tasks since their more important curricular or study work
Generally, college education is viewed as the path to may suffer. For example, joining a stage club may be so
occupations and career in life. Unfortunately, even college engrossing especially to the artistically bent, such that studies
graduates are viewed to lack occupational skills needed for may be neglected causing lower academic achievement.
employment on the present-day commercial and industrial
sectors. The possible mismatch between academic preparation • “Little” Stevie Wonder who at age 10 wrote his first
and the professions need to be examined. Schools which are musical composition, “Lonely Boy.”
diploma mills certainly do not contribute to social progress. • Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart at age 12 wrote his first opera.
• Anne Frank at age 13 wrote his famous diary during the
Today, experts believe that high schools can go more along the Nazi occupation of Holland in 1942.
area of developing occupational skills than they are currently • Galileo at age 17 began his study of Physics in 1582.
providing adolescent students in high school. It is important • Leonardo da Vinci at ag e20 was admitted to the Painter’s
therefore, at least to guide students on their future career Guild in 1472.
choices to view how personality types match occupational
interests and potential skills. Theorist John Holland has
MODULE 18: Socio-Emotional Development of High In adult life, studies show that men see themselves as separate
Schoolers and distinct persons, while women tend to see themselves
through others. For example, as a daughter, wife, or mother.
Adolescence, as expressed in the book "The Tale of Two Cities" Consequently, women tend to give way to the wishes of others,
can be the best of times... the worst of times." While it is a time even sacrificing their own interests. On the other hand, men
of excitement, discovery, and joy, it can also open undesirable more easily know their own needs and their genuine desires in
experiences related to adolescent anxiety, concerns and life (lzard & Ackerman, 996).
troubles. Hanging out, frequenting parties, and feeling first loves
are typical to adolescents, but are atypical to other age groups. Developing self-esteem
Meanwhile, juvenile violence and drug use frequently occur Some scholars see the roots of self-esteem in the mother-child
during teenage years. Fortunately, most adolescents go through relationship. Thus, boys develop a masculine trait in self-esteem
happy times and can get themselves together to be able to go since there is more distancing between mother and son,
through the next stage of development in adulthood through compared with the closer emotional connection between mother
college education. and daughter. The high involvement and intrusion by mothers in
the lives of their daughter are observed to cause delay in the
Self-Understanding development of self-individuation among girls.
Physical and cognitive developments do not come in isolation
but are accompanied by growth in self-image and maturation of As girls begin to separate themselves from the matrix of
feelings among adolescents. The formation of a self-concept is emotional connection with their mother (7-11 years), they gain
of paramount significance since this relates to enduring traits strength and self-confidence, trusting their own feelings and
that make the person fully human. In humanity, as sadly knowledge. They also begin to engage more freely in sports and
demonstrated by the egotistic, the cruel and the despotic (think the arts with more courage, competence, and energy. But at age
of Herod, Hitler, Stalin, etc.) have caused much suffering and 14 (middle adolescence), the danger surfaces for girls to lose
sadness to mankind in human history. their assertiveness, as their personality becomes more self-
conscious and deferential. It appears that at this stage of
In early adolescence (10-13 yeans), the teen begins to acquire development, girls tend to lose their flexibility, optimism and
a reflective idea of one's self, not only in terms of the immediate spirit of adventure.
present which younger children also see, but in terms of their
past and their future. During adolescent years, the teen also While the results of these U. S. studies may not be applicable to
begins to see his/her role and importance to society. This youths of other countries and cultures, these are useful ideas
development requires self-thought or introspective thinking that can serve as safeguards to ensure the proper directions for
along generalized ideas, such as in thinking that one is bright, reorienting youths during their adolescent growth. It does
flexible, intelligent, etc. appear, however, that the effects of adolescent transitions and
acquisition of self-esteem are mixed.
From self-image, there is the all-important value known as self- More important to note are some established facts, namely:
esteem. This is an appreciation of who one is, regardless of • Self-esteem means appreciation of one's self or self-
possible limitations or deficiencies in bodily and mental qualities. love, regardless of genetic potential endowments
In the end, it becomes useless and unhealthy to seriously (physical, mental, emotional).
compare ourselves with others in self-pity (e.g. Not being as • Potential endowments can be developed to a great
good looking or not having high class grades as the other extent through family formation, school education, and
fellow). One can only think of unlimited number of personages social influence.
who are incomparable in physical traits (such as the beautiful • The personal attitude-and-will to grow depends on the
people of the celebrity world) and in intellectual acumen individual, although motivational influences can help
(Aristotle, Einstein, Bill Gates, etc.). Since the growing youth progressive growth (coming from parents, siblings,
ordinarily cannot be these people, making comparisons of self friends, teachers, etc.).
with others is really a futile exercise. • Popularity and external appearance (such as body
physique, comely looks), admiration by others, social
Stereotypes in Gender Differences position and prestige, are among the many external
Scholars refer to gender differences, as studies in countries like factors that contribute to self-esteem but these are
the U.S. show that boys have higher self-esteem in achievement passing or vanishing, contributions to growth. They
and leadership, while girls see themselves better in terms of may last for many years, but in the end, self-esteem
congeniality and sociability (Hattie & Marsh,1996). These has to grow from internal appreciation of oneself,
studies also show that boys are more self-sufficient, while girls regardless of external circumstances in life.
are help-seeking. Other studies show that girls have a higher • Self-appreciation, self-reliance, autonomy, energy,
self-esteem in relation to competence in spelling, penmanship, courage, and other internal positive motivators are
neatness, reading and music (Elcless, et al,1993). Meanwhile, more permanent factors which can lead the adolescent
boys feel more competent in math subjects, while girls prefer to the progressive self-concept he/she needs in adult
social and verbal skills (Marsh, 1989). In terms of general life.
abilities and self-confidence, however, no significant differences
were observed. Friendship and intimacy
Teenage friendship is a social system which can be wholesome
Meanwhile, another U.S. study shows that Hispanic American in terms of sharing of thoughts and feelings, caring for one
girls view themselves stereotyped as more "feminine," therefore another, and responding to one another's deeper psychological
more submissive and dependent, than their European American needs. Adolescents tend to spend more time with friends (up to
counterparts. On the other hand, European American girls tend 16% of their time, studies show), comprising an emotional
to see themselves as stronger and more active, nurturing and investment they can benefit from.
expressive compared with their Hispanic counterparts
(Varquez-Nuttal, et al.,1987). Within the family domain, there The peer groups or cliques with which early adolescents (age
are also stereotyping concepts of adolescent American boys 10-13) identify may enlarge. Belonging in larger groupings is
and girls. Boys tend to prefer activity and autonomy of children, especially true in the case of middle adolescents (age 14-17),
while girls prefer family relationship, connections, and particularly among those with leadership qualities. From cliques
openness. On feelings, girls experience more anxiety, self- of 4-6 persons with similar interests providing companionship
doubt in making choices, isolation/individualism in the family, and security to each other, the larger peer group or crowd can
compared with boys. Generally, girls are a more emotional lot be comprised by 10-20 members sharing common interests in
compared with boys (Olver et al, 1990). social activities. Sexually, same-sex cliques can enlarge into
heterosexual cliques and interact with others in large crowd
activities such as athletic meets and social gatherings. The 2. Moratorium. This is the case of an adolescent searcher.
middle adolescent may separate from identifying with a crowd The adolescent enters a crisis by becoming aware of alternative
as he/she enters serious boy-girl heterosexual intimate roles, values and beliefs. Thus, he explores and experiments
relationships. becoming a prober and critic without any permanent
commitment to follow authority or be part of a system. The
Intimate friendships are viewed to be especially important during moratorium status is viewed as a most sophisticated mode of
early adolescence. Compared with those who have not been identity search and achievement.
involved in intimate friendship, adolescents who have
friendships characterized by compassion, openness and 3. Identity achiever. This is the point where the adolescent fully
satisfaction tend to be more sociable and more competent, while finds himself/herself.
being less anxious, depressed, and hostile. The intimate parent- An optimal sense of identity is experienced. One feels at home
child relationship appears to also wane as adolescents develop with one's body, with one's knowledge and awareness of where
intimate friendship with a romantic partner. one is and where he/she is going in addition to the possible
recognition for deeds done. Identity seekers have looked at
The world of friends can be equally important, if not more alternatives and have made their choice with an optimal feeling
important than the family world. Talking with friends and sharing of themselves.
things with them can be rewarding in the sense that friends see
both sides of the story, unlike parents who normally impose their 3. Identity diffusion. This is the case of the adolescent failing
side of an issue. As to the sexes, girls are viewed to be more to find himself/herself. There is hardly a knowledge of who
capable than boys in forming intimate friendships, benefiting one is, uncertainty running through episodes in -life.
more from social support they can get from close friends. Identity-diffused persons lack goal orientation, direction,
Evidence Further shows that friendship among boys is less and commitment. While they may have expressed interest
intimate, as they put less trust in friendship and care less about in a future career, they are vague about it and are unaware
being listened to and being understood. even of the advantage and disadvantages or the work they
want to do. Setting goals, they frequently change them as
Identity issues they have no commitment to any given aim in life. As result,
The active search which adolescents engage in to try to gain a adolescence is prolonged, unable to reach maturity due to
new understanding of self along sexual, occupational, religious, a diffused or fragmented personality. Inability to explore
political self-image is referred to as identity issues. This process alternatives and make choices may be due to psychosocial
ushers in sense of confusion as adolescents bring together all factors, springing from a complexity of reasons, such as
the things they have learned as sons/daughters, students, and disdain or hostility to playing a role in the family or
friends, and try to make sense of their self-image. community. Told by parents to do well in school so that he
can enter a prestigious college, the person may out of spite
The major task in developing self-identity is the formation of do poorly, even quit school deliberately.
inner sameness and continuity in personality. Only when
adolescents see themselves in a definite and reasonably unique Promoting a sense of identity
self can they accept themselves and the physical/social world It is clear that successful identity achievement is crucial to
they are in. Self-identity, however, is not a stagnant endpoint, developing an integrated personality. The highest self-esteem is
but rather a continuous change and evolvement of oneself achieved by identity achievers, followed by those in the
throughout life's course. This process of change, however, moratorium, foreclosure and identity diffusion status.
maybe disrupted by a traumatic experience that can create have Overall, the ingredients that make up an optimal sense of
to a person's personality, shattering the self-image he has personal identity are:
gained in the previous stages of life. 1. inner confidence about self competence and ability to
learn and
It is important to view the development of self-identity to be master new tasks.
gradual and cumulative throughout life. One finds self-more and 2. ample opportunity to try out new roles either in one's
more, accumulating or losing values and standards acquired fantasy or
since childhood. During early adolescence, there is often the in actual practice, and;
case of over-identification that leads to conformity with peers, 3. support from parents and adults.
resulting in a stereotypical or carbon-copy teenager. Here, there Clearly, parental relationship plays an important role in self-
is the case of a youth culture which provides a ready-made identity development. In fact, parental indifference and rejection
identity, setting the adolescent apart from his former identity as create inner tension among children affecting their individuation.
a child in the world of family. Identifying with the crowd, the Meanwhile, the democratic style of parental discipline makes
adolescent may reach the stage of distinguishing self from the tasks for children to be more easily fulfilling, encouraging
crowd, in a process of exploration. The teenager may also try adolescents to express themselves openly, seek guidance and
out a variety of attitudes, persuasions, commitments, advice from parents, even identifying with their parents' values
involvements revolving around the inner search for "Who I really and rules. The protection of home, which conveys love and
am," "What do I want for life," "How can I achieve my ideals?" emotional security, can be a haven for adolescents, even if they
many later seek to be independent as a free spirit.

Phases of ldentity Status Stereotypical gender roles

John Marcia expanded on Erikson's theory on identity by Several studies on gender stereotypes show. On emotional
identifying four phases in the attainment of an identity status. response, girls in early adolescence are more self-conscious,
Commitment and crisis are two dimensions that combine to excelling in verbal skills, while they invest more time in forming
define these stages: intimate friendships. Meanwhile, boys show independence and
are less emotional, involving themselves in spots (Galambos, et
1. Identity foreclosure. This is the case of an adolescent who al. 1990).
is a follower, finding security in others not in his/herself.
The adolescent makes a commitment before asking about In a cross-cultural study, the female is associated with
alternatives. This commitment arises from values or nurturance, deference and abasement, while the male is
expectations of other people (such as a parent, relative or associated with dominance, autonomy, ageing, exhibition and
friend), which may be premature as foreclosure is rooted in achievement general, the female is described to be less active
commitment to obey, follow a strong leader, respect authority-- and weaker than the male stereotype (Segal et al. 1999).
a most vulnerable kind of self-esteem develops.
In a study on gender-role in ideology, adolescents in European to boys, while poisoning through overdoses by adolescent girls
countries (the Netherlands, Germany, Finland, England) were is serious, but often not lethal. Does this picture hold true to the
most "modem" as they believed in and regimes (equality of Philippines? Find out.
sexes) ways of behaving. Meanwhile, adolescents in African
and Asian countries were most "traditional,” while those in the Identified as common reasons for suicides are physical or
U.S. were midway, a girls show preference for femininity and sexual abuse by adults, sexual victimization, and association
boys for masculinity. In comparing adolescents in the U.S. and with a suicidal friend. There are, however, warning signs that
those in Sweden, Swedish youths show their being ambitious, should be attended to as danger signals, foremost of which is
hardworking, willing to take a stand, also self-reliant and depression.
independent. Meanwhile, girls demonstrate a sense of being
more "liberated". In the U.S. girls responded to show more Depression arises from feelings of being low, sad and weary. lt
expressive ways of being compassionate, caring, eager to can be minor depression when the negative mood is mild and
assuage hurt feelings. easily passes away, but a major one if it stays and deepens into
feelings of despair, pessimism and misery. In its serious form,
In general, preparation for adult roles and socialization appear depression can influence a person through a pervasive loss of
to be major factors in gender stereotyping differences. interest or pleasure and persistent anxiety which can lead to
committing suicide.
Antisocial behaviors among adolescents
Gerald Patterson formulated a developmental progression for Pre-suicidal adolescents may change mood in a matter of weeks
anti-social behavior which takes into account (a) the importance from being calm and happy to showing manifestations that show
of parental monitoring and discipline on the child in early the risks of suicidal action, such as giving away prized
childhood (b) involvement with peer and schoolwork in middle possessions, writing a will, making empty threats to end one's
childhood, and (e) commitment with peer group in late childhood life. Parent, teacher or any concerned adult should be able to
and adolescence. recognize the suicidal cues and do the appropriate such as
provide professional counselling and health assistance.
In early childhood (ages 10-13), the child is normally
subordinated to conventional authority in the family and majority Moral development
of children including teens generally show a reasonable degree In his study of Ethics and topics that have interested moral
of adherence to moral principles, able to succumb to the scientists through the ages, Lawrence Kholberg laid down three
temptation to engage in unethical and unlawful behavior. stages of moral reasoning among adolescent:
In legal terms, the juvenile delinquent is a young person under
the age of 18, who has been apprehended and convicted for 1.Conventional level
transgression of established Iaws. At this stage, the adolescent is able to understand and conform
to social conventions, consider the motives of peens and adults,
Juvenile delinquency is an occurrence with 1.4 million Juveniles engage in proper behavior to please others, and follow the rules
in the U.S.arrested each year for crimes such as vandalism, of society.
drug abuse, running away, and (almost 900,000 each year) for The focus of thinking of the teen is towards mutual expectations,
Iarceny-theft, robbery and forcible mph. Offenses by male relationships and conformity with others. Instead of stealing an
adolescents under the age of 18 account for 17 percent (or object, he/she may think of other options to acquire that object,
almost one-fourth) of all crimes committed. The particular crimes such as by asking or saving money to buy the thing. Doing good
of burglary, auto theft, aggravated assault, and other aggressive and being good spring from a desire to be a good person by
behaviors are committed by males. Girls, more generally, have keeping rules and respecting authority, summed up in following
committed infractions related to running away from home or the Golden Rule (do unto others what you want others to do unto
deviant/illicit sexual behavior. you)

Commonly cited are a complexity of reasons to explain the 2. Post-conventional level

Incidence of juvenile delinquency. These are: (1) family factors, At this stage, the adolescent wishes to conform to:
(2) poor parental supervision, (3) poor parental behavior, (4) a) law and order (don't steal because it is against the law)
feelings of alienation (sense of separation) by children, (5) b) the social contract (rights such as life and liberty must
external factors affecting the family (economy and social be
pressures), and (6) child rejection/abuse/neglect. c) upheld to uphold the welfare of the majority in society),
and
Peer factors, Lack of recognition, even outright rejection, by d) universal ethical principles (the universal principles of
peers in early and middle elementary school grades may result justice, equality of human rights, freedom of conscience, etc.)
in making the child unfriendly, troublesome, and aggressive.
Constant exposure to peers with those who are poor Do males and females differ in moral reasoning? Some studies
academically and socially may also affect the teenager. In show that women are more focused on issues related to caring
school those treated as educationally retarded, such that they and connecting with people, while males tend to resolve moral
repeat the grades, are prone to misbehave in class, become concerns by invoking principles of fairness, equality, and justice.
truants and hate school altogether. A more recent consensus among scholars, however, is the
theory that differences in moral tendencies between male and
Teenage suicides in the U.S. is comparable to those in Australia, female are not absolute, but relative to their individual
Belgium, Great Britain (Orbach,1997). However, the incidence orientations.
of suicides is lower in Canada, Italy, Norway, the Netherlands,
New Zealand and Ireland (Drummond), but substantially higher Development of guilt
in Austria, Denmark, Hungary, Japan and Switzerland. Guilt is a sense of feeling responsible for one's actions,
particularly when harm has been done to oneself or other.
The dramatic rise of teenage suicides in different countries On the negative side, guilt can threaten self-image, such that if
beginning the 1970s has aroused worldwide attention Suicide one is unable to thresh out guilt feelings, there can be serious
rates have begun to double, even triple especially in the U.S. problems in adjusting to normal living. Guilt that causes anxiety
with those age 15-24 years of age constituting one-fifth of the and fear can usher in a complexity of illnesses, ranging from
victims. The astonishing suicide rates are equivalent to 13 chronic fatigue to escapism (e-g.ute of drugs to forget the guilty
incidences a day or 5,000 a year occurrences. Completed feeling).
suicides are higher for boys, although three times as many girls
attempt suicide (D/Attilioet al,1992). The use of firearms is lethal
On the positive side, guilt makes us aware of possible wrong Growth refers to the incremental changes in physical
doing serving as a regulator for individuals to be more characteristics such as height, weight, size, etc. Development
responsible in upholding esteemed social values. refers to qualitative changes to growth in an orderly and
meaningful fashion, resulting in maturity. Growth and
As to stages in developing guilt, the first rudimentary feelings of development contribute to each other, are inseparable, and co-
guilt begin when children think they have caused some kind of occur.
harm to others. Inaction to change behavior adds to the initial
guilt feeling. Heredity is the transmission of physical characteristics from
parents to children through their genes. It influences all aspects
Anticipatory Guilt is felt when the child sees consequences that such as height, weight, intelligence, aptitudes as well as disease
are detrimental to oneself or others (eg.stealing an item may and conditions.
cause others to grieve losing a prized possession).
Meanwhile, Survivor Guilt is experienced when one feels The environmental factor, influencing childhood development
blameworthy regardless of involvement (eg. lingering feeling of involve the physical surroundings and geographical conditions
baseless guilt). of the place the child lives in, and his social environment and
relationships with family and peers.
Influences in moral behavior
Peers can encourage positive behaviors (e.g.example of good Boys and Girls grow in different ways, especially nearing
study habits), although they can also encourage misconduct or puberty. Their temperaments also vary,making them
inappropriate behaviors(eg use of illegal drugs). Peer influence show interest in different things.
should not be underestimated.
Proper exercise helps children grow well and reach milestones
Compared with the Influence of peers, the influence of parents on time or sooner. Exercise also keeps them healthy and fights
is more pervasive. The quality of parent-child relationship is off diseases by strengthening the immune system.
most positive when parents show competence, non-oppressive
level parental control, appropriate support and direction. The timely functioning of hormones is critical for normal physical
growth and development in children. Imbalances in the
On the other hand, parent/adult and peer values can occur when hormone-secreting glands can result in growth defects,
parents fail in providing the appropriate levels of support and behavioural problems and diseases.
nurturance. Thus, parents who do not care about the
whereabouts of their children may lose them to being dependent Malnutrition can cause deficiency diseases that affect the
on peers. growth and development of children. Overeating can lead to
health problems in the long run like ovesity, diabetes and heart
In the end, the inability of parents to provide quality presence disease.
and time can cause frustration and anger, endangering the
teen's emotional behavior. Positive growth is seen when families invest time, energy and
love in their child’s development. When families abuse or
As the adolescent goes through a stage of emotional autonomy neglect children, they become individuals who have poor social
casting off infantile ties to family, it is important that he/she skills.
develops a sense of individuation, taking personal responsibility
for himself and not leave responsibility with parents. It is Geographical Influences: Where you live influences on how your
important to note, however, that the process of individuation children turn out to be. Even the weather of a place influences
starts from infancy but sharpens when the teen develops a children through bodily rhythms, allergies and other conditions.
sense of separateness and competence. Studies show that East
Asians, including Filipinos, and Latin Americans show more The socio-economic status of a family determines the quality of
children-parents cohesion and closeness. the opportunity a child gets. Well-off families can afford special
aid if the kids need it.
Always, it is helpful for parents to respect the self-determination
rights of their growing children, such as their choosing friends, Learning builds the child up mentally, emotionally, and socially
getting space for privacy (eg writing diaries), making small and so they operate as functional individuals. Reinforcement is
big choices (eg, choosing a college course). when an activity is repeated and refined to solidify the lesson
learned.
Identified by scholars in the process of individuation are: (a) the
practicing phase, as parents continue to make behavior IT IS IMPORTANT TO NOTE THAT THESE FACTORS DO
conformance demands while the adolescent begins to feel the NOT ACT IN ISOLATION BUT INTERACT WITH AND
need for psychological freedom, (b) approvement, as INFLUENCE EACH OTHER. ADDITIONALY, THERE ARE
adolescents re-establish bonds with parents, induced by SEVERAL FACTORS, INCLUDING GENETICS, NUTRITION,
parents recognizing their psychological need for freedom to PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS,
grow. SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS, AND ACCESS TO
EDUCATION AND HEALTHCARE. EACH OF THESE
Thus, it is important for parents to be aware of the life FACTORS PLAYS A UNIQUE ROLE IN SHAPING A CHILD’S
satisfaction and psychological well-being of their children. Life GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT.
satisfaction consists of the child’s perception of the quality of
his/her life. Psychological well-being consists of a complex
multiple dimension of the child’s self-esteem, feeling of control,
sociability (as opposed to anxiety and loneliness).

In the end, a proper balance between parent-child

connectedness and separation is best, allowing for cross-
cultural ethnic differences (cg. Christian/Islamic/Asian/Westem
cultures).

FACTORS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT

ETHICS

ARISTOTLE VIRTUE ETHICS

NATURAL LAW ETHICS (ST. THOMAS AQUINAS’S
CHRISTIAN ETHICS)
UTILITARIAN ETHICS

KANTIAN ETHICS (KANT’S CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE)

JOHN RAWLS’S THEORY OF JUSTICE