MODULE 2

ENERGY

Energy is the capacity to do work. A plenty of energy is needed to sustain industrial growth
and agricultural production.

CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY
1. Conventional energy: is in practice for long duration of time and well established
technology is available to tap and use them. e.g. Coal, oil, natural gas, hydro power,
nuclear power etc.
2. Non-conventional energy: source can be used with advantage for power generation as
well as other applications in a large number of locations and situations. These energy
sources cannot be easily stored and used conveniently. e.g. Solar, wind, tidal and
geothermal etc.

Based upon nature, energy sources are classified as

1. Renewable energy sources are inexhaustible and are renewed by nature itself. Solar,
wind, tidal, hydro and biomass are few examples.
2. Non-renewable energy sources are exhaustible within a definite period of time
depending upon its usage. Fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) and nuclear fuels are few
examples.

Renewable Nonrenewable
1. sun 1. coal
2. water 2. natural gas
3. wood 3. petroleum
4. wind 4. nuclear fission
5. biomass
6. geothermal
7. ocean tides

SOLAR ENERGY
The surface of the earth receives about 1014 kW from sun in the form of solar energy which is
approximately five orders of magnitude greater than that currently being consumed from all
resources. There are two obvious obstacles to harnessing solar energy. Firstly it is not constantly
available on earth. Thus some form of storage is needed to sustain solar energy through the night
and during rainy season. Secondly the solar energy is diffused. Although the total amount of
energy is enormous, the collection and conservation of solar energy into useful forms must be
carried out over a large area which entails large capital investments. By using solar radiation,
water or any fluid can be heated by using a solar collector. Such systems can provide hot water
for different applications in industries directly or as boiler feed and also in hostels, hotels and
canteens. There are two types of solar collectors in use:
Flat plate collector:

The absorber plate is metallic. It is usually coated black to absorb more heat energy. Tubes,
passages or channels integral with the collector carry water or other working fluid. Insulation
should be provided at the back and at the sides to minimize the heat losses. Usually glass
wool is used as insulation material. A transparent cover (glass) will be provided at the top to
permit the radiation from the sun to the metal plate.

Parabolic or concentrating collector

Highly polished metallic surfaces are used as the reflector. The reflector will have a
parabolic shape so that the sun rays striking the profile will be reflected on its focal point.
If a tube carrying a fluid is kept along the focal line, the fluid will be heated to a very high
temperature.
Advantages
1. Renewable source of energy
2. Pollution free
3. After the capital cost, the cost of power generation is quite low
4. Wide range of applications, powering street lights to satellites

Disadvantages
1. Capital cost is very high
2. Large area of land is required
3. Large number of solar panels are required
4. Affected by seasons.
….

WIND ENERGY

The electrical energy can be generated by wind energy by utilizing the kinetic energy of wind.
The wind energy which is an indirect source of energy can be used to run a wind mill which
in turn drives a generator to produce electricity. Wind mills are classified into two types.

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

Horizontal axis wind turbines have the main rotor shaft running horizontally. Fig shows a
schematic arrangement of a horizontal axis machine. This system consists of a tower mounted
two bladed or multi bladed rotor facing the wind, rotating around a horizontal axis and turning
an electrical generator. The Blades are generally made of composite material, usually fibre
reinforced plastic (FRP) because of its high strength and light weight. Wind mills are
manufactured with a capacity from a few kilowatts to several megawatts in Europe, the USA,
and other parts of the world including India.

Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

Vertical axis wind turbines have the main rotor shaft running vertically. The tower
construction is simple here because the generator and gear box can be placed at the bottom,
near the ground.

Advantages
1. Wind is Renewable and free of cost
2. Pollution free
3. Can be installed in remote villages, thus reducing costly transmission lines

Disadvantages
1. Capital cost is very high
2. Large area of land is required
3. Maintenance cost is very high

TIDAL ENERGY

The periodic rise and fall of water level of sea which are carried by the action of the sun and
moon on water of the earth is called “tide”. The large scale up and down movement of sea water
represents an unlimited source of energy. The main feature of the tidal cycle is the difference in
water surface elevations at the high tide and at the low tide. If the differential head could be
utilized in operating a hydraulic turbine, the tidal energy could be converted into electrical
energy by means of an attached generator.

Tidal Power Plant

A Tidal power plant mainly consists of the following:

1. A barrage with gates and sluices
2. One or more basins
3. A power house

A barrage is a barrier constructed across the sea to create a basin for storing water. The barrage
has to withstand the pressure exerted by the water head and also should resist the shock of the
waves. A basin is the area where water is retained by the barrage. Low head reversible water
turbines are installed in the barrage separating the sea from the basin. During high tide, water
will flow from sea to tidal basin through turbine, thus producing electricity. During low tide,
water will flow from tidal basin to sea through turbine producing electricity.
Advantages

1. It is inexhaustible source of energy

2. No problem of pollution
3. The cost of power generation is quite low
4. High output can be obtained compared to solar or wind energy

Disadvantages
1. Capital cost is very high
2. As the head is not constant, variable output is obtained
3. As the head is low, large amount of water is necessary for the turbine
4. It will not operate when the available head is less than 0.5m

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Geothermal power plants derive energy from the heat of the earth’s interior. The average
increase in temperature with depth of the earth is 10 C for every 30-40m. At a depth of 10-15km,
the earth’s interior is as hot as 1000-12000 C. In certain areas of our planet, the underground
heat has raised the temperature of water to over 2000 C which bursts out as hot steam through
the cracks in the earth’s crust. These are called thermal springs. This steam can be utilized for
power production.

Geothermal Sources

1. Hydrothermal convective systems

(i) Vapor dominated or dry steam fields
(ii) Liquid dominated or wet steam fields
(iii) Hot water fields
2. Geo-pressure resources
3. Petrothermal or hot dry rocks
4. Magma resources
5. Volcanoes

Geothermal Power Plants

Geothermal wells are drilled at suitable locations. Water vaporized into steam comes out of
the earth’s surface in a dry condition at around 200°C and 8 bar. The moisture is removed
by a centrifugal separator and this steam will run the turbine coupled with a generator.
Steam is condensed in a condenser and re injected back into the ground by a rejection well.
....Advantages

1. Geothermal energy is cheaper

2. Used as space heating for buildings
3. Used as industrial process heat
4. Geothermal energy is inexhaustible

Disadvantages

1. Low overall power production efficiency (about 15%)

2. Large areas are needed foe exploitation of geothermal energy

OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION

OTEC uses the temperature difference of the sea water at different depths to generate electricity.
OTEC utilizes the temperature difference that exists between the surface waters heated by the
sun and the colder deep (up to 1000m) waters to run a heat engine. This source and sink provides
a temperature difference of 20°C in ocean areas within 20 of the equator. These conditions exist
in tropical coastal areas, roughly between the tropic of Capricorn and the tropic of cancer. Such
a small temperature difference makes energy extraction difficult and expensive. Hence,
typically OTEC systems have an overall efficiency of only 1 to 3%. The OTEC is shown in fig.
 Advantages
OTEC uses clean, renewable, natural resources. Warm surface seawater and cold water from
the ocean depths replace fossil fuels to produce electricity.

Suitably designed OTEC plants will produce little or no carbon dioxide or other
polluting chemicals.

There is enough solar energy received and stored in the warm tropical ocean surface layer
to provide most, if not all, of present human energy needs.

The use of OTEC as a source of electricity will help reduce the state's almost
complete dependence on imported fossil fuels.

Disadvantages
OTEC-produced electricity at present would cost more than electricity generated from
fossil fuels at their current costs.

OTEC plants must be located where a difference of about 20º C occurs year round. Ocean
depths must be available fairly close to shore-based facilities for economic operation. Floating
plant ships could provide more flexibility.

Construction of OTEC plants and lying of pipes in coastal waters may cause localised damage
to reefs and near-shore marine ecosystems.

BIOGAS
Biogas is generated when bacteria degrade biological material in the absence of oxygen, in a
process known as anaerobic digestion. Since biogas is a mixture of methane (also known as
marsh gas or natural gas, CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) it is a renewable fuel produced from
waste treatment. Anaerobic digestion is basically a simple process carried out in a number of
steps by many different bacteria that can use almost any organic material as a substrate.

Anaerobic digestion breaks down readily degradable organic matter in a series of steps, where
the product of one step becomes the substrate for the next step. The initial step is usually
considered to be “hydrolysis” – where extra cellular enzymes break complex organic molecules
like fats and starches into simpler molecules like glucose. These simpler molecules are then
utilised by “acetogenic” bacteria to produce acetic acid, with carbon dioxide as another product
of the breakdown. “Methanogens” are then able to use the acetic acid and produce methane.
There is also another group of “methanogens” that convert carbon dioxide to methane. As a
result of these steps “biogas” is mainly methane (typically 60%, but less if the digester is not
operating properly and sometimes up to about 80%) and carbon dioxide with traces of hydrogen
sulphide, ammonia, water vapour, other organic volatiles and possibly some nitrogen gas.

Advantages

Produces a renewable fuel that is flexible and can be used to produce heat, power, domestic
gas use or as a vehicle fuel;
Generates methane that can be captured and used to produce energy that might otherwise
leak into the atmosphere and increase the greenhouse effect;
The process fixes nitrogen in the digestate and reduces emissions of nitrous oxide (a
strong greenhouse gas) compared to composting or landfill.

Disadvantages

Biogas contains contaminant gases which can be corrosive to gas engines and boilers;
Will only produce a limited quantity of energy demand and is dependent upon location
in proximity to feedstock and energy users;
There is little or no control on the rate of gas production, although the gas can, to some extent
be stored and used as required.

HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER

Hydroelectric energy, also called hydroelectric power or hydroelectricity, is a form
of energy that harnesses the power of water in motion—such as water flowing over a
waterfall—to generate electricity.

Advantages
1. Once a dam is constructed, electricity can be produced at a constant rate.
2. If electricity is not needed, the sluice gates can be shut, stopping electricity generation.
3. Dams are designed to last many decades and so can contribute to the generation of
electricity.

4. The lake that forms behind the dam can be used for water sports and leisure /
pleasure activities.
5. The lake's water can be used for irrigation purposes.
6. The build-up of water in the lake means that energy can be stored until needed.
7. When in use, electricity produced by dam systems does not produce greenhouse
gases.

Disadvantages

1. Dams are extremely expensive to build and must be built to a very high standard.

2. The high cost of dam construction means they must operate for many decades to
become profitable.
3. The flooding of large areas of land means that the natural environment is destroyed.
4. People living in villages and towns that are in the valley to be flooded, must move
out. 5. The building of large dams can cause serious geological damage.
6. Dams built blocking the progress of a river in one country.
7. Building a large dam alters the natural water table level.
 MINING

Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth.
Materials recovered by mining include bauxite, coal, copper, gold, silver, diamonds, iron,
precious metals, lead, limestone, nickel, phosphate, oil shale, rock salt, tin, uranium, and
molybdenum.

Any material that cannot be grown from agricultural processes, or created artificially in a
laboratory or factory, is usually mined. Mining in a wider sense can also include extraction of
petroleum, natural gas, and even water.

On an industrial scale can produce environmental damages resulting from exploration and
development, even long after the mine is closed.

The exploratory phase generally causes the least impact, although drilling holes to determine
the existence of deposits may involve transporting heavy equipment’s and building roads.
Environmental effects include erosion, formation of sinkholes, loss of stability, subsidence of
land, weakening of lithospheric plates, dust generation, removal of green belt, desertification,
loss of top soil, noise generation, loss of biodiversity, and contamination of groundwater and
surface water by chemicals from the mining process and products.

Mining can have adverse effects on surrounding surface and ground water if protection measures
are not exercised. The result can be unnaturally high concentrations of some chemical elements,
notably arsenic and sulphuric acid, over a significantly large area of surface or subsurface. Old
mines are often dangerous and can contain deadly gases, snakes, and other dangerous animals.
The entrance to an old mine in particular can be very dangerous, as weather may have eroded
the earth/rock surrounding the entrance. Old mine workings, caves, etc. are commonly
hazardous simply due to the lack of oxygen in the air (a condition in mines known as blackdamp)
and this is a deadly killer which provides no warning to those entering such an environment.

Acid mine drainage (AMD), or acid rock drainage (ARD), refers to the outflow of acidic water
from (usually) abandoned metal mines or coal mines. Open pit mining, generates enormous
quantities of waste compared to any other natural resource extraction activity. Water interacts
with these wastes to generate contaminated fluids that can pollute soils, rivers and ground water.
These fluids can be highly acidic and metal laden or highly alkaline and they often contain
various forms of cyanide and sulphides. SO2 + H2 O -> H2 SO4

CLOUD SEEDING

Cloud seeding is a type of weather modification that aims to change the amount or type of
precipitation that falls from clouds by dispersing substances into the air that serve as cloud
condensation or ice nuclei, which alter the microphysical processes within the cloud. The usual
intent is to increase precipitation (rain or snow), but hail and fog suppression are also widely
practiced in airports where harsh weather conditions are experienced. Cloud seeding also occurs
due to ice nucleates in nature, most of which are bacterial in origin.

The most common chemicals used for cloud seeding include silver iodide, potassium iodide and
dry ice (solid carbon dioxide). Liquid propane, which expands into a gas, has also been used.
This can produce ice crystals at higher temperatures than silver iodide. After promising research,
the use of hygroscopic materials, such as table salt, is becoming more popular. When cloud
seeding, increased snowfall takes place when temperatures within the clouds are between −4
and 19 °F (−20 and −7 °C). Introduction of a substance such as silver iodide, which has a
crystalline structure similar to that of ice, will induce freezing nucleation.

There are three cloud seeding methods: static, dynamic and hygroscopic.

Static cloud seeding involves spreading a chemical like silver iodide into clouds. The silver
iodide provides a crystal around which moisture can condense. The moisture is already present
in the clouds, but silver iodide essentially makes rain clouds more effective at dispensing their
water.

Dynamic cloud seeding aims to boost vertical air currents, which encourages more water to
pass through the clouds, translating into more rain. Up to 100 times more ice crystals are used
in dynamic cloud seeding than in the static method. The process is considered more complex
than static clouding seeding because it depends on a sequence of events working properly.

Hygroscopic cloud seeding disperses salts through flares or explosives in the lower portions
of clouds. The salts grow in size as water joins with them.
With an NFPA 704 health hazard rating of 2, silver iodide can cause temporary
incapacitation or possible residual injury to humans and other mammals with intense
or chronic exposure. However, there have been several detailed ecological studies
that showed negligible environmental and health impacts.

Carbon Trading

Carbon trading is an exchange of credits between nations designed to reduce emissions of carbon
dioxide. It is also referred to as carbon emissions trading. Carbon emissions trading accounts
for most emissions trading.

When countries use fossil fuels and produce carbon dioxide, they do not pay for the implications
of burning those fossil fuels directly. There are some costs that they incur, like the price of the
fuel itself, but there are other costs not included in the price of the fuel. These are known as
externalities. In the case of fossil fuel usage, often these externalities are negative externalities,
meaning that the consumption of the good has negative effects on third parties. These
externalities include health costs, (like the contribution that burning fossil fuels makes to heart
disease, cancer, stroke, and lung diseases) and environmental costs, (like environmental
degradation, pollution, climate change, and global warming). Interestingly, research has found
that, often, the burdens of climate change most directly affect countries with the lowest
greenhouse emissions. So, if a country is going to burn fossil fuels, and produces these negative
externalities, the thinking is that they should pay for them.

The carbon trade originated with the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, with the objective of reducing carbon
emissions and mitigating climate change and future global warming. At the time, the measure
devised was intended to reduce overall carbon dioxide emissions to roughly 5% below 1990
levels by between 2008 and 2012.

Basically, each country has a cap on the amount of carbon they are allowed to release. Carbon
emissions trading then allow countries that have higher carbon emissions to purchase the right
to release more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere from countries that have lower carbon
emissions.

The carbon trade also refers to the ability of individual companies to trade polluting rights
through a regulatory system known as cap and trade. Companies that pollute less can sell their
unused pollution rights to companies that pollute more. The goal is to ensure that companies in
the aggregate do not exceed a baseline level of pollution and to provide a financial incentive for
companies to pollute less.