MODULE 1 Measurement

Prepared by: Engr. Paul Erwin S.
Sarabia, MEng, PhD
AKLAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Kalibo Campus
Kalibo Aklan
Engineering and Architecture Department

2nd Semester, School Year 2019 - 2020
MODULE 1
MEASUREMENT
Learning Outcome: At the end of the module the students are expected to have:
1. Define, discuss, and distinguish the nature of physics that deals with concepts in seeking
the range of our experience and to reduce it to order that describe properties of matter,
energy, space, and time.
2. Analyze and formulate solutions involving measurements in simple cases means
comparing a thing with a standard to see how many times as big it is.
3. Organize complete set of units on solutions to engineering problems both fundamental
and derived.
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Prepared by: Engr. Paul Erwin S. Sarabia, MEng, PhD

Kalibo Campus
Kalibo Aklan

The Relationship of Physics to Engineering

Engineering has often been called applied physics, as though the physicist discovered all
fundamental truth and the engineer merely applied it; as though the entire structure of
engineering rested on the shoulders of physics.
This is true only in the very limited sense that fundamental knowledge is called physics, and
that the application of that knowledge is called engineering.
In actual fact, there is so great interplay between physics and engineering that activity in
one field is stimulated by the needs and the successes of the other. The entire radio industry
owes its birth to the researches of physicists such as Maxwell, Hertz, and J. J. Thomson during
the latter half of the last century.
Much of today's experimental physics would not be possible without the developments
which have taken place in the technology of radio through the efforts of such men as
Edison, DeForest, Fleming, Marconi, and Armstrong.
The Scope of Physics

Physics is a fundamental science dealing with matter and energy. By convention, the subject
matter of physics has been divided into such topics as mechanics, heat, sound, light, and
electricity. In addition to these general classifications, present-day physics includes atomic
physics, nuclear physics, solid-state physics, chemical physics, biophysics, and many other
subdivisions. It is impossible to include all aspects of physics in a single definition or
paragraph, and to distinguish physics clearly from its nearest neighbors, the other physical
sciences-astronomy., chemistry, and geology.
Like other scientists, the physicist studies nature, and, although the scientist is himself part of
the world, he attempts to describe nature as it exists without his interference. Inspired by the
conviction that nature is orderly and "rational," the physicist has sought to find that order and
to express it as elegantly and as concisely as possible. Physics has attempted to study the
least complex aspects of nature, or, if you will, the most fundamental, and has found that
quantitative descriptions have been most fruitful.
Physics has thus become a quantitative science involving precise measurements of certain
quantities and the formulation of mathematical relationships among them.
Like other sciences, physics is an ahistorical subject. This does not mean that there is no
history of physics but rather that, at a particular moment in time, the history of the
development of physical ideas is not pertinent to the question of the accuracy of the
description of nature. Because we can devote but little space to the history of physical
ideas, the student will find that the time spent in consulting an encyclopedia on some of the
topics studied in this text, and in reading biographies of physicists, will enrich his knowledge
of the subject and may even stimulate his own inventiveness.
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FIELDS OF PHYSICS
Physics is a body of knowledge which deals with the study of matter and energy. It has been
divided into several main branches of mechanics and properties of matter, sound and wave
motion, heat, electricity and magnetism, and optics. Lately, modern physics, which covers
those branches developed during the twentieth century like atomic and nuclear physics, has
been added as a main branch of physics.
Mechanics represents the foundation on which physics has been built and we shall begin our
study of physics with mechanics. This branch deals our study of physics with mechanics.
The branch deals primarily with the motion of bodies, the concept of force and its effect on
the motion and shape of bodies.
Properties of solids, liquids and gases are also taken up in this branch of physics. The study of
sound and wave motion deals with the transfer of energy by means of periodic disturbances
through various media.
The study of heat, the science also known as thermodynamics, introduces the student to the
concept of temperature.
Heat itself is also another form of energy. As a branch of physics, heat deals with thermal
expansion heat capacities of substances, changes of state, and heat transfer.
Thermodynamics is more precisely concerned with the relationship between heat and work.
Electricity and magnetism deals with the concept of the electric charge, the flow of electric
charges, the concept of electric and magnetic fields and their interaction.
Optics is concerned with the fundamental concepts of electromagnetic waves absorption
and transmission of light, and the phenomena of reflection, refraction, interference,
diffraction, and polarization.
MEASUREMENT
Physics is known as a science of measurement. William Thomson, a British mathematician
and physicist, who later became known as Lord Kelvin, said that in physical science one
knows what he is talking about only when he can measure and express it in number.
Concepts and mental constructs in physics like acceleration, force, mass, momentum,
energy, electromagnetic field, and electric dipoles are quantities which we can measure
directly or indirectly.
As an example the direct method of measurement, consider measuring the edge of a table.
To determine its length, we simply compare it with some given standard. A meterstick or a
rod of certain length is place along the edge of the table, and the number of times the
whole edge is covered by a meterstick is determined. The length of the table is then said to
be so many times that of the length of the meterstick.
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The length of the stick has been used as a standard of comparison. There are also indirect
methods of measuring.
If, for example, the area of a table is to be measured, the lengths of two of its adjoining
edges are measured directly. The area is considered as the Derived Quantities then obtained
from the products of its lengths known as the Fundamental Quantities. Note that the area
itself is not compared with any standard area; instead a computation is made from
quantities which have been measured directly.
FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES
All physical quantities which will be encountered in the study of mechanics can be reduced
to three Fundamental Quantities-Length, Mass, time.
They are not defined in terms of other quantities. All other quantities, examples of which are
area, volume, speed, acceleration, energy, and momentum, are derived from a
combination of one, two, or all three of the fundamental quantities and are therefore known
as Derived Quantities.
To illustrate, the area of a rectangular table is the length of one edge multiplied by the
length of the adjoining edge; the area, therefore, is a derived quantity being a combination
of two lengths.
The speed of a moving object is expressed as length divided by time; this is a combination of
two lengths. The speed of a moving object is expressed as length divided by time; this is a
combination of length and time.
The Kinetic Energy of a moving particle can be expressed, as will be shown later, as a
combination all three: Length, mass, and time.
Later, in the study of electricity and magnetism, we will meet another fundamental quantity,
Electric charge.
Units which are assigned to the fundamental quantities are known as fundamental units. Any
unit, then, which is used in the measurement of mass, length, and time is a fundamental unit.
Examples are meter, foot, gram, pound, second, and hour.
Any unit used in the measuremt of a derived quantity is called a derived unit. Examples of
derived units are square meter, cubic centimeter, meter per second, newton per square
meter, and kilogram per cubic meter. Note that these examples of derived units can be
reduced to a combination of fundamental units.
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Standards and Units
Most of us are familiar, in a general way, with the operations involved in measuring the
length of an object or of measuring the distance between two points.
Only in comparatively modern times have standardized measuring rods been readily
available. Such units as the length of a man's foot, the distance between his outstretched
hands (the fathom), and the distance between his footprints (the pace) have always been
available and are still in common use, but these are inadequate for recording the
measurements of the physicist or the engineer.
Today, the legal standard of length in the United States is the meter, defined as the distance
between two lines marked on a special platinum-iridium bar known as the standard meter
when that bar is at O°C. This standard meter is deposited at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures at Sevres, France.
Accurate copies of this standard meter have been distributed to various national physical
laboratories such as the National Bureau of Standards in Washington, D.C. As a result of
subsequent developments in physics, it has been possible to measure the meter in terms of
the wavelength of a particular kind of light. If this wavelength measurement, or a similar one,
is adopted as a standard by international agreement, we would then have an indestructible
standard of length.
In English-speaking countries other units of length find conventional usage. In the United
States the yard is defined legally as 3,600/3,937 of the standard meter.
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System of Units
The fundamental units together with all the derived units form a system of units. These may
be classified into two general categories: the metric system and the English system which is
also known as the British engineering system.
The metric system may further be classified into the MKS (representing meter, kilogram, and
second) system and the cgs (representing centimeter, gram, and second) system. Later the
MKS symbol was improved and expanded to MKSC-the letter C representing coulomb, the
fundamental unit of charge in electricity and magnetism.
Many scientists would rather use the symbol MKSA where the letter A represents ampere, the
fundamental unit of current. Although, strictly speaking, the electric charge is a more
fundamental quantity than the current, the symbol MKSA is preferred to MKSC because the
current is easier to measure than the charge.
The MKSA system also considered as the modern metric system, is the International System of
Units, and it is represented by the more accepted symbol SI. It started as an abbreviation of
Le Systeme Internationale d’ Unites, the original name in French. Translated into English, it is
the International System of Units. As prescribed by law, which took effect on January 1, 1983,
only the SI units will be used in the Philippines for all measurements.
In physics it is gaining widespread usage mainly because being a decimal system with
prefixes, it is easy to learn and to use. Since both the metric and the English systems are used
in the Philippines, it will take some time before the country can completely convert to the SI
units. Table below gives some of the conversion factors for length and mass.
Example: An object has a density of 80.0 pounds per cubic foot. Express its density in grams
per cubic centimeter.
Solution:
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏 453.6 𝑔 13 𝑓𝑡 3 13 𝑖𝑛3
80.0 𝑓𝑡 3 = 80.0 𝑓𝑡 3 x x 123 𝑖𝑛3 x 2.543 𝑐𝑚3 = 1.28 g/cm3
1 𝑙𝑏
Scientific Notation
In some branches of physics we deal with either very small or very large numbers, and it is of
considerable help if we can express these numbers in an abbreviated form. A few examples
are given below.
Example:
Velocity of light = 30,000,000,000 cm/s
Mass of an electron = 0.000000000000000000000000000000911kg
Avogadro’s number = 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 molecules/mole
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The quantities may be written,m in terms of powers of ten, as follows:
Velocity of light = 3 x 1010 cm/s
Mass of an electron = 9.11 x 10-31 kg
Avogadro’s number = 6.02 x 1023 molecules/mole
Multiplication and division of numbers involving powers of ten is also convenient, since it
becomes a mere process of addition and subtraction. When multiplying, the exponents are
added; and when dividing the exponent of the denominator is subtracted from the
numerator, thus
108 x 1012 = 1020
(2 x 1024) ÷ (4 x 106) = 0.5 x 1024-6
= 0.5 x 1018
= 5 x 1017
Example:
The Kinetic Energy (KE) of a particle of mass m (kg) which is moving with a velocity v (m/s) is
given by
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KE = 2 mv2 joules.
Find the kinetic energy of an electron which is traveling with a velocity of 1,000 km/s.
Solution:
1
KE = 2 x (9.11x 10-31 kg) x (106 m/s)2
1
= 2 x 9.11x 10-31+12 kg.m2/s2
= 4.55 x 10-19 kg.m2/s2 or N.m or Joules
It will be shown later that the Joule (J) is the special name for the SI derived unit of energy,
kg.m2/s2 or N.m.
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International System of Quantities base quantities

Quantity SI unit Dimension
Name(s) (Common) symbol(s) Name Symbol symbol
Length, width, height, depth, a, b, c, d, h, l, r, s, w, x, y,

metre m L
distance z
Time t, τ second s T
Mass m kilogram kg M
Absolute temperature T, θ kelvin K Θ
Amount of substance n mole mol N
Electric current i, I ampere A I
Luminous intensity Iv candela cd J
Plane angle α, β, γ, θ, φ, χ radian rad None
Solid angle ω, Ω steradian sr None
Table Prefixes for Powers of 10s:

Positive powers
Name Power Number SI symbol SI prefix
one 0 1
ten 1 10 da (D) deca
hundred 2 100 h (H) hecto
thousand 3 1,000 k (K) kilo
million 6 1,000,000 M mega
billion (milliard) 9 1,000,000,000 G giga
trillion (billion) 12 1,000,000,000,000 T tera
quadrillion (billiard) 15 1,000,000,000,000,000 P peta
quintillion (trillion) 18 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 E exa
sextillion (trilliard) 21 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 Z zetta
septillion (quadrillion) 24 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 Y yotta
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Negative powers
Name Power Number SI symbol SI prefix
one 0 1
tenth −1 0.1 d deci
hundredth −2 0.01 c centi
thousandth −3 0.001 m milli
millionth −6 0.000 001 μ micro
billionth −9 0.000 000 001 n nano
trillionth −12 0.000 000 000 001 p pico
quadrillionth −15 0.000 000 000 000 001 f femto
quintillionth −18 0.000 000 000 000 000 001 a atto
sextillionth −21 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 001 z zepto
0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000
septillionth −24 y yocto
001
Bureau of Weights and Measures in France. One Kilogram is equal to 1000 times the mass of 1
cubic centimeter of water at 4oC. More precisely, 1 kilogram is the mass of 5.0188x1025 atoms
of carbon 12 (C12). Among the common multiples and submultiples of the kilogram are the
following:
1000 kg = 1 ton (metric)
1 Kg = 1 000 grams (g)
= 1 000 000 milligrams (mg)
The unit of time commonly used is based on the time interval taken by the earth to make
one complete rotation about its own axis, called a solar day it is also the time interval taken
by the sun to make two successive passages across a given meridian, this is to be averaged
over one year. But even this average decreases gradually due to tidal action, and a
particular year, 1990, was chosen by agreement. The following conversions are widely used:
1 mean solar day = 24 hours (hrs)

1 hour = 60 minutes (min)
1 minute = 60 seconds (s)
We may therefore define the second as 1/86,400 solar day. The new type of watch recently
developed, widely called the quartz type, makes use of the vibrations of a tiny quartz crystal
rod. An atomic clock is one which relates the unit of time to an atomic property. In a
molecule of ammonia, for instance, the single nitrogen atom in the molecule oscillates with a
constant period.
1 second = 9,192,631,770 oscillations of C133 atoms
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1 second = 2.387 x 1010 oscillations of Nitrogen atoms
The first atomic clock was built at the U.S. National Bureau of Standards in 1940. Later, in
October 1964, the International Committee on Weights and Measures adopted a new
definition of the second based on the vibrations of cesium (C133) atom.
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Dimensional Analysis
The three fundamental quantities have dimensions, and for mass length, and time, the
dimensions can be denoted by M,L, and T, respectively. Derived quantities also have
dimensions which are more complicated than the dimensions of the fundamental quantities.
The study and analysis of the dimensions of derived quantities in terms of M, L, and T
constitute what is known as dimensional analysis. The dimensions of a given quantity can be
reduced to a combination of the fundamental dimensions. To illustrastrate a few,
Area = length x length = L2
Volume = length x length x length = L3

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Velocity = = LT-1
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Acceleration = = VT-2
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density = = ML-3
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
In any equation in physics, the dimensions for all the terms on both sides of the equation
must be the same. If we have an equation of the form
A+B =C+D
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Which relates the physical quantities A,B,C, AND D, the units should be the same for all the
terms. It is instructive to check the dimensions to verify the validity of the equation being
used.
Example: One of the equations for uniformly accelerated motion is
vf = vi +at
which means that the final velocity is equal to the initial velocity plus the
product of the acceleration and the time. We will show that the
equation is dimensionally correct. Substituting dimensions for the
velocities, acceleration, and time, we have
LT-1 = LT-1 + (LT-2) x T
or
LT-1 = LT-1 + LT-1
The last equation shows that all the terms have the dimension of
velocity.
One must also see to it that the units he uses in any equation are consistent. In the example just
shown, if the velocities are expressed in meters per second (m/s), then the acceleration must be
expressed in meters per second2 (m/s2) and the time is expressed in seconds (s). Some quantities
encountered in physics are dimensionless; they are pure numbers representing certain ratios and no
units are assigned to them,
An example of a dimensionless quantity is the specific gravity of an object, defined as the ration of
the density of the object to the density of water, that is,
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡

Specific Gravity =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
The units in the numerator and denominator cancel each other, making specific gravity a dimensionless quantity.
Temperature and Thermometers

We all have a feel for what temperature is. We even have a shared language that we use to
qualitatively describe temperature. The water in the shower or bathtub feels hot or cold or
warm. The weather outside is chilly or steamy. We certainly have a good feel for how one
temperature is qualitatively different than another temperature. We may not always agree
on whether the room temperature is too hot or too cold or just right. But we will likely all
agree that we possess built-in thermometers for making qualitative judgments about relative
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temperatures.
What is Temperature?
Despite our built-in feel for temperature, it remains one of those concepts in science that is
difficult to define. It seems that a tutorial page exploring the topic of temperature and
thermometers should begin with a simple definition of temperature. But it is at this point that
I'm stumped. So I turn to that familiar resource, Dictionary.com ... where I find definitions that
vary from the simple-yet-not-too-enlightening to the too-complex-to-be-enlightening. At the
risk of doing a belly flop in the pool of enlightenment, I will list some of those definitions here:
 The degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment.
 A measure of the warmth or coldness of an object or substance with reference to some standard
value.
 A measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a sample of matter, expressed in
terms of units or degrees designated on a standard scale.
 A measure of the ability of a substance, or more generally of any physical system, to transfer heat
energy to another physical system.
 Any of various standardized numerical measures of this ability, such as the Kelvin, Fahrenheit, and
Celsius scale.
For certain, we are comfortable with the first two definitions
- the degree or measure of how hot or cold an object is.
But our understanding of temperature is not furthered by
such definitions. The third and the fourth definitions that
reference the kinetic energy of particles and the ability of
a substance to transfer heat are scientifically accurate.
However, these definitions are far too sophisticated to
serve as good starting points for a discussion of
temperature. So we will resign to a definition similar to the
fifth one that is listed - temperature can be defined as the reading on a thermometer.
Admittedly, this definition lacks the power that is needed for eliciting the much-desired Aha!
Now I Understand! moment. Nonetheless it serves as a great starting point for this lesson on
heat and temperature. Temperature is what the thermometer reads. Whatever it is that
temperature is a measure of, it is reflected by the reading on a thermometer. So exactly how
does a thermometer work? How does it reliably meter whatever it is that temperature is a
measure of?
How a Thermometer Works

Today, there are a variety of types of thermometers. The type that most of us are familiar with
from science class is the type that consists of a liquid encased in a narrow glass column.
Older thermometers of this type used liquid mercury. In response to our understanding of the
health concerns associated with mercury exposure, these types of thermometers usually use
some type of liquid alcohol. These liquid thermometers are based on the principal of thermal
expansion. When a substance gets hotter, it expands to a greater volume. Nearly all
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substances exhibit this behavior of thermal expansion. It is the basis of the design and
operation of thermometers.
As the temperature of the liquid in a thermometer increases, its volume increases. The liquid
is enclosed in a tall, narrow glass (or plastic) column with a constant cross-sectional area. The
increase in volume is thus due to a change in height of the liquid within the column. The
increase in volume, and thus in the height of the liquid column, is proportional to the
increase in temperature. Suppose that a 10-degree increase in temperature causes a 1-cm
increase in the column's height. Then a 20-degree increase in temperature will cause a 2-cm
increase in the column's height. And a 30-degree increase in temperature will cause s 3-cm
increase in the column's height. The relationship between the temperature and the column's
height is linear over the small temperature range for which the thermometer is used. This
linear relationship makes the calibration of a thermometer a relatively easy task.
The calibration of any measuring tool involves the placement of divisions or marks upon the
tool to measure a quantity accurately in comparison to
known standards. Any measuring tool - even a meter stick
- must be calibrated. The tool needs divisions or markings;
for instance, a meter stick typically has markings every 1-
cm apart or every 1-mm apart. These markings must be
accurately placed and the accuracy of their placement
can only be judged when comparing it to another object
that is precisely known to have a certain length.
A thermometer is calibrated by using two objects of
known temperatures. The typical process involves using the freezing point and the boiling
point of pure water. Water is known to freeze at 0°C and to boil at 100°C at an atmospheric
pressure of 1 atm. By placing a thermometer in mixture of ice water and allowing the
thermometer liquid to reach a stable height, the 0-degree mark can be placed upon the
thermometer. Similarly, by placing the thermometer in boiling water (at 1 atm of pressure)
and allowing the liquid level to reach a stable height, the 100-degree mark can be placed
upon the thermometer. With these two markings placed upon the thermometer, 100 equally
spaced divisions can be placed between them to represent the 1-degree marks. Since there
is a linear relationship between the temperature and the height of the liquid, the divisions
between 0 degree and 100 degree can be equally spaced. With a calibrated thermometer,
accurate measurements can be made of the temperature of any object within the
temperature range for which it has been calibrated.
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Temperature Scales
The thermometer calibration process described above results in what is known as
a centigrade thermometer. A centigrade thermometer has 100 divisions or intervals between
the normal freezing point and the normal boiling point of water. Today, the centigrade scale
is known as the Celsius scale, named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius who is
credited with its development. The Celsius scale is the most widely accepted temperature
scale used throughout the world. It is the standard unit of temperature measurement in
nearly all countries, the most notable exception being the United States. Using this scale, a
temperature of 28 degrees Celsius is abbreviated as 28°C.
Traditionally slow to adopt the metric system and other accepted units of measurements, the
United States more commonly uses the Fahrenheit temperature scale. A thermometer can be
calibrated using the Fahrenheit scale in a similar manner as was described above. The
difference is that the normal freezing point of water is designated as 32 degrees and the
normal boiling point of water is designated as 212 degrees in the Fahrenheit scale. As such,
there are 180 divisions or intervals between these two temperatures when using the
Fahrenheit scale. The Fahrenheit scale is named in honor of German physicist Daniel
Fahrenheit. A temperature of 76 degree Fahrenheit is abbreviated as 76°F. In most countries
throughout the world, the Fahrenheit scale has been replaced by the use of the Celsius
scale.
Temperatures expressed by the Fahrenheit scale can be converted to the Celsius scale
equivalent using the equation below:
°C = (°F - 32°)/1.8
Similarly, temperatures expressed by the Celsius scale can be converted to the Fahrenheit
scale equivalent using the equation below:
°F= 1.8•°C + 32°
The Kelvin Temperature Scale

While the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are the most widely used temperature scales, there
are several other scales that have been used throughout history. For example, there is the
Rankine scale, the Newton scale and the Romer scale, all of which are rarely used. Finally,
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there is the Kelvin temperature scale, which is the standard metric system of temperature
measurement and perhaps the most widely used temperature scale among scientists. The
Kelvin temperature scale is similar to the Celsius temperature scale in the sense that there are
100 equal degree increments between the normal freezing point and the normal boiling
point of water. However, the zero-degree mark on the Kelvin temperature scale is 273.15
units cooler than it is on the Celsius scale. So a temperature of 0 Kelvin is equivalent to a
temperature of -273.15 °C. Observe that the degree symbol is not used with this system. So a
temperature of 300 units above 0 Kelvin is referred to as 300 Kelvin and not 300 degree
Kelvin; such a temperature is abbreviated as 300 K. Conversions between Celsius
temperatures and Kelvin temperatures (and vice versa) can be performed using one of the
two equations below.
°C = K - 273.15°
K = °C + 273.15
The zero point on the Kelvin scale is known as absolute zero. It is the lowest temperature that
can be achieved. The concept of an absolute temperature minimum was promoted by
Scottish physicist William Thomson (a.k.a. Lord Kelvin) in 1848. Thomson theorized based on
thermodynamic principles that the lowest temperature which could be achieved was -
273°C. Prior to Thomson, experimentalists such as Robert Boyle (late 17th century) were well
aware of the observation that the volume (and even the pressure) of a sample of gas was
dependent upon its temperature. Measurements of the variations of pressure and volume
with changes in the temperature could be made and plotted. Plots of volume vs.
temperature (at constant pressure) and pressure vs. temperature (at constant volume)
reflected the same conclusion - the volume and the pressure of a gas reduces to zero at a
temperature of -273°C. Since these are the lowest values of volume and pressure that are
possible, it is reasonable to conclude that -273°C was the lowest temperature that was
possible.
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Thomson referred to this minimum lowest temperature as absolute zero and argued that a
temperature scale be adopted that had absolute zero as the lowest value on the scale.
Today, that temperature scale bears his name. Scientists and engineers have been able to
cool matter down to temperatures close to -273.15°C, but never below it. In the process of
cooling matter to temperatures close to absolute zero, a variety of unusual properties have
been observed. These properties include superconductivity, superfluidity and a state of
matter known as a Bose-Einstein condensate.
Temperature is what the thermometer reads. But what exactly is temperature a reflection
of? The concept of an absolute zero temperature is quite interesting and the observation of
remarkable physical properties for samples of matter approaching absolute zero makes one
ponder the topic more deeply. Is there something happening at the particle level which is
related to the observations made at the macroscopic level? Is there something deeper to
temperature than simply the reading on a thermometer? As the temperature of a sample of
matter increases or decreases, what is happening at the level of atoms and molecules?
SOLVING PHYSICS PROBLEMS

At some point in their studies, almost all physics students find themselves thinking, “I
understand the concepts, but I can’t solve the problems.” But in physics truly understanding
a concept means being able to apply it to a variety of problems. Learning how to solve
problems is absolutely essential; you don’t know physics unless you can do physics.
How do you learn to solve physics problems?
No matter what kind of problem you’re dealing with, however, there are certain key steps
that you’ll always follow. These same steps are equally useful for problems in math,
engineering, chemistry, and many other fields. In some cases we will combine the first two or
three steps. It is encourage you to follow these same steps when you solve problems yourself.
You may find it useful to remember the acronym I SEE-short for Identify, Set up, Execute, and
Evaluate.
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Problem-Solving Strategy:
IDENTIFY the relevant concepts: Use the physical conditions stated in the problem to help
you decide which physics concepts are relevant. Identify the target variables of the
problem-that is, the quantities whose values you’re trying to find. Identify the known
quantities, as stated or implied in the problem. This step is essential whether the problem asks
for an algebraic expression or a numerical answer.
SET UP the problem: Given the concepts you have identify, the known quantities, and the
target variable, choose the equations that you’ll use to solve the problem and decide how
you’ll use them. Make sure that the variables you have identified correlate exactly with those
in the equation. If appropriate, draw a sketch of the situation described in the problem.
(Graph paper, ruler, protractor, and compass will help you make clear, useful sketches.)
As best you can, estimate what your results will be and, as appropriate predict what the
physical behavior of a system will be. The worked examples in this book include tips on how
to make these kinds of estimates and predictions. If this seems challenging, don’t worry-you’ll
get better with practice!
EXECUTE the solution: This is where you “do the math” Study the worked examples to see
what’s involved in this step.
EVALUATE your answer: Compare your answer with your estimates, and reconsider things if
there’s a discrepancy. If your answer includes an algebraic expression, assure yourself that it
correctly represents what would happen if the variables in it had very large or very small
values. For future reference, make note of any answer that represents a quantity of
particular significance. Ask Yourself how you might answer a more general or more difficult
version of the problem you have just solved.
Identifying significant figures

Concise rules
Digits in red are significant figures; those in black are not
 All non-zero digits are significant: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
 Zeros between non-zero digits are significant: 102, 2005, 50009.
 Leading zeros are never significant: 0.02, 001.887, 0.000515.
 In a number with or without a decimal point, trailing zeros (those to the right of the last
non-zero digit) are significant provided they are justified by the precision of their
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derivation: 389,000; 2.02000; 5.400; 57.5400. More information through additional

graphical symbols or explicit information on errors is needed to clarify the significance
or importance of trailing zeros.
Significant figures rules explained
Specifically, the rules for identifying significant figures when writing or interpreting numbers
are as follows:
 All non-zero digits are considered significant. For example, 91 has two significant
figures (9 and 1), while 123.45 has five significant figures (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5).
 Zeros appearing anywhere between two non-zero digits are significant: 101.1203 has
seven significant figures: 1, 0, 1, 1, 2, 0 and 3.
 Zeros to the left of the significant figures are not significant. For example, 0.00052 has
two significant figures: 5 and 2.
Zeros to the right of the significant figures are significant if and only if they are justified by the
precision of their derivation. For example, 12.2300 may have six significant figures: 1, 2, 2, 3, 0
and 0. The number 0.000122300 still has only six significant figures (the zeros before the 1 are
not significant). In addition, 120.00 has five significant figures since it has three trailing zeros.
In most contexts it is understood that trailing zeros are only shown if they are significant: for
example, if a measurement precise to four decimal places (0.0001) were to be given as
12.23, then it would usually be misunderstood to indicate that only two decimal places of
precision are available. Stating the result as 12.2300, however, makes clear that it is precise
to four decimal places (in this case, six significant figures).
 The significance of trailing zeros in a number not containing a decimal point can be
ambiguous. For example, it may not always be clear if a number like 1300 is precise to
the nearest unit (and just happens coincidentally to be an exact multiple of a
hundred) or if it is only shown to the nearest hundred due to rounding or uncertainty.
Many conventions exist to address this issue, but these conventions are mostly esoteric
and not understood by those who are not specialists in the subject:
 An overline, sometimes also called an overbar, or less accurately, a vinculum, may be

placed over the last significant figure; any trailing zeros following this are insignificant.
For example, 1300 has three significant figures (and hence indicates that the number is
precise to the nearest ten).
 Less often, using a closely related convention, the last significant figure of a number
may be underlined; for example, "2000" has two significant figures.
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 A decimal point may be placed after the number; for example "100." indicates
specifically that three significant figures are meant.[3]
 In the combination of a number and a unit of measurement, the ambiguity can be

avoided by choosing a suitable unit prefix. For example, the number of significant
figures in a mass specified as 1300 g is ambiguous, while if stated as 1.3 kg it is not.
 The number can be expressed in Scientific Notation (see below).
As these conventions are not in general use, it is often necessary to determine from context
whether such trailing zeros are intended to be significant. If all else fails, the level of rounding
can be specified explicitly. The abbreviation s.f. is sometimes used, for example "20 000 to
2 s.f." or "20 000 (2 sf)". Alternatively, the uncertainty can be stated separately and explicitly
with a plus-minus sign, as in 20 000 ± 1%, so that significant-figures rules do not apply. This also
allows specifying a precision in-between powers of ten.
Check Your Understanding

1. In the discussion on the calibration of a thermometer, it was mentioned that there was a
linear relationship between temperature and the height of the liquid in the column. What if
the relationship was not linear? Could a thermometer still be calibrated if temperature and
the column height of the liquid were not related by a linear relationship?
2. Which is the smaller temperature increment - a degree Celsius or a degree Fahrenheit?
Explain.
3. Perform the appropriate temperature conversions in order to fill in the blanks in the table
below.
Celsius (°) Fahrenheit (°F) Kelvin (K)
a. 0
b. 212
c. 0
d. 78
e. 12
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Problem Sets
Significant Digits
Activity 1: What’s Significant?

Question Group 1
Question 1
Identify the number of significant digits in the following number:
438
Question 2
6492
Question 3
76549
Question Group 2
Question 4
380
Question 5
4520
Question 6
65930
Question Group 3
Question 7
605.2
Question 8
5806.4
Question 9
702.8
Question Group 4
Question 10
405.10
Question 11
380.20
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Question 12
450.30
Question Group 5
Question 13
2030.
Question 14
4090.
Question 15
5020.
Question Group 6
Question 16
0.00350
Question 17
0.00490
Question 18
0.00760
Activity 2: Measurement
Question Group 7
Question 19
A Chemistry student is measuring the volume of water using a graduated cylinder. A picture of the
water level in the cylinder is shown. What is the proper means of reporting the measurement of the
volume of water?
16 mL
16.0 mL
16.6 mL
16.60 mL
17.0 mL
17 mL
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Question 20
volume of water?
23 mL
23.0 mL
23.2 mL
23.20 mL
24.0 mL
24 mL
Question 21
volume of water?
37 mL
37.0 mL
37.7 mL
37.70 mL
38.0 mL
38 mL
Question Group 8
Question 22
volume of water?
13 mL
13.0 mL
14 mL
14.0 mL
14.00 mL
15 mL
Question 23
volume of water?
21 mL
21.0 mL
22 mL
22.0 mL
22.00 mL
23 mL
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Question 24
volume of water?
35 mL
35.0 mL
36 mL
36.0 mL
36.00 mL
37.0 mL
Question Group 9
Question 25
volume of water?
12 mL
12.0 mL
12.4 mL
12.45 mL
13.0 mL
13 mL
Question 26
volume of water?
28 mL
28.0 mL
28.6 mL
28.65 mL
29.0 mL
29 mL
Question 27
volume of water?
34 mL
34.0 mL
34.2 mL
34.25 mL
35.0 mL
35 mL
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Question Group 10
Question 28
Anna Litical is measuring the length of a magnesium strip using a centimeter ruler. She carefully
places one end of the magnesium strip at the 0.00-cm mark and aligns the rest of the strip parallel to
the ruler. The opposite end of the strip is shown. What is the proper means of reporting the
measurement of the length of the magnesium strip?
14 cm
14.5 cm
14.7 cm
14.70 cm
15.0 cm
15 cm
Question 29
15 cm
15.5 cm
15.9 cm
15.90 cm
16.0 cm
16 cm
Question 30
22 cm
22.3 cm
22.30 cm
22.5 cm
23.0 cm
23 cm
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Question Group 11
Question 31
13 cm
13.0 cm
14 cm
14.0 cm
14.00 cm
15 cm
Question 32
15 cm
15.0 cm
15.00 cm
16.0 cm
16 cm
18 cm
Question 33
21 cm
22 cm
22.0 cm
22.00 cm
23.0 cm
23 cm
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Question Group 12
Question 34
12 cm
12.3 cm
12.35 cm
12.5 cm
13.0 cm
13 cm
Question 35
17 cm
17.5 cm
17.7 cm
17.75 cm
18.0 cm
18 cm
Question 36
24 cm
24.5 cm
24.8 cm
24.85 cm
25.0 cm
25 cm
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Activity 3: Mathematical Operations

Question Group 13
Question 37
A lab group is attempting to determine the volume of some zinc beads. So they fill a graduated
cylinder to the 42.55-mL mark with water. They carefully add the beads to the cylinder. They observe
that the water level rises to 76.85 mL. What value should they report as the volume of the zinc
beads?
34.30 mL
34.3 mL
119.40 mL
119.4 mL
59.7 mL
59.70 mL
Question 38
beads?
21.20 mL
21.2 mL
72.10 mL
72.1 mL
36.05 mL
36.0 mL
Question 39
beads?
32.20 mL
32.2 mL
101.3 mL
101.30 mL
50.65 mL
50.6 mL
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Question Group 14
Question 40
Kara Fulmezzurer is attempting to determine the mass of some aluminum beads. Kara places a dry
beaker on a digital balance and determines its mass to be 122.43 grams. She carefully adds the
aluminum beads to the same beaker. She determines that the mass of the beaker with the beads is
158.63 grams. What value should Kara report as the mass of the aluminum beads?
36.20 g
36.2 g
281.06 g
281.0 g
140.53 g
140.5 g
Question 41
36.20 g
36.2 g
263.24 g
263.2 g
131.62 g
131.6 g
Question 42
32.40 g
32.4 g
297.56 g
297.5 g
148.78 g
148.7 g
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Question Group 15
Question 43
Ty Trashun is adding acid from a buret to a flask. He needs to know the volume of acid solution that
he adds. So Ty measures the initial volume reading of acid solution in the buret to be 2.45 mL. He
measures the final volume reading to be 18.65 mL. What value should Ty report as the volume of
acid added to the flask?
16.20 mL
16.2 mL
21.10 mL
21.1 mL
10.55 mL
10.5 mL
Question 44
21.20 mL
21.2 mL
23.94 mL
23.9 mL
11.97 mL
11.9 mL
Question 45
22.20 mL
22.2 mL
30.92 mL
30.9 mL
15.46 mL
15.4 mL
Questions: MEASUREMENT
1. Why measurement considered to be an in-exact operation?
2. What is the difference between a fundamental quantity and a derived quantity?
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3. What do we mean when we say that an equation is dimensionally correct?
4. Give some of the advantages of using scientific notation in computations?
5. Although the Philippines has legally adopted the metric system, we are still allowed to use
English units in some instances. Why?
6. What is the rule in rounding a number when the last digit to be dropped is 5?
7. What do we mean when we say that a figure is significant?
8. Give some advantages of the metric system over the English system of units.
Problem Sets: MEASUREMENT

1. Find the no. of feet in (a) 1 Kilometer; (b) 3/16 mile
2. Find the mass of an 8.0-pound ball in (a) ounces; (b) kilograms; and (c) grams.
3. A metallic sheet has an area of 4.80 ft2. What is its area in (a) in2, (b) cm2, and (c) m2?
4. The Philippines has a total land area of 115,600 square miles. What is the land area in
(a) km2 and in (b) hectares? (1 hectare = 10,000 m 2)
5. A runner runs a 100-meter dash in 11.08 seconds. What would be his expected time for
a 100-yard dash?
6. A block of wood has a volume of 1,800 cm3. Express this volume in (a) in3 and (b) ft3.
7. A person has a height of 5 ft 8½ inches and a weight of 146¼ pounds. Express his
height and weight in SI units. (Weight may be expressed in kilogram-force kg.f)
8. Assuming that the earth is spherical, and that its radius is 6.38x103km and its mass is
5.98x1024kg, calculate the average density of the earth in g/cm 3.
9. A car travels at 80 miles per hour (mi/hr). Express this speed in (a) ft/s and (b) m/s.
10. A certain equation for a force F in newtons (N) is given by the expression
𝑴𝑽𝟐
F= 𝑹
Where m stands for the mass in kg, v for the velocity in m/s, and r is the radius of the
circle along which the body moves. Express the dimension of the newton in terms of
the SI Standard units.
11. Write down the following numbers using scientific notation accurate to two significant
figures: (a) 347,000,000; (b) 0.000000000164378; (c) 165,800; (d) 0.000375100.
12. Using scientific notation, solve the following: (a) (8 x 104 cm) x (105); (b) (6.4 x 106 cm) x
(4 x 107 cm); (d) (30 x 10-6) ÷ (4 x 10-6).
13. The sun is 93,000,000 miles and the moon is about 384,000 km away from the earth.
How many times as far is the sun from the earth compared to the moon?
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14. The charge on an electron is 1.6x10-19 coulomb and its mass is 9.11 x 10-31 kg. What is
the ratio of its charge to its mass?
15. Convert air pressure of 14.7 pounds per square inch to Newton per square meter, if 1
kilogram of force is equal to 9.8 Newton.
References:
1. Video Interactive from the Internet at www.physicsclassroom.com last March 19, 2020.
2. Schaum’s Outline of College, Physics 9th Edition (Frederick J. Bueche, Eugene Hecht)
3. Abastillas, Jr., Vivencio N., et. al., College Physics 3rd Edition, Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.
927 Quezon Avenue, Quezon City, 1994.
4. Young, Hugh D. and Freedman, Roger A., Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics with
Modern Physics Volume 1, 14th Edition, Pearsom Education, Inc., Philippines, 2018.
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Prepared by: Engr. Paul Erwin S.

Sarabia, MEng, PhD

AKLAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Engineering and Architecture Department

AKLAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Engineering and Architecture Department

The Relationship of Physics to Engineering

The Scope of Physics

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Standards and Units

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Velocity of light = 30,000,000,000 cm/s

Mass of an electron = 0.000000000000000000000000000000911kg

Avogadro’s number = 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 molecules/mole

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The quantities may be written,m in terms of powers of ten, as follows:

Velocity of light = 3 x 1010 cm/s

Mass of an electron = 9.11 x 10-31 kg

Avogadro’s number = 6.02 x 1023 molecules/mole

108 x 1012 = 1020

(2 x 1024) ÷ (4 x 106) = 0.5 x 1024-6

= 4.55 x 10-19 kg.m2/s2 or N.m or Joules

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International System of Quantities base quantities

Length, width, height, depth, a, b, c, d, h, l, r, s, w, x, y,

Table Prefixes for Powers of 10s:

Name Power Number SI symbol SI prefix

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1 mean solar day = 24 hours (hrs)

1 second = 9,192,631,770 oscillations of C133 atoms

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1 second = 2.387 x 1010 oscillations of Nitrogen atoms

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Area = length x length = L2

Volume = length x length x length = L3

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Example: One of the equations for uniformly accelerated motion is

LT-1 = LT-1 + (LT-2) x T

LT-1 = LT-1 + LT-1

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡

Temperature and Thermometers

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How a Thermometer Works