Module 1 – Properties and Structure of Matter

 ATOMIC STRUCTURE (CHAPTER 1)

 Criteria: investigate the basic structure of stable and unstable isotopes by

examining:
 The distribution of Electrons, Protons and Neutrons in the atom

History of the atomic structure

- All matter is composed of atoms. They are the basic building blocks of matter
- Evolution of the atomic model theories over time:
1800- Dalton: (Hard sphere model) Different elements have atoms of differing
size and mass
1903- Thomson: (Plum pudding model) small electrons in a large area of
positive charge
1911- Rutherford: (Planetary model) Atom has a positively charged nucleus
(gold foil experiment); electrons orbit the nucleus
1913- Bohr: (Quantised shell model) Electrons exist and orbit in discrete
energy levels
1932- Schrodinger, J Chadwick: (Electron cloud model) Quantum/geometric
model of electron position (orbitals)

Atomic Structure and Subatomic Particles

- Three subatomic particles of an atom are: Protons, Electrons and Neutrons
-
Name Relative Charge Location Mass
Protons +1 Nucleus 1 amu (approx.)
Electrons -1 Shells around the 1/1840 amu
nucleus (according
to the Bohr model)
Neutrons 0 (neutral) Nucleus 1 amu (approx.)
- Together protons and neutrons are referred to as nucleons
- Energies of shells increase with increasing distance from the nucleus

 ATOMIC MASS AND ISOTOPES

 Criteria:
1. investigate the basic structure of stable and unstable isotopes by examining:
 Representation of the symbol, atomic number and mass number (nucleon
number)
 Their position on the periodic table
 2. Calculate the relative atomic mass from isotopic composition
Chemical Symbol
- Key difference between the elements is the number of protons they have
- Number of protons= the atomic number (Z)
- Identity of elements can vary because the composition of their subatomic
particles can vary

- Number of neutrons = Atomic Number (P=E) – Mass Number (P+N)

Isotopes
- Isotopes of an element have the same atomic number (i.e. the same number
of protons= the number of electrons), but a different number of neutrons in
the nucleus, hence different mass numbers.
- Relative atomic mass (weighted avg.)
Isotope 35 37
Cl Cl
Isotopic abundance (%) 75.77 24.23

Calculate:
[(75.77/100) x 35] + [(24.23/100) x 37] = 35.48 (always round to 4s.f.)

 ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

 Criteria: investigate the basic structure of stable and unstable isotopes by

examining:
 Their position on the periodic table
 Model the atom’s discrete energy levels, including electronic configuration and
the spdf notation
 Electronic Structure
Bohr model:
- Electrons occupy specific shells (energy levels)
- Further away from the nucleus, higher the energy of the shell
- Each shell holds a maximum of 2n^2 electrons
1. 1st shell: n=1: 2 electrons
2. 2nd shell: n=2: 8 electrons
3. 3rd shell: n=3: 18 electrons
General rule: 2,8,8,2

- Period: Number of shells filled

- Group: No of valence (outermost) electrons
- Only the outer shell or valence electrons can take part in chemical reactions
- Elements in the same group have similar physical and chemical properties
Alkali Metals Group 1 1 valence e React violently
Alkaline Earth Group 2 2 valence e Quite reactive
Metals
Halogens Group 17 7 valence e Pretty reactive
Noble gases Group 18 8 valence e Stable

Chemical Stability and the octet rule

- Noble gases are inert- stable electron configuration
- All other atoms strive to achieve the same electron configuration as noble
gases
- 2 atoms in the 1st shell
- 8 atoms in the 2nd shell
- 8 atoms in the 3rd shell
 - This is the octet rule

Ion formation
- When atoms gain or lose electrons, they become charges ions, wherein the
number of protons is not equal to the number of electrons
- A sodium atom loses one electron to gain a full outer shell. This is when it
satisfies the octet rule.
- It then become a +1 charged sodium ion

- Metals lose electrons, form cations (+vely charged ions)

- Non-metals gain electrons, form anions (-vely charged ions), -vely charged
ions end with ‘ide’. Eg: Fluoride ion

Valency
- Valency is the measure of an element’s combining power when forming
compounds
- It is neither positive, nor negative
- Same group= same valency
- Monovalent (1)
Divalent (2)
Trivalent (3)
Tetravalent (4)
- Group 4 elements such as carbon can either gain or lose 4 electrons, so they
can either for a cation (carbon) or anion (carbide)

 ADVANCED ATOMIC STRUCTURE (CHAPTER 2)

 ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE (CHAPTER 3)

  Criteria: Demonstrate, explain and predict the relationships in the
observable trends in physical and chemical properties of elements in
periods and groups in the periodic table, including but not limited to:
- State of matter at room temperature
- Electronic configurations and atomic radii
- First ionisation energy and electronegativity
- Reactivity with water

- 118 known elements in groups and tables in order of increasing atomic

number
- Elements with the same valency are in the same group. These elements have
similar physical and chemical properties, due to them having them same
valency. They are thus called “chemical families”
- Each block in the periodic table in named after the type of orbital being filled

- Summary:
Block Name Columns on PT Electrons
S Main group 2 2
metals
P Main group 6 6
metals
D Transition metals 10 10
F Inner-transition 14 14
metals
 - Helium is still considered as an s block element. It is just placed in group 18 as
it has the same valency and properties as group 18 elements

Physical Properties of Elements

 Criteria: classify elements based on their properties and position in the PT
through their:
- physical properties

Properties of Metals, Non-metals and Semi-metals

- Position on Periodic Table

- Summary of physical properties

Metals Non-Metals Semi- Metals Transition Metals
LHS of periodic RHS of periodic table Antimony, boron,
table silicon, germanium, Similar physical
arsenic and properties to
tellurium. main group (s and
Sometimes p block) metals
polonium and
Astatine are
included as well
Lustrous/shiny Dull Moderate lustre + Slightly different
crystalline chemical
properties i.e.
they form a
greater variety of
compounds due
to the presence
 of an incomplete
valence d
subshell
High thermal and Low thermal and Moderate thermal
electrical electrical conductivity conductivity, semi-
conductivity conductors of
electricity
Highly malleable Soft/brittle Not malleable, very
(can be beaten brittle
into thin sheets)
and ductile (can be
drawn into thin
wires)
High density Low density Moderate density
High MP and BP Low MP and BP High MP and BP

States of Matter at Room Temperature

- Elements exist in different physical and chemical states at room temperature
and pressure
- Most elements exist as solids
- There are 11 elemental gases at room temperature and pressure
 Five of them are diatomic (molecules containing 2 atoms each)
 Six of them are monatomic gases, mainly the noble gases
Monatomic gases at RT and P Diatomic gases at RT and P
Helium (He H2 (Hydrogen)
Neon (Ne) O2 (Oxygen)
Argon (Ar) F2 (Fluorine)
Krypton (Kr) CL2 (Chlorine)
Radon (Rn) N2 (Nitrogen)
Xenon (Xe)
- Only 2 of the 118 naturally occurring element s are liquids at room
temperature and pressure
 Mercury (Hg) (l) – metal that is liquid at RT and P
- used in thermometers
- used in blood pressure apparatus
- Very toxic, must be handled with care
 Bromine (Br) (l) – non-metal (diatomic) that is liquid at RT and P
- reddish-brown liquid
- Highly corrosive
- Used in fire retardants and photography
- The IUPAC defines RT and P as 25 degrees C, 100KPa (kilopascals)
Chemical Properties of Elements
 Criteria: students classify elements based on their properties and position
in the PT through their:
-chemical properties
Demonstrate, explain and predict the relationships in the observable trends
in physical and chemical properties of elements in periods and groups in
the periodic table, including but not limited to:
-reactivity with water

Groups of the periodic table and reactivity

- Chemical properties of a substance are related to the number of valence
electrons= group number
Group Properties in Reactivity
1 - Alkali metals
- React vigorously
- Lose 1 electron
- Strong alkaline solutions are formed
2 - Alkaline earth metals
- Less vigorous reactions
- Lose 2 electrons
- Form alkaline oxides and hydroxides
when they react with water
- Produced from minerals. Example:
limestone for Ca
17 - Halogens “salt-formers”
- Gain I electron
- Achieve a stable octet
- Exist as diatomic molecule ( F2 (gas),
CL2 (gas), BR2(liquid), I2 (solid) )- first
four halogens
18 - Noble (inert) gases
- Unreactive monatomic gases
- Zero valency (stable)

Allotropes
 Criteria: investigate elements that possess the physical property of
allotropy
- Allotropes are forms of the same element (in the same state) with different
atomic arrangements
 - At the microscopic level:
- same atoms
- differ how they are connected and bonded to each other
- At the macroscopic level (visible with the naked eye): different arrangements result
in different physical properties such as colour density, hardness and electrical
conductivity
Carbon Allotropes
 Graphite
 Structure of graphite:

 2D planar flat sheets of carbon hexagonally bonded together

 Each carbon atom bonded to 3 other carbon atoms by strong covalent
bonds
 The layers of carbon are held together by weak intermolecular forces
which causes the layers to slip and slide. Moreover, graphite is soft.
This makes is apt for use as a lubricant
 Black coloured naturally occurring material
 Low density- 2.26 g cm-3
 Conducts electricity, DESPITE BEING A NON-METAL: There are 4
valence electrons in carbon, but only three are bonded. This means
 that there is still one delocalised valence electron which is free to
move around and conduct electricity
 Uses: Pencils, electrodes and lubricants
 Graphene: single layer of graphite is called graphene. It is extremely
strong, efficient thermal and electrical conductor, potential
applications in electronics

 Diamond
 Structure of diamond:

 Carbon atoms are covalently bonded to 4 other carbon atoms to form

a 3D lattice with a uniform tetrahedral structure (repeat unit)
 Hard, transparent solid that does not conduct electricity
 High density (3.51 g cm-3). Higher than graphite. This is because the
covalent bonds in diamond hold the carbon atoms tightly and much
more closely together than graphite (weak intermolecular forces
holding the layers leave gaps between the layers). Hence, more mass is
packed into the same volume. Therefore, diamond has a higher density
than graphite.
 Use: jewellery, cutting and grinding tools
 Fullerenes
 Structure of fullerenes
 Buckyball Carbon Nanotubes

 Most recently discovered carbon allotrope (1980s)

 Sphered, ellipsoids and cylindrical tubes
 Buckminsterfullerene or Buckyball
o C60 – 60 carbon atoms
o Solid at room temperature
o Low density (1.65 g cm-3)
o Use: anticancer drug, medical imaging, tissue engineering in
nanotechnology (in future)

 CHEMICAL BONDING 1 (CHAPTER 4)

Pure Substances
- Definite composition
- Cannot be separated by physical means
- Made of one type of particle only
- Represented by chemical formulae
(Example: CO2)
- Constant composition
- Same composition and properties, no matter
what the source

Elements Compounds
- Made up of only one type of atom
- Made up 2 or more different types of
- All the 118 known elements on the
elements that are chemically bonded in a
periodic table
fixed ratio
- Cannot be broken down into simpler
- Can be broken down into simpler
substances
compounds or component elements
 Mixtures
- 2 or more substances that are physically
intermingled, not chemically combined
- Can be separated without chemical change
- Proportions can vary, unlike elements
- Thus, not represented by chemical formulae

Heterogeneous
Homogeneous
- Non-uniform, different
- Same, uniform composition
composition
- Mixed at a particle level
- Mixed less thoroughly
- Eg: Stainless steel
- Eg: Conglomerate Rock

Electronegativity and Chemical Bonding

 Criteria:
1. investigate the role of electronegativity in determining the ionic or
covalent nature of bonds between atoms
2. Investigate the differences between ionic and covalent compounds
through:
-examining the spectrum of bonds between atoms with varying degrees of
polarity with respect to their constituent elements’ positions on the PT

- Chemical Bonding helps on achieving octet rule by:

Transfer of electrons
Sharing of electrons
- Electronegativity: An element’s ability to attract bonding electrons.
- Trends in electronegativity: 1. Increases from bottom to top
2. Increases from left to right
 - Metallic bonding: atom 1 = low electronegativity, metal
Atom 2= low electronegativity, metal

- Ionic Bonding: atom 1= low electronegativity, metal

Atom 2= high electronegativity, non-metal

- Covalent bonding: atom 1= high electronegativity, non-metal

Atom 2= high electronegativity, non-metal

Metallic Bonding
 Criteria: investigate the different chemical structures of atoms and elements,
including but not limited to:
-metallic structure

- Physical properties of metals:

Bright
Lustrous appearance
High electrical and thermal conductivity
Malleability and ductility

- Metals, low electronegativity, form positive ions

- Metallic bonding: 3D lattice of positive ions in a sea of delocalised electrons
- Attraction between positive metal ions and neighbouring loosely held sea of
delocalised electrons which are free to move around and conduct electricity
- Metallic bonding occurs in pure elemental metals and alloys
- Since metals have low electronegativity, they easily give up their valence
electrons, leaving positive metal cations to achieve a noble gas configuration
 Ionic Bonding

 Criteria:
1. investigate the nomenclature of inorganic substances using IUPAC naming
conventions
2. Investigate the different chemical structures of atoms and elements, including,
but not limited to:
- Ionic networks
3. Investigate the differences between ionic and covalent compounds through:
- Using nomenclature, valency and chemical formulae (including Lewis dot
diagrams)

- Polyatomic ions: a charged group of ions containing multiple atoms bonded

together
- Metals- LHS of PT- lose e-s – form cations (+ve)
- Non-metals- RHS of PT- gain e-s- form anions (-ve)
- Transition metals- multiple ions- different charges, Example: Iron (II) AND Iron
(III)
- Ionic Bonding:
a. A crystal lattice in which ions of opposite charge are held together by
strong electrostatic attraction
b. There are no independent molecules in ionic compounds
c. The strong electrostatic attraction between ions in the rigid crystal
lattice cause the ions to be tightly held in their place

- Electrons transfer from a LE (metal) to a HE (non-metals) in an ionic

compound
 Naming Ionic compounds, Writing Ionic Formulae
- Cations comes first, followed by anion
- Cations:
 Name of the cation is the same as the name of the element
 If there is more than one charge, indicate using roman numerals. Example: Iron(II)
- Anions:
 Monatomic ions end with the suffix ‘ide’
 Polyatomic ions have special names ( these polyatomic anions must be
memorised)

Name Formula
Hydroxide OH-
Nitrate NO3-
Sulfate SO42-
Carbonate CO32-
Phosphate PO43-

- Remember: Silver ion (+1), Zinc ion (+2)

- Table for suffixes:
Suffix Examples
- ide F-, CL-, S2-, O2-, N3-, OH-,
CN-, H-
- ate SO42-, NO31-, PO43-
- ite SO32-, NO2-, PO33-

- When writing ionic formula, use the cross method learnt in year 10

 CHEMICAL BONDING 2 (CHAPTER 5)

 Criteria:
 investigate the nomenclature of inorganic substances using IUPAC naming
conventions
 Investigate the different chemical structures of atoms and elements, including,
but not limited to:
- Covalent networks (including diamond and silicon dioxide)
- Covalent Molecular
 Investigate the differences between ionic and covalent compounds through:
- Using nomenclature, valency and chemical formulae (including Lewis dot
diagrams)

Bonding between Non-metals

- Ionic bonding: between metals and non-metals (large difference in
electronegativity- one is high and the other is low)
- Covalent Bonding:
o between two non-metals (high electronegativities), small difference,
both want to hold onto their electrons, so they share their valence
electrons
o A stable electron configuration is achieved by both atoms (hydrogen
and chlorine) by the sharing of electrons (full valence shells)
o Covalent bonds can form between the atoms of the same element or
different elements. Example H2 or H20
o Example of HCL covalent bonding

Covalent Networks and Molecules

- Covalent bonding can result in two types of structures:
1. covalent networks (covalent lattices)

- results in a continuous network of atoms joined by covalent bonds

- examples: diamond, graphite and silicon dioxide (quartz, found in sand)

2. covalent molecules
 - atoms are covalently bonded into molecules i.e. discrete molecules
- Molecule: a neutrally charged group of 2 or more atoms bonded together
o Molecules of an element have only one type of atom
o Molecules of a compound have two or more different types of atoms
- These particles can move independently of each other

Naming Covalent Compounds

1. The first element is named using the name of the element
2. Second element always ends in ‘ide’
3. Indicate number of atoms using prefixes
1 mono-
2 di-
3 tri-
4 tetra-
5 penta-
6 hexa-
7 hepta-
8 octa-
9 nona-
10 deca-
4. If the first element has only one atom, don’t use mono-
5. Drop the vowel: tetroxide (RIGHT), not tetraoxide (WRONG)
Example: N02 is named as Nitrogen Dioxide

Lewis Electron Dot Structures

 Criteria: Investigate the differences between ionic and covalent compounds
through:
- Using nomenclature, valency and chemical formulae (including Lewis dot
diagrams)
Atoms and Ions
- Gilbert Lewis develop the Lewis electron dot diagrams
- Only show the valence electrons (determined by group number) in an atom
- The symbol of the element and the dot representing the valence electron is
shown
- Steps:
  Imagine there are eight positions that the electron can occupy around
the element

 Place the dots in a way that they are not adjacent to each other i.e.
first fill one on each side (4) then double up from the top again in a
clockwise direction

 Unpaired electron is not paired and is involved in covalent bonding

 Lone pair electrons are paired together and are normally not involved
in bonding

 Cation:
- no dots as no valence shell electrons are lost
- Square brackets
- Charge on top right
 Anion:
- All eight dots are drawn (full outer shell)
- Square brackets
- Charge on top right

Ionic Compounds
- Follow the steps outlined for cations and anions on the top and place ions
next to each other in the correct ratio
- Examples:
1. Sodium Chloride

2. Lithium Oxide
 Covalent Compounds
- Show the shared bonding electrons between the atoms in the Lewis dot
diagram
- Example of single bond:
1. Hydrogen Chloride

- Covalent substances can also contain double or triple bonds

- Structural formulae can be converted into a Lewis dot diagram:
1. 1 line (single bond) = 2 atoms
2. 2 lines (double bond) = 4 atoms
3. 3 lines (triple bond) = 6 atoms

- Example:

Covalent Molecules
- Helpful method for drawing Lewis Dot diagrams for covalent molecules
 STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES 1 (CHAPTER 6)

Physical Properties of Substances

 Criteria: Explore the similarities and differences between the nature of
intermolecular and intramolecular bonds and the strength of the forces
associated with each, in order to explain the:
- physical properties of elements
- physical properties of compounds

Physical Properties
- Macroscopic properties (visible with the naked eye)
- Determine whether a substance is metallic, ionic, covalent network or
covalent molecular
- Physical Properties include:
o MP and BP
o Thermal and electrical conductivity
o Appearance
o Hardness
o Malleability, ductility, brittleness
- Describe macroscopic features, relate it to the physical property
- Boiling point: measure of thermal energy required to change from a liquid to
gaseous state at a specified pressure. It reflects the strength of the forces
holding the particles together
 o Substance is tightly packed together: high BP, forces holding the
particles together are stronger, harder to break apart (SOLIDS)
o Substance is loosely packed together: low BP, forces holding the
particles together are weaker, easier to break apart (LIQUIDS OR
GASES)
- Hardness: ability of a substance to resist deformation when an external force
is applied
- Conductivity: ability of a substance to transfer heat or electricity through its
bulk. Substances can be classified as either conductors or insulators. The
presence of mobile charged carriers such as ions or electrons determine the
ability of a substance to conduct electricity

Physical properties of metals

 Criteria:
Investigate the different chemical structures of atoms and elements, including
but not limited to:
-metallic structure
Explore the similarities and differences between the nature of intermolecular
and intramolecular bonds and the strength of the forces associated with each,
in order to explain the:
- physical properties of elements

- A metallic structure consists of a 3D lattice of positive metal cations in a sea

of delocalised electrons

- Summary table:
Property Explanation
Good conductors of The metallic structure consists of positive
electricity metal cations in a sea of delocalised
electrons. These electrons are freely
mobile and can carry charge
High MP and BP Metals have a high MP and BP as metallic
 bonding is quite strong and the particles
are held closely together (metals are solid
at RT and P). Therefore, it requires a lot of
energy input to break apart
Malleability and Ductility Metals are not broken or deformed when a
sudden force is applied as the cations are
free to move around a cushion of
delocalised electrons. No bonds are broken
as the cations move along with the
electrons
Heat conductivity The ions in a metal are free to vibrate in
place. An increase in temperature causes
an increase in the random motion of ions
and delocalised electrons. This kinetic
energy is passed along to other ions and
electrons, making metals good conductors
of heat
Lustre Metals appear dull rather than lustrous:
Metals are usually covered by coatings of
metal oxides (corrosion) which masks the
natural lustrous surface of metals

Lustre:
Because electrons have a wide range of
distribution of energies, they can absorb
light of many wavelengths falling on the
metal surface. The electrons can then re-
emit this light, making metals lustrous

Structure and Properties of Ionic Compounds

 Criteria: Investigate the different chemical structures of atoms and elements,
including but not limited to:
-metallic structure
Explore the similarities and differences between the nature of intermolecular
and intramolecular bonds and the strength of the forces associated with each,
in order to explain the:
- physical properties of compounds

Bonding in Ionic Compounds

- Ionic Bonding: Strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged
ions in a crystal lattice
- Melting and Boiling points
o The electrostatic attraction holding the ions together (ionic bonds) are
strong
o Ionic compounds usually have a high MP and BP. Therefore, a lot of
energy input is required to break apart these strong ionic bonds
- Brittleness
o Ionic compounds tend to be brittle rather than malleable or ductile
o Ionic solids are held rigidly in place by strong electrostatic attraction.
When a force is applied, it shifts the ions and causes like charges to
come together. These like charges repel each other and will break
apart the crystal lattice – brittle
- Electrical and Thermal Conductivity
o Ionic solids are poor conductors of heat
 Held together by strong electrostatic attraction, ions are not capable of
vibrations, heat energy will not be transferred
o Ionic solids are poor conductors of electricity in solid state
 Ions are held rigidly in place due to the strong electrostatic attraction.
They are immobile and cannot conduct electricity (which needs mobile
charge carriers)
o Ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten
 When molten, the ionic bonds are broken so the charged cations and
anions are free to move around and carry charge, therefore,
conducting electricity
- Solutions of Ionic Compounds
o Some ionic compounds dissolve in water and form aqueous solutions
o Ionic bonds break in this process and the ions dissociate
o Dissociated ions are mobile, so the solution can conduct electricity

Dissolution Equations
- Examples:
o Mention states
 o Before dissolution has happened, the state is solid
o When dissolution has happened, the states are aqueous

 STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES 1 (CHAPTER 7)

 Criteria: investigate the different chemical structures of atoms and elements,
including but not limited to:
- Covalent Networks (including diamond and silicon dioxide)
- Covalent Molecular
Criteria: Explore the similarities and differences between the nature of
intermolecular and intramolecular bonds and the strength of the forces
associated with each, in order to explain the:
- physical properties of elements
- physical properties of compounds

Bonding in Covalent Substances

- Non-metals can achieve full outer shells by sharing electrons to form covalent
bonds
- Covalent Substances:
o Covalent Molecular
- Consist of discrete particles
- Form covalent bonds between atoms into discrete (separate)
particles
o Covalent Network
- Bonds extend throughout the 3D lattice structure

Covalent Molecular Substances

- Intermolecular forces: forces between the molecules
- Covalent bonds: Intra molecular forces
- While covalent bonds (INTRA molecular forces) within a molecule are strong,
the intermolecular forces are comparatively weaker
- Intermolecular forces are not chemical bonds
 Physical properties of covalent molecular substances
- When a covalent molecular substance boils or melts, the intermolecular
forces are broken, although the covalent bonds remain intact
- Thus, liquid water would contain intermolecular forces, but boiled water
won’t
- Summary table
Property Description
Low MP and BP (Below 250 A very little amount of heat energy
degrees celsius) needs to be applied in order to
overcome the weak intermolecular
forces holding the substance together
Non-conductors of electricity Covalent molecular substances are
when solid or molten formed by the sharing of valence
electrons which means that there are no
charges formed. Therefore, no
electricity is conducted due to the
absence of mobile charged particles
Soft and easy to break Held together by weak intermolecular
forces which break apart easily when an
external force is applied
Soluble in Water Intermolecular forces holding the
covalent molecular substance together
are easily broken during dissolution. The
covalent bonds do not break in this
process

Acids in Water
- Acids are a special class of covalent molecular compounds
- They will dissociate and ionise in water to produce ions
- The ions produce will be H+ and an anion
- An aqueous solution of an acid will conduct electricity as there are mobile
charged particles (ions) present
- All three states will be aqueous
- Ionisation equations:
H2SO4 (aq) – 2H+(aq) + SO4 2- (aq)

Covalent Network Substances

- Physical properties of covalent network substances
o Diamond, graphite and quartz (silicon dioxide- sand) are examples
o An empirical formula (lowest common ratio) is used for covalent
network substances
 o Summary table

Property Explanation
Do not dissolve in water The strong covalent bonds holding the
substance together cannot be broken
apart by the interaction with H2O
molecules
Non-conductors of No charges are present as valence
electricity when solid or electrons are shared
molten
High MP and BP (above 250 Strong covalent bonds hold the atoms
degrees Celsius) together. A large amount of heat energy
is required to break apart these bonds
Very Hard Covalent bonds holding the substance
together are very strong and require a
very large amount of force to be
distorted

 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY (CHAPTER 8)

Criteria: Investigate the properties of unstable isotopes using natural and human-
made radioisotopes as examples, including but not limited to:
- Types of radiation
- Types of balanced nuclear reactions

Nuclear stability
- Most atoms encountered in daily life have a stable nucleus
- Radioactive isotopes or radioisotopes have an unstable-nuclei and can
spontaneously break down and release radiation in the form of alpha or beta
particles or gamma rays
- Nuclear composition determines whether an isotope is radioactive or stable
- A nucleus is unstable if:
o The number of protons exceeds 82(lead)
o It falls outside the zone of stability (neutron to proton ratio is not 1:1
or stable)
- As atomic number increases, the stable neutron to proton ratio increases to
1:5:1. This is because a large number of neutrons are required to stabilise the
strong repulsion amongst the positively charged protons
- Stability is favoured by an even number of protons and an even number of
neutrons
- Radioisotopes have very similar physical and chemical properties to the stable
isotopes of the element
- Radioisotopes also have the same chemical properties as the stable isotopes
of the element as they have similar electron configurations
o Significant in nuclear medicine because radioisotopes undergo same
physiological processes as stable isotopes

Radioactive decay
Nuclear Reactions
- Involve rearrangement of protons and neutrons to form new nuclei and
therefore, new atoms
- Features of a nuclear reaction:
 Atoms of one element change into atoms of another element
 Protons and neutrons are rearranged or change in number
 Large amounts of energy are involved
 Measurable change in the mass of reactants and products
 Rate- affected by the number of nuclei, not by temperature, catalysts
or the type of compound the nucleus is in

- Rules to be obeyed:
o Law of conservation of charge: sum of atomic numbers in the reactants
equals the sum of atomic numbers in the products
o Law of conservation of mass: sum of mass numbers in the reactants
equals the sum of mass numbers in the products

Alpha decay
- Nucleus emits and alpha particle (4/2 He)

- X is the parent nucleus and Y is the daughter nucleus

- After doing the maths, the element can be figured out by looking at the
atomic number on the periodic table
Beta Decay
- Spontaneous decay by the emission of an electron
- Nucleus emits an electron and becomes a proton
- General equation:
Gamma Decay
- Electromagnetic radiation
- When a nucleus decays by emitting gamma radiation, there is no change in
composition, but it ends up in a lower energy state
- General equation:
 Deflection:
- Passing alpha, beta and gamma through an electric field
- Beta particles are deflected to a much greater extent than alpha particles due
to their small mass, whilst gamma is not deflected

-
Beta particle is attracted to +ve end of the magnet
- Alpha particle is attracted to the -ve end of the magnet
- Summary table
Type of Radiation Alpha Beta Gamma
Particle emitted Helium nucleus Electron 0/-1 e Gamma photon
4/2 He
Charge +2 -1 No charge
Penetration Stopped by 5cm of Stopped by 0.5 cm Stopped by several
(typical) air or 0.5 mm of of aluminium cm of lead or
paper concrete
Ionisation effect High Medium Low
Deflected by Yes Yes No
magnetic field

- Ionisation refers to the extent that radiation will interact with the other
substances, causing them to lose electrons. This damages the living tissue.
- Reference to penetration and ionisation ability is essential for finding out
which radiation is best to use

Half Life
- The time it takes for half of a given number of radioactive nuclei to decay
- The rate of decay is determined experimentally and is constant for each
radioisotope
- Graph:
- The vertical axis represents the number of radioactive nuclei present and the
horizontal axis is time
- Steps to calculating half-lives:
1. Divide the number of years – larger by the smaller (This should usually be
a whole number)
2. Then express this number as t in the equation ½^t x 1000

Uses of Radioisotopes
- Radioisotopes are used in two major aspects of the medical field: diagnosis
and treatment
- Diagnosis
1. Fluorine -18 used in PET scans (positron emission tomography)
o Fluorine 18 glucose is injected into the patient
o Gamma radiation is detected by a special scanner to produce an
image
o The intensity of gamma radiation reflects the level of brain activity
2. Technetium- 99
o Used in around 85% of all radio diagnostic procedures
o It has a short six- hour half-life and produces gamma radiation (high
penetration and low ionisation energy)
o Diagnosed without surgery- non-invasive : minimal harm to the
patient
o It is administered to the patient and then distributed to relevant
regions of the patient’s body
 o The radiation is then detected by an external camera
3. Urea Breath Test
o Patient’s swallow urea containing radioactive carbon-14
o If the ulcer causing bacteria is present, they will convert the urea
into radioactive carbon-dioxide
o Radiation is detected in the exhaled air and this confirms the
presence of H. pylori bacteria
- Treatment
1. Cobalt -60
o Used in gamma knife radiosurgery
o Used to focus gamma radiation on the cells in a brain tumour,
stopping them from reproducing
2. Iodine-131
o Taken up as normal iodine
o Placed inside tumours to destroy them from within
o Used to treat thyroid cancer

Benefits of Radioisotopes
- Diagnoses is relatively safe and inexpensive
- They have led to a greater understanding of diseases and infections

Disadvantages of Radioisotopes
- Radiation damages DNA and other cell components
- Some radioisotopes can remain in the body and cause long-lasting damage
- Logistical difficulties with the use of radioisotopes that have short half-lives

Other uses of radioisotopes

- Industry
o Gamma producing isotopes are used for detecting cracks and flaws in
metal and concrete structures. The gamma radiation passing through
the object is recorded on film, like an X-ray
o They are also used in levelling devices and thickness gauges
o Cobalt-60 and iridium-192: relatively longer half-lives and are not
consistently replaced- this makes them suitable for industrial purposes
- Homes
o Americium-241 is used in smoke detectors
o Emits alpha particles which ionise O2 and N2 in the air inside the
chamber allowing a small steady flow between the electrodes
o When smoke enters the space between the electrodes, the alpha
radiation is absorbed by the smoke particles instead, causing the
electric current to fall and setting off the alarm