FLUID MECHANICS

FLUIDS

It is a substance that can flow easily. It assumes the shape of the containing vessel
because it cannot withstand shearing stress.

CHARACTERISTICS:

1. It has no modulus of rigidity.

2. In fluids, atoms and molecules are arranged in a random manner.
3. It begins to flow when shearing stress is applied.
 THRUST

The total force exerted by a liquid on any surface in contact is called thrust. A liquid
always exerts force perpendicular to the surface of the container at every point.

𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 0; 𝑅 ≠ 0, 𝜃 = 900

𝑅 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 R
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝐹
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 θ

𝑅 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
 PASCAL’S LAW:

It states that the pressure exerted at any point on an enclosed liquid is transmitted
equally in all directions.
A
𝐹𝐶 𝐹𝐴
𝐹𝐶 = 𝐹𝐵 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃, 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 ⇒ = ⇒ 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝐴
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐴 𝑃𝐵
& 𝑃𝐶
𝐹𝐴 𝐹𝐵
𝐹𝐴 = 𝐹𝐵 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐵 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 ⇒ = ⇒ 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵 𝜃
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐵
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐶 C B

𝑃𝐴
 Hydraulic lift
It is an application of Pascal’s law.
It is used to lift heavy objects.
According to Pascal’s law,
pressure applied on smaller 𝑪 𝑫
piston =pressure transmitted to
large piston
It is used to lift the heavy loads. If
a small force 𝑓 is applied on
piston of 𝐶 then the pressure
exerted on the liquid
𝑓 𝐹 𝑓 𝐹
𝑃𝐶 = ; 𝑃𝐷 = ; =
𝑎 𝐴 𝑎 𝐴
𝑓
𝐹=𝑓
𝑎
𝐴𝑠 𝐴 ≫ 𝑎, 𝐹 ≫ 𝑓
So heavy load placed on the larger piston is easily lifted upwards by applying a small
force.
 PRESSURE EXERTED BY A LIQUID

𝐹1 = 𝑝𝐴 & 𝐹2 = 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝 𝐴
𝑚 𝑃𝑎
𝐼𝑛 𝑒𝑞 ,
𝐹1 + 𝑊 = 𝐹2
⇒ 𝑊 = 𝐹2 − 𝐹1 𝒚 𝐹1
𝑀𝑔 = 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝 𝐴 − 𝑝𝐴
𝒅𝒚 𝒉
𝑉𝜌𝑔 = 𝑑𝑝𝐴 ⇒ 𝑑𝑝. 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑑𝑦 𝜌𝑔
𝑃 ℎ 𝐹2
𝑑𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑑𝑦 𝑊
𝑃𝑎 0
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎 + ℎ𝜌𝑔

i.e., Absolute pressure=Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure

 Atmospheric pressure:

The atmosphere exerts pressure on the earth’s surface. The atmospheric pressure at
5
sea level is given by 𝑃0 = 1.01 × 10 𝑃𝑎.
5
1𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1.01 × 10 𝑃𝑎 = 1.01𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 760𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟

The atmospheric pressure is maximum at the surface of earth and goes on

decreasing as we move up into the earth's atmosphere.
Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure:
Mercury Barometer:
The pressure exerted by a mercury column
of 1𝑚𝑚 high is called 1 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑟.
1 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 1 𝑚𝑚 of mercury column
𝑃𝑎 = ℎ𝜌𝑔 = 76𝑐𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑔
= 0.76 × 13.6 × 9.8
5
1𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1.01 × 10 𝑃𝑎 = 1.01𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 760𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟
 Open tube Manometer :

Open-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure gauge. When equilibrium

is reached, the pressure at the bottom of left limb is equal to the pressure at the
bottom of right limb.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑝 + 𝑦1 𝜌𝑔 = 𝑝𝑎 + 𝑦2 𝜌𝑔
𝑝 – 𝑝𝑎 = 𝜌𝑔 (𝑦2 – 𝑦1) = 𝜌𝑔𝑦
𝑝 – 𝑝𝑎 = 𝜌𝑔 (𝑦2 – 𝑦1) = 𝜌𝑔𝑦
𝑝 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑝 – 𝑝𝑎 = 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒.
 Hydrostatic paradox:

The pressure exerted by a liquid column depends only on the height of the liquid
column and not on the shape of the containing vessel.
Hydrostatic pressure depends on the depth of the point below the surface (ℎ), nature
of liquid and acceleration due to gravity (𝑔) while it is independent of the amount of
liquid, shape of the container or cross-sectional area considered. So if a given liquid is
filled in vessels of different shapes to same height, the pressure at the base in each
vessel's will be the same, though the volume or weight of the liquid in different vessels
will be different.
If pressure at half the depth of a lake is equal to 2/3 pressure at the bottom of the
lake then what is the depth of the lake

𝐴 10𝑚

𝐵 20𝑚

𝐶 60𝑚

𝐷 30𝑚

Solution:⟶ 𝐵
5
ℎ 2 2𝑃0 1.01 × 10
𝑃ℎ/2 = 𝑃ℎ ⇒ 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔 = 𝑃0 + ℎ𝜌𝑔 ⇒ ℎ = = ⇒ ℎ = 20𝑚
2 3 𝜌𝑔 103 × 10
A uniformly tapering vessel is filled with a liquid of density 900 kg/m3. The force
2
that acts on the base of the vessel due to the liquid is (𝑔 = 9.8𝑚/𝑠 )

𝐴 3.6𝑁
Area = 10–3m2
𝐵 7.2𝑁

𝐶 9.0𝑁
0.4 m
𝐷 14.4𝑁

Solution:⟶ 𝐵 Area=2 × 10–3m2

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑝𝐴 = ℎ𝜌𝑔𝐴 = 0.4 × 900 × 10 × 2 × 10−3 = 7.2𝑁

The height of a mercury barometer is 75 cm at sea level and 50 cm at the top of a
4
hill. Ratio of density of mercury to that of air is 10 . The height of the hill is

𝐴 250𝑚

𝐵 2.5𝑘𝑚

𝐶 1.25𝑘𝑚

𝐷 750𝑚

Solution:⟶ 𝐵

∆𝑝 = 75 − 50 𝜌𝐻𝑔 𝑔 = ℎ × 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑔 ⇒ ℎ = 2.5𝑘𝑚

 When a large bubble rises from the bottom of a lake to the surface. Its radius
doubles. If atmospheric pressure is equal to that of column of water height H, then
the depth of lake is

𝐴 𝐻

𝐵 7𝐻

𝐶 9𝐻

𝐷 14.4𝐻

Solution:⟶ 𝐵

4 3 4 3
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 ⇒ 𝑃0 + ℎ𝜌𝑔 × 𝜋𝑟 = 𝑃0 × 𝜋 2𝑟 ⇒ ℎ𝜌𝑔 = 7𝐻𝜌𝑔 ⇒ ℎ = 7𝐻
3 3
 A vertical U-tube of uniform inner cross section contains mercury in both sides of
its arms. A glycerin (density = 1.3 g/cm3) column of length 10 cm is introduced
into one of its arms. Oil of density 0.8 gm/cm3 is poured into the other arm until
the upper surfaces of the oil and glycerin are in the same horizontal level. Find
the length of the oil column, Density of mercury = 13.6 g/cm3

𝐴 10.4𝑐𝑚

𝐵 8.2𝑐𝑚
𝑨 𝑩
𝐶 7.2𝑐𝑚

𝐷 9.7𝑐𝑚

Solution:⟶ 𝐷

𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵 ⇒ 10 × 1.3 × 𝑔 = ℎ × 0.8 × 𝑔 + 10 − ℎ × 13.6 × 𝑔 ⇒ ℎ = 9.7𝑐𝑚

 Archimedes principle

When a body is partially or fully dipped into a fluid, the fluid exerts forces on the body. The
forces by the fluid is perpendicular to the surface and is equal to the pressure at tat point.
The resultant of all these contact forces is called the force of buoyancy or buoyant force.

𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡

Archimedes’ principle states that when a body is

𝑊
partially or fully dipped into a fluid at rest, the fluid
exerts an upward force of buoyancy equal to the weight
of the displaced fluid.
 Archimedes principle
0
7 1
Archimede’s principle states that the magnitude 6 2
of the buoyant force is always equal to the 5 3
weight of the fluid displaced by the object. 4

Archimedes principle states that the buoyant 3l

force is equal to the weight of the displaced
water. 3l water
 𝐹1 = 𝐴𝑃1 = 𝐴 ℎ1 𝜎𝑔 + 𝑃𝑂
F1 h1
𝐹2 = 𝐴𝑃2 = 𝐴 ℎ2 𝜎𝑔 + 𝑃𝑂 h2

𝐴𝑠 ℎ2 > ℎ1 , 𝐹 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹2 − 𝐹1 = 𝐴𝜎𝑔 ℎ2 − ℎ1

𝐼𝑓 𝐿 = 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 F2
𝐹 = 𝐴𝜎𝐿 𝑔 = 𝑉𝜎𝑔
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐹 = weight of fluid displaced by the body
This is called upthrust or buoyancy and acts vertically upwards (opposite to the weight
of the body) through the centre of gravity of displaced fluid (called centre of
buoyancy).
Upthrust is independent of all factors of the body such as its mass, size, density etc. except
the volume of the body inside the fluid.

Upthrust depends upon the nature of displaced fluid. This is why upthrust on a fully submerged
body is more in sea water than in fresh water because its density is more than fresh water.
Apparent weight of the body of density 𝜌 when immersed in a liquid of density 𝜎

Apparent weight = Actual weight – Upthrust

𝜎
= 𝑉𝜌𝑔 − 𝑉𝜎𝑔 = 𝑉𝜌𝑔 1 −
𝜌
𝜎
𝑊𝑎𝑝𝑝 = 𝑊 1 −
𝜌
If a body of volume V is immersed in liquid of density 𝜎 then its weight reduces.

𝑊1 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟, 𝑊2 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑊1 − 𝑊2 = 𝑉𝜎𝑔
𝑊1 − 𝑊2
∴𝑉=
𝜎𝑔
 Relative density of a body

𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
= = =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑊1
= =
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑊1 − 𝑊2

If the loss of weight of a body in water is ‘a’ while in liquid is ‘b’

𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎 𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑊𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑

= = =
𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑏 𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑊𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
If density of body is greater than that of liquid,𝜌 > 𝜎

If density of body is equal ot the density of liquid,𝜌 = 𝜎

If density of body is less than that of liquid,𝜌 < 𝜎

 Density of liquid :

Liquids may be treated as incompressible. Hence their density may be assumed to

be constant throughout.
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡40 𝐶

𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑖 𝑚 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 & 𝑉 = +
𝜌1 𝜌2
𝑚 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
𝜌= = 𝑚 𝑚
𝑉 1
𝜌1 + 2
𝜌2
2𝜌1 𝜌2
𝐼𝑓𝑚1 = 𝑚2 ; 𝜌 =
𝜌1 + 𝜌2
𝑉1 𝜌1 + 𝑉2 𝜌2 𝜌1 + 𝜌2
𝑖𝑖 𝜌 = ; 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 ; 𝜌 =
𝑉1 + 𝑉2 2
 3
A tall measuring jar contains ethyl alcohol of density 0.8 gm/𝑐𝑚 . An iron ball is
3
dropped in to it and the level rises by 20𝑐𝑚 . The buoyant force acting on the ball
is.....

𝐴 0.2𝑁

𝐵 0.25𝑁

𝐶 0.16𝑁

𝐷 1.6𝑁

Solution:⟶ 𝐶

3
𝑔 −3
𝐹 = 𝑉𝜌𝑔 = 20𝑐𝑚 × 0.8 3 × 10 = 20 × 0.8 × 10 × 10 = 0.16𝑁
𝑐𝑚
 3
A boat floating in fresh water (density 1000 kg/𝑚 ) displaces water weighing 35.2 N.
The change in volume of the displaced water if it were floating in sea water of
3 3 2
density 1.1×10 kg/𝑚 will be.... (take g = 10 m/𝑠 )

3
𝐴 32𝑚

3
𝐵 35.2𝑚

𝐶 3.2𝑚3

𝐷 0.32𝑚 3

Solution:⟶ 𝐷

35.2 3
𝑚𝑔 = 𝑉𝜌𝑔 ⇒ 𝑉 = = 0.32𝑚
1.1 × 103
A small block of wood of relative density 0.5 is submerged in water at a depth of 5m.
When the block is released, it starts moving upwards, the acceleration of the block
−2
is.... (g = 10 m𝑠 )

−2
𝐴 10𝑚𝑠

−2
𝐵 5𝑚𝑠

𝐶 7.5𝑚𝑠 −2

𝐷 15𝑚𝑠 −2

Solution:⟶ 𝐴

3
𝜎 10 −2
𝑔𝑎𝑝𝑝 =𝑔 1− = 10 1 − = −10𝑚𝑠
𝜌 0.5 × 103
Density of ice is 3
900kg/𝑚 .A piece of ice is floating in water (of density 3
1000kg/𝑚 ).
The fraction of volume of the piece of ice outside the water is....

𝐴 0.9

𝐵 0.1

𝐶 1

𝐷 6

Solution:⟶ 𝐵

𝑉𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑑 9
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 ⇒ 𝑉𝜌𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑔 = 𝑉𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔 ⇒ = = 0.9
𝑉 10
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 1 − 0.9 = 0.1
Density of ice is 3
900kg/𝑚 .A piece of ice is floating in water (of density 3
1000kg/𝑚 ).
The fraction of volume of the piece of ice outside the water is....

𝐴 0.9

𝐵 0.1

𝐶 1

𝐷 6

Solution:⟶ 𝐵

𝑉𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑑 9
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 ⇒ 𝑉𝜌𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑔 = 𝑉𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔 ⇒ = = 0.9
𝑉 10
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 1 − 0.9 = 0.1
 Viscosity 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣
𝑌
𝑋
𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥
The property of a fluid due to which it 𝐶 𝐷
opposes the relative motion between its 𝑣
different layers is called viscosity (or fluid
friction or internal friction) and the force 𝑥
between the layers opposing the relative
motion is called viscous force.
𝐴 𝐵
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡
Consider the two layers 𝐶𝐷 and 𝑋𝑌 of the
liquid at distances 𝑥 and 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 from the F
fixed surface 𝐴𝐵, having the velocities 𝑣 A
and 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣 respectively. Then (𝑑𝑣/ v
𝑑𝑥) denotes the rate of change of velocity
with distance and is known as velocity dx
gradient.
Newton’s formula for viscous force :
The viscous drag between two parallel layers each of area A and having velocity
gradient (dv/dx) is given by
𝑑𝑣
𝐹 = −𝜂𝐴 ; 𝜂 = 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑑𝑥
−2
𝑈𝑁𝐼𝑇: 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑆𝐼 , 1 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑒 = 1𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 1𝑁𝑠𝑚
−2 −1 −1
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑔𝑠 , 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 1 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒 𝑠 𝑐𝑚 = 1𝑔𝑐𝑚 𝑠
With increase in pressure, the viscosity of liquids (except water) increases while that
of gases is practically independent of pressure. The viscosity of water decreases with
increase in pressure.
Stoke’s law

It states that the backward dragging force of viscosity acting on a spherical body of
radius moving with velocity v through a fluid of viscosity η is
𝐹 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣
 Terminal velocity

It is the maximum constant velocity attained by a spherical body while falling through
a viscous medium. The terminal velocity of a spherical body of density 𝜌 and radius r
moving through a fluid of density 𝜎 and viscosity 𝜂 is given by
2
2𝑟 𝜌 − 𝜎 𝑔
𝑣=
9 𝜂
𝑻
When the body attains terminal velocity the net force 𝑭
acting on the body is zero. 𝒓

𝑊 =𝑇+𝐹
⇒𝐹 =𝑊−𝑇
4 3 4 3 𝑾
6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣 = 𝜋𝑟 𝜌𝑔 − 𝜋𝑟 𝜎𝑔
3 3
2
2𝑟 𝜌 − 𝜎 𝑔
𝑣=
9 𝜂
 2𝑟 2 𝜌−𝜎 𝑔
𝑣=
9 𝜂
Terminal velocity depend on the radius of the sphere so if radius is made n - fold,
terminal velocity will become n2 times.

Greater the density of solid greater will be the terminal velocity

Greater the density and viscosity of the fluid lesser will be the terminal velocity.

If 𝜌 > 𝜎 then terminal velocity will be positive and hence the spherical body will
attain constant velocity in downward direction.

If 𝜌 < 𝜎 then terminal velocity will be negative and hence the spherical body will
attain constant velocity in upward direction. Example : Air bubble in a liquid and
clouds in sky.
 Poiseuille’s Formula

Poiseuille studied the stream-line flow of liquid in capillary tubes. He found that if a
pressure difference (𝑃) is maintained across the two ends of a capillary tube of length
'𝑙 ' and radius 𝑟, then the volume of liquid coming out of the tube per second is
(i) Directly proportional to the pressure difference (P).
(ii) Directly proportional to the fourth power of radius (𝑟) of the capillary tube
(iii) Inversely proportional to the coefficient of viscosity () of the liquid.
(iv) Inversely proportional to the length (𝑙) of the capillary tube.
𝑙

𝑝𝑟 4 𝑟
𝑉∝
𝜂𝑙
4
𝜋 𝑝𝑟
𝑉=
8 𝜂𝑙
 Laminar flow

The steady flow in which liquid moves in the form of layers is called laminar flow. The
velocity of the layer varies from maximum at axis at zero for the layer at the wall of the
tube.

Critical velocity

The critical velocity of a liquid is that limiting value of its velocity of flow upto which the
flow is streamlined and above which the flow becomes turbulent. It is given by

𝑅𝑒 𝜂 ′
𝑣𝐶 = ; 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑠 𝑛𝑜.
𝜌𝐷
 Streamline flow and turbulent flow

It is the flow of liquid in which each particle of the liquid passing through a point travels
along the same path and with the same velocity as the preceding particle passing
through the same point. A liquid possesses streamline motion only when its velocity is
less than a certain limiting value, called critical velocity. When the velocity of the liquid
becomes greater than the critical velocity, the particles follow zig-zag path, such a
disordered or irregular motion is called turbulent flow.

𝑉3
𝑉2
𝑉1
Reynold’s number

It is a dimensionless number which determines the nature of the flow of the liquid. For
a liquid of viscosity η , density ρ and flowing through a pipe of diameter D, Reynold’s
no. is given by 𝜌𝑣𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜂
𝐼𝑓 𝑅𝑒 < 2000, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟
𝐼𝑓 𝑅𝑒 > 3000, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡
Ideal fluid 𝐼𝑓 2000 < 𝑅𝑒 < 3000, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

An ideal fluid is one which is non-viscous, incompressible, and its flow is steady and
irrotational.

Rate of flow
The volume of a liquid flowing per second through a pipe of cross-section with velocity
is given by 𝑉
𝑄 = = 𝑎𝑣
𝑡
Equation of continuity :

If there is no source or sink of the fluid along the length of the pipe, the mass of the
fluid crossing any section of the pipe per second is always constant.

𝑚 = 𝑎1 𝑣1 𝜌1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2 𝜌2 𝑎2
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜌1 = 𝜌2 𝑣2
⇒ 𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑎𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑎1
𝑣1
 Pressure Energy
It is the energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its pressure. It is the measure of work done
in pushing the liquid against pressure without imparting any velocity to it.
Pressure energy of the liquid = 𝑃𝑉
Pressure energy per unit volume of the liquid = 𝑃

Potential Energy
It is the energy possessed by liquid by virtue of its height or
position above the surface of earth or any reference level taken
as zero level.
Potential energy of the liquid = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
Potential energy per unit volume of the liquid = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
Kinetic Energy
It is the energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its motion or velocity.
1 1
Kinetic energy of the liquid = 𝑚𝑣 2 , K.E per unit volume = 𝜌𝑣 2
2 2
 Bernoulli’s principle

It states that the sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy per unit
volume of an incompressible, non-viscous fluid in a streamlined, irrotational flow
remains constant along a streamline. 𝐴2 𝑌 𝑃
2
𝑣2

𝑋
1 2
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑃1 𝑣1 ℎ2
2
𝐴1
ℎ1
To prove it, consider a liquid flowing steadily through a tube of non-uniform area of
cross-section as shown in fig. If P1 and P2 are the pressures at the two ends of the
tube respectively, work done in pushing the volume V of incompressible fluid from
point X to Y through the tube will be

𝑊 = 𝑃1 𝑉 − 𝑃2 𝑉 = 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 𝑉 … . (1)

This work is used by the fluid in two ways.

(a) In changing the potential energy of mass m (in the volume V ) from mgh1 to mgh2,

𝑖. 𝑒. ∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔 ℎ2 − ℎ1 … . (2)

(b) In changing the kinetic energy from (1/2)mv12 to (1/2)mv22

1 2 2
𝑖. 𝑒. ∆𝐾 = 𝑚 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 … . (3)
2
Now as the fluid is non-viscous, by conservation of mechanical energy

𝑊 = ∆𝐾 + ∆𝑈

1 2 2
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 𝑉 = 𝑚𝑔 ℎ2 − ℎ1 + 𝑚 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
2
1 2 1 2
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 + 𝜌𝑣1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌𝑣2
2 2
1 2
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ + 𝜌𝑣 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡.
2
 Venturimeter

It is a device based on Bernoulli's theorem used for measuring the rate of flow of liquid
through pipes.
1 2 1 2
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣2
2 2
1 2 2
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
2
1 2 2
𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝜌 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
2
2 2
1 𝑉 𝑉
𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝜌 2 − 2
2 𝑎2 𝑎1
2 2
2
2𝑎 1 𝑎 2 ℎ𝑔
𝑉 = 2 2
𝑎1 − 𝑎2
2𝑔ℎ
⇒ 𝑉 = 𝑎1 𝑎2 2 2
𝑎1 − 𝑎2
 Velocity of Efflux

It is the speed that an object would acquire in falling from rest through a distance h
and is called velocity of efflux or velocity of flow.
This result was first given by Torricelli, so this is known as Torricelli's theorem.

1 2 ℎ
𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ + 0 = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑣
2 𝐻
𝑣 = 2𝑔ℎ 𝑣= 2𝑔ℎ

As the vertical velocity of liquid at the orifice is zero

and it is at a height (H-h)from the base, the time taken
by the liquid to reach the base-level

2(𝐻 − ℎ)
𝑡=
𝑔
Now during time t liquid is moving horizontally with constant velocity v, so it will hit the
base level at a horizontal distance x (called range)

ℎ
𝑥 = 𝑣𝑡 = 2 ℎ(𝐻 − ℎ) 𝐻
𝑣= 2𝑔ℎ
𝑑𝑥 𝐻
For maximum range = 0 ⇒ ℎ =
𝑑ℎ 2
𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐻 𝑥
 Attraction between two closely parallel moving boats (or buses)
When two boats or buses move side by side in the same direction, the water (or air) in
the region between them moves faster than that on the remote sides. Consequently in
accordance with Bernoulli's principle the pressure between them is reduced and
hence due to pressure difference they are pulled towards each other creating the so
called attraction.
Working of an aeroplane

This is also based on Bernoulli's principle. Due to the specific shape of wings when
the aeroplane runs, air passes at higher speed over it as compared to its lower
surface. This difference of air speeds above and below the wings, in accordance with
Bernoulli's principle, creates a pressure difference, due to which an upward force
called 'dynamic lift' (= pressure difference × area of wing) acts on the plane. If this
force becomes greater than the weight of the plane, the plane will rise up.
 Blowing off roofs by wind storms

When a high speed wind blows over a straw or tin roof, it creates a low pressure (P) in
accordance with Bernoulli's principle.
However, the pressure below the roof (i.e., inside the room) is still atmospheric (). So due to
this difference of pressure, the roof is lifted up and is then blown off by the wind.

−3 −1
Air of density 1.3kg𝑚 blows horizontally with a speed of 108km ℎ . A house has
2
a plane roof of area 40𝑚 . The magnitude of aerodynamic lift on the roof is....

Solution:⟶

1 2 2
1 2 4
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 = × 1.3 × 30 = 450 × 1.3 ⇒ 𝐹 = 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 𝐴 = 2.34 × 10 𝑁
2 2
The pressure that will be built up by a compressor in a paint-gun when a stream of
−1 −3
liquid paint flows out with a velocity of 25 𝑚𝑠 (density of paint is 0.8 gm 𝑐𝑚 ) is....
−2
(in N𝑚 )

2
𝐴 2.5 × 10

3
𝐵 2.5 × 10

𝐶 5
2.5 × 10

𝐷 5 × 105

Solution:⟶ 𝐶

1 2 1 3 2 5
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑣 = × 0.8 × 10 × 25 = 2.5 × 10
2 2
A syringe of diameter 1cm having a nozzle of diameter 1mm, is placed horizontally
at a height 5m from the ground. An incompressible non-viscous liquid is filled in the
syringe and the liquid is compressed by moving the piston at a speed of 0.5m/s, the
−2
horizontal distance travelled by the liquid jet ……. (g = 10 𝑚𝑠 )

𝐴 50𝑚

𝐵 25𝑚

𝐶 5𝑚𝑚

𝐷 25𝑚𝑚

Solution:⟶ 𝐴
−2 2 −3 2
𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2 ⇒ 𝜋 0.5 × 10 × 0.5 = 𝜋 0.5 × 10 𝑣2 ⇒ 𝑣2 = 50𝑚/𝑠
2ℎ
𝑥=𝑣 = 50𝑚
𝑔
 4 2
An aeroplane of mass 3×10 kg and total wing area 120 𝑚 is in a level flight at
same height. The difference in pressure between the upper and lower surface of its
−2
wings in kilo pascal is...(g = 10 𝑚𝑠 )

𝐴 2.5

𝐵 25

𝐶 5

𝐷 50

Solution:⟶ 𝐴
4
𝐹 3× × 1010 3 2
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = = = 2.5 × 10 𝑁/𝑚
𝐴 120
Water is flowing through a tube of non-uniform cross section. If the radius of the tube
at the entrance and the exit is in the ratio 3 : 2, then ratio of velocity of water entering
and leaving the tube is....

𝐴 8: 27

𝐵 4: 9

𝐶 3: 1

𝐷 9: 4

Solution:⟶ 𝐷 𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2
 5
The pressure on the top surface of an aeroplane wing is 0.8×10 𝑝𝑎 and the
5 2
pressure on the bottom surface is 0.75×10 𝑝𝑎. If the area of each surface is 50 𝑚 ,
the dynamic lift on the wing is....

4
𝐴 25 × 10 𝑁

4
𝐵 0.5 × 10 𝑁

𝐶 5 × 104 𝑁

𝐷 0.25 × 10 𝑁 4

𝐹
Solution:⟶ 𝐴 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 =
𝐴
 Surface Tension

Consider a beaker having some water in it

Consider two water molecules in it

Cohesive
These two molecules attract each other
force
Two molecules will attract each other
Consider one water if and only if they are separated Adhesive
and one glass molecule at a distance less than or equal to 10–9m force
This is known as range of attraction
These two molecules
also Molecules having distance
attract each other more than 10–9 m will not
attract each other
 Surface
film
Consider a
molecule
10–9m

An imaginary sphere drawn

10–9 m with range of attraction
as radius around this molecule The top most layer of the liquid
is known as sphere of influence. is called as free surface.

All the molecules which are in the The layer of surface of liquid
sphere of influence exert a force of whose thickness is about
attraction on the molecule which is equal to range of molecular
at the centre. attraction is called surface film.
 Surface Tension on the basis of molecular theory

Sphere of influence of
𝐴𝑖𝑟 molecule C is
𝐶
𝐵 Conclusion:
FR
𝐴 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 Molecule ‘A’ is surrounded from all the sides by
FR
similar molecules. And hence, ‘A’ is attracted in all
the directions. Net force acting on A is zero.

Consider three molecules A,B Molecule C and B are surrounded by similar

and C molecules on one side (i.e. water). And different
molecules on other side (i.e. air)
Sphere of influence of
molecule A is Such that all the molecules which are in surface film
experience net downward force.
Due to this, the surface is under tension & behaves
Sphere of influence of
like an elastic stretched membrane. This is called
molecule B is
surface tension.
 Surface Tension

The property of a liquid due to which its free surface tries to have minimum surface
area and behaves as if it were under tension somewhat like a stretched elastic
membrane is called surface tension. A small liquid drop has spherical shape, as due
to surface tension the liquid surface tries to have minimum surface area and for a
given volume, the sphere has minimum surface area. Surface tension of a liquid is
measured by the force acting per unit length on either side of an imaginary line drawn
on the free surface of liquid, the direction of this force being perpendicular to the line
and tangential to the free surface of liquid. So if 𝐹 is the force acting on one side of
imaginary line of length 𝐿, then 𝑇 = (𝐹/𝐿)
 Body Figure Force

Needle (Length = 𝑙 ) 𝐹 = 2𝑙 𝑇 + 𝑊

Hollow disc
𝐹 = 2 (𝑟1 + 𝑟2)𝑇 + 𝑊
(Inner radius = 𝑟1
Outer radius = 𝑟2)

𝐹 = 2 (𝑟 + 𝑟)𝑇 + 𝑊
Thin ring (Radius = 𝑟) 𝐹 = 4 𝑟𝑇 + 𝑊
 Body Figure Force

Circular plate or disc 𝐹 = 2 𝑟𝑇 + 𝑊

(Radius = 𝑟)

𝐹 = 8𝑙 𝑇 + 𝑊
Square frame (Side = 𝑙 )

𝐹 = 4𝑙 𝑇 + 𝑊
Square plate
 Surface Energy

C L L' D
The molecules on the liquid surface experience
net downward force. So to bring a molecule
from the interior of the liquid to the free surface, F
𝒍 𝑻 × 𝟐𝒍
some work is required to be done against the
intermolecular force of attraction, which will be
stored as potential energy of the molecule on B M M' A
the surface. The potential energy of surface
molecules per unit area of the surface is called x
surface energy.
 Surface Energy

C L L' D
Force due to surface tension per unit length
𝐹 = 𝑇 × 2𝑙 , 𝑙 = 𝐿𝑀 ( length 2𝑙 is taken F
because film has got two free surfaces) 𝒍 𝑻 × 𝟐𝒍

Work done in increase in length, B M M' A

𝑊 = 𝐹 × 𝑥 = 𝑇 × 2𝑙 × 𝑥 = 𝑇 × ∆𝐴
x
The potential energy of surface molecules per
unit area of the surface is called surface energy.
𝑊 𝑇×∆𝐴
Surface Energy= = =𝑇
∆𝐴 ∆𝐴
 Surface Tension
Surface exerts force tangent to
the surface and perpendicular
to the object. Water

Consider a needle on a
water surface.

Surface exerts force

tangent to the surface
and perpendicular to
the object.
 Factors Affecting Surface Tension

(1) Temperature : The surface tension of liquid decreases with rise of temperature.
The surface tension of liquid is zero at its boiling point and it vanishes at critical
temperature. At critical temperature, intermolecular forces for liquid and gases
becomes equal and liquid can expand without any restriction. For small temperature
differences, the variation in surface tension with temperature is linear and is given by
the relation 𝑇𝑡 = 𝑇0 (1 − 𝛼𝑡)
Examples : (i) Hot soup tastes better than the cold soup.
(ii) Machinery parts get jammed in winter.

(2) Impurities : The presence of impurities either on the liquid surface or dissolved in
it, considerably affect the surface tension, depending upon the degree of
contamination. A highly soluble substance like sodium chloride when dissolved in
water, increases the surface tension of water. But the sparingly soluble substances like
phenol when dissolved in water, decreases the surface tension of water.
 Work Done in Blowing a Liquid Drop or Soap Bubble

(i) Liquid drop

2 2
𝑊 = 𝑇 × ∆𝐴 = 𝑇 × 4𝜋 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 [ 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒]

(ii) Soap bubble

2 2
𝑊 = 𝑇 × ∆𝐴 = 𝑇 × 8𝜋 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 [ 𝑏𝑢𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒]

Splitting of Bigger Drop

4 3 4 3 3 3
𝜋𝑅 = 𝑛 × 𝜋𝑟 ⇒ 𝑅 = 𝑛𝑟
3 3
2 2
𝑊 = 𝑇 × ∆𝐴 = 𝑇 𝐴𝐹 − 𝐴𝐼 = 𝑇 𝑛4𝜋𝑟 − 4𝜋𝑅
 Work Done in Blowing a Liquid Drop or Soap Bubble

If 𝑛 small drops of radius 𝑟 coalesce to form a

big drop of radius R then surface area of the
liquid decreases.
2 2
Amount of surface energy released = Initial
𝑊 = 𝑇 × ∆𝐴 = 𝑇 𝑛4𝜋𝑟 − 4𝜋𝑅 surface energy – final surface energy
𝑖 𝑊 = 𝑇 × 4𝜋 = 𝑇 − 𝑛𝑟 2 𝑅 2
2 2
2 𝑖 𝑊 = 𝑇 × 4𝜋 = 𝑇 𝑛𝑟 − 𝑅
2
𝑛𝑟 2
𝑖𝑖 𝑊 = 𝑇 × 4𝜋𝑅 = 2
− 1 2
𝑛𝑟
𝑅 𝑖𝑖 𝑊 = 𝑇 × 4𝜋𝑅 = − 1
2 𝑅2
2
𝑛𝑟 2
= 𝑇 × 4𝜋𝑅 2/3 2
− 1 2
𝑛𝑟
𝑛 𝑟 = 𝑇 × 4𝜋𝑅 − 1
2 1/3 𝑛2/3 𝑟 2
= 𝑇 × 4𝜋𝑅 𝑛 − 1 2 1/3
2 2
= 𝑇 × 4𝜋𝑅 𝑛 − 1
𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑊 = 𝑇 𝑛4𝜋𝑟 − 4𝜋𝑅 2
𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑊 = 𝑇 𝑛4𝜋𝑟 − 4𝜋𝑅 2
3
𝑅 2 2 3
1 1 𝑅 3
1 1
=𝑇 4𝜋𝑟 − 4𝜋𝑅 = 𝑇4𝜋𝑅 − 2 2
= 𝑇 3 4𝜋𝑟 − 4𝜋𝑅 = 𝑇4𝜋𝑅 3 −
𝑟3 𝑟 𝑅 𝑟 𝑟 𝑅
 Excess Pressure inside liquid drop
2𝑇
Excess Pressure inside liquid drop ∆𝑃 =
𝑅
P

2
𝑊 = 𝐹 × ∆𝑅 = 𝑝 × 𝐴 × ∆𝑅 = 𝑝 × 4𝜋𝑅 × ∆𝑅
2 2
𝑊 = 𝑇 × ∆𝐴 = 𝑇 × 4𝜋 𝑅 + ∆𝑅 − 4𝜋𝑅 = 8𝜋𝑅∆𝑅 × 𝑇
2
Hence, 𝑝 × 4𝜋𝑅 × ∆𝑅 = 8𝜋𝑅∆𝑅 × 𝑇
2𝑇
𝑝=
𝑅
 Excess Pressure inside Soap bubble or bubble in air

Excess Pressure inside Soap bubble or bubble in air

4𝑇 P
∆𝑃 =
𝑅

𝑊 = 𝐹 × ∆𝑅 = 𝑝 × 𝐴 × ∆𝑅 = 𝑝 × 4𝜋𝑅
× ∆𝑅 2
2 2
𝑊 = 𝑇 × ∆𝐴 = 2 × 𝑇 × 4𝜋 𝑅 + ∆𝑅 − 4𝜋𝑅 = 16𝜋𝑅∆𝑅 × 𝑇
2
Hence, 𝑝 × 4𝜋𝑅 × ∆𝑅 = 16𝜋𝑅∆𝑅 × 𝑇
4𝑇
𝑝=
𝑅
 Shape of Liquid Meniscus

When a capillary tube is dipped in a liquid, the liquid

surface becomes curved near the point of contact.
This curved surface is due to the resultant of two
forces 𝑖. 𝑒. , the force of cohesion and the force of
adhesion. The curved surface of the liquid is called
meniscus of the liquid.
If liquid molecule 𝐴 is in contact with solid (𝑖. 𝑒. , wall of
capillary tube) then forces acting on molecule 𝐴 are
(i) Force of adhesion 𝐹𝑎 (acts outwards at right angle
to the wall of the tube).
(ii) Force of cohesion 𝐹𝑐 (acts at an angle 45o to the
vertical).
Resultant force 𝐹𝑁 depends upon the value of 𝐹𝑎 and
𝐹𝑐 .
If resultant force 𝐹𝑁 make an angle  with 𝐹𝑎.
 0
𝐹𝐶 𝑆𝑖𝑛135 𝐹𝐶
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = =
𝐹𝑎 + 𝐹𝐶 𝐶𝑜𝑠1350 2𝐹𝑎 − 𝐹𝐶

0
𝑖 𝐼𝑓𝐹𝐶 = 2𝐹𝑎 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = ∞ ⇒ 𝛼 = 90
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠.
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑢𝑠 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙.
𝑒. 𝑔. , 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒.
 0
𝐹𝐶 𝑆𝑖𝑛135 𝐹𝐶
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = =
𝐹𝑎 + 𝐹𝐶 𝐶𝑜𝑠1350 2𝐹𝑎 − 𝐹𝐶

𝑖𝑖 𝐼𝑓𝐹𝐶 < 2𝐹𝑎 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = +𝑣𝑒 ⇒ 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑.
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑢𝑠 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒.
𝑒. 𝑔. , 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒.
 0
𝐹𝐶 𝑆𝑖𝑛135 𝐹𝐶
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = =
𝐹𝑎 + 𝐹𝐶 𝐶𝑜𝑠1350 2𝐹𝑎 − 𝐹𝐶

𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐼𝑓𝐹𝐶 > 2𝐹𝑎 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = −𝑣𝑒 ⇒ 𝛼 = 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑.
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑢𝑠 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑥.
𝑒. 𝑔. , 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒.
 Angle of Contact

Angle of contact between a liquid and a solid is defined as the angle enclosed
between the tangents to the liquid surface and the solid surface inside the liquid, both
the tangents being drawn at the point of contact of the liquid with the solid
 Ascent Formula

When one end of capillary tube of radius 𝑟

is immersed into a liquid of density
𝑑 which wets the sides of the capillary
tube (water and capillary tube of glass),
the shape of the liquid meniscus in the
tube becomes concave upwards.
𝑅 = radius of curvature of liquid
meniscus.
𝑇 = surface tension of liquid
𝑃 = atmospheric pressure
Pressure due to liquid column = pressure difference due to surface tension
2𝑇
ℎ𝜌𝑔 =
𝑅
2𝑇 2𝑇𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
ℎ𝜌𝑔 = ⇒ℎ=
𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑟𝜌𝑔
 Shape of Drops

Whether the liquid will be in equilibrium in the form of a drop or it will spread out;
depends on the relative strength of the force due to surface tension at the three
interfaces.
𝑇𝐿𝐴 = surface tension at liquid-air interface,
𝑇𝑆𝐴 = surface tension at solid-air interface.
𝑇𝑆𝐿 = surface tension at solid-liquid interface,
 = angle of contact between the liquid and solid.