MODULE 4

SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

Sensors: Introduction to sensors, characteristics and types of sensors.

Transducers: Introduction to transducers, Differences between Active and

Passive Transducers, Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) and
Thermistors.

1. Introduction
Measurement is an important subsystem in any major system, whether it may
be a mechanical system or an electronic system. A measurement system
consists of sensors, actuators, transducers and signal processing devices. The
use of these elements and devices is not limited to measuring systems.

The words sensors and transducers are widely used in association with
measurement systems. The sensor is an element that produces signals relating
to the quantity that is being measured. “A sensor is a device that provides
usable output in response to a specified quantity which is measured.” The
word sensor is derived from the original meaning ‘to perceive.’

In simple terms, a sensor is a device that detects changes and events in a

physical stimulus and provides a corresponding output signal that can be
measured and/or recorded. Here, the output signal can be any measurable
signal and is generally an electrical quantity.

Sensors are devices that perform input function in a system as they ‘sense’ the
changes in a quantity. The best example of a sensor is mercury thermometer.
Here the quantity that is being measured is heat or temperature. The measured
temperature is converted to a readable value on the calibrated glass tube,
based on the expansion and contraction of liquid mercury.
Actuators are devices that work opposite to sensors. A sensor converts a
physical event into an electrical signal, whereas an actuator converts electrical
signal into a physical event. When sensors are used at input of a system,
actuators are used to perform output function in a system as they control an
external device.

Transducers are the devices that convert energy in one form into another form.
Generally the energy is in the form of a signal. Transducer is a term collectively
used for both sensors and actuators.

The basic differences between Sensors and Transducers are as shown in Table
1.

Table 1: Differences between Sensors and Transducers

Basis of
Sensor Transducer
difference
A sensor is designed to sense
any physical change occurring
A transducer actuates to
in the surrounding. It is
Meaning transform energy from a given
responsible for converting the
form to another.
transition into a precise
quantity.
The sensor has no other Signal conditioning and sensor
Comprises of
component except itself. form parts of the transducer.
Detects changes and
Responsible for converting
Functionality generates corresponding
energy into a different form.
electrical signals.
A magnetic sensor,
Accelerometer sensor, Thermistor, Thermocouple,
Applications
Proximity sensor, Light Potentiometer, etc.
sensor, etc.
The sensor suggests a user’s
capacity to receive information
A featured The transducer suggests that the
regarding physical quantities
suggestion of quantities sent to input and
that are not perceivable
the device output devices are not the same.
through human senses as
these quantities are
 Basis of
Sensor Transducer
difference
subliminal or extremely
minute.
A sensor may not be a A transducer will always contain
Dependency
transducer. a sensor.
A transducer serves to be a more
complicated device as it is
In comparison to a
designed to transform the
transducer, a sensor is less
physical quantity that is
complicated in its
provided to the input part into
performance. It directly
Complexity of another output signal (voltage,
transforms a given physical
performance current, etc.). Thus, a transducer
quantity into a different
fuses the conditioning system
physical quantity (for
and sensing elements to provide
example, resistance,
output signals that are
capacitance, etc.).
proportional to input quantities.

A transducer is capable of
converting between different
A sensor measures a physical forms of energy. It is generally
quantity only and cannot give used for providing feedback to
Feedback
input to the desired system on the desired system through the
its own. output device after due
processing takes place in the
signal conditioning unit.

Errors in Measurements
Absolute Error:

 It is the difference between expected value of the variable and measured

value of the variable

𝑒 = 𝑦𝑛 − 𝑥𝑛

Where

𝑦𝑛 = expected value

𝑥𝑛 = measured value

Ex: The voltage 10 ± 0.5 V indicates that 0.5 V as “absolute error”

Relative Error:

 It is the ratio of absolute error to the expected value. It is denoted by 𝑒𝑟

𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑒
𝑒𝑟 =𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒=𝑦
𝑛

𝑦𝑛 −𝑥𝑛
𝑒𝑟 = 𝑦𝑛

Ex: if the resistance is specified as100Ω ± 5% then ± 5% is the “Relative error”

The percentage of relative error:

𝑦𝑛 −𝑥𝑛
%𝑒𝑟 = * 100
𝑦𝑛

 For a Relative error, the accuracy can be mathematically expressed as

A = 1 - 𝑒𝑟
𝑦𝑛 −𝑥𝑛
A= 1- | |
𝑦𝑛

where A  Relative Accuracy

 Accuracy can be expressed as %Accuracy

𝑎 = 𝐴 ∗ 100%

or

𝑎 = 100% − %𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟

Problem:
1. The expected value of the voltage across a resistor is 80v, however, the
measurement gives a value of 79v. Calculate

a. Absolute error
 b. %error

c. relative accuracy

d. % of accuracy

Solution:

a. Absolute error

𝑒 = 𝑦𝑛 − 𝑥𝑛 = 80-79 = 1 volts

b. % error
𝑦𝑛 −𝑥𝑛 80−79
%𝑒𝑟 = * 100 = ∗ 100 = 1.25%
𝑦𝑛 80

c. Relative accuracy
𝑦𝑛 −𝑥𝑛 80−79 79
A= 1- | |=1 − | | = 80 = 0.9875
𝑦𝑛 80

d. % of accuracy

𝑎 = 100 ∗ 𝐴 = 100 ∗ 0.9875 = 98.75%

2. Sensors
The sensor is a device that measures the physical quantity (i.e. Heat, light,
sound, etc.) into an easily readable signal (voltage, current etc.). It gives
accurate readings after calibration. Figure 1 shows general block diagram of
sensor

Figure 1: General block diagram of sensor

ii. Characteristics of Sensors
The characteristics of sensors can be divided into two types:
a. Static Characteristics
b. Dynamic Characteristics
The static accuracy of a sensor indicates how much the sensor signal correctly
represents the measured quantity after it stabilizes (i.e. beyond the transient
period.) Important static characteristics of sensors include sensitivity,
resolution, linearity, zero drift and full-scale drift, range, repeatability and
reproducibility.
a. Sensitivity is a measure of the change in output of the sensor relative to
a unit change in the input (the measured quantity.)

b. Resolution is the smallest amount of change in the input that can be

detected and accurately indicated by the sensor.

c. Linearity is determined by the calibration curve. The static calibration

curve plots the output amplitude versus the input amplitude under static
conditions. Its degree of resemblance to a straight line describes the
linearity.

d. Drift is the deviation from a specific reading of the sensor when the
sensor is kept at that value for a prolonged period of time. The zero drift
refers to the change in sensor output if the input is kept steady at a level
that (initially) yields a zero reading. Similarly, the full -scale drift is the
drift if the input is maintained at a value which originally yields a full
scale deflection. Reasons for drift may be extraneous, such as changes in
ambient pressure, humidity, temperature etc., or due to changes in the
constituents of the sensor itself, such as aging, wear etc.
 e. The range of a sensor is determined by the allowed lower and upper
limits of its input or output. Usually the range is determined by the
accuracy required.

f. Repeatability is defined as the ability of a sensor to provide the same

result under the same circumstances over and over again.

g. Reproducibility is the same as repeatability, except it also incorporates

long time lapses between subsequent measurements. The sensor has to
be operated between measurements, but must be calibrated.
Reproducibility is specified as a percentage of the sensor range per unit
of time.

The dynamic characteristics of a sensor represent the time response of the

sensor system. Knowledge of these is essential to fruitfully use a sensor.
Important common dynamic responses of sensors include rise time, delay time,
peak time, settling time percentage error and steady-state error. These are
defined in figure 2 which shall be used to represent them graphically.

Figure 2: Dynamic characteristics of Sensors

 a. Rise time is the time it takes a sensor to pass from 10% to 90% of the
steady state response.

b. Delay time is the time it takes to reach 50% of the steady state value for
the first time.

c. Peak time is the time it takes to reach the maximum reading for the first
time for a given excitement.

d. Settling time is the time it takes the sensor to settle down to within a
certain percentage of the steady state value

e. The percentage overshoot is a measure of the peak minus the steady

state value, expressed as a percentage of the Steady State Value.

f. Steady-state error is the deviation of the actual steady-state value from

the desired value. It can be corrected by calibration.
iii. Types of Sensors
The different types of sensors are:

 Vision and Imaging Sensors

 Temperature Sensors
 Radiation Sensors
 Proximity Sensors
 Pressure Sensors
 Position Sensors
 Level Sensors
 Flame Sensors
 Contact Sensors
 Non-Contact Sensors
  Vision and Imaging Sensors

Vision and Imaging Sensors/Detectors are electronic devices that detect the
presence of objects or colors within their fields of view and convert this
information into a visual image for display.

 Temperature Sensors

Temperature Sensors/Detectors/Transducers are electronic devices that detect

thermal parameters and provide signals to the inputs of control and display
devices. A temperature sensor typically relies on an RTD or thermistor to
measure temperature and convert it to an output voltage. Key specifications
include sensor/detector type, maximum and minimum measurable
temperatures, as well as the dimensions of diameter and length. Temperature
sensors are used to measure the thermal characteristics of gases, liquids, and
solids in many process industries and are configured for both general- and
special-purpose uses.

 Radiation Sensors

Radiation Sensors/Detectors are electronic devices that sense the presence of

alpha, beta, or gamma particles and provide signals to counters and display
devices. Key specifications include sensor type and minimum and maximum
detectable energies. Radiation detectors are used for surveys and sample
counting.

 Proximity Sensors

Proximity Sensors are electronic devices used to detect the presence of nearby
objects through non-contacting means. A proximity sensor can detect the
presence of objects usually within a range of up to several millimeters, and,
doing so, produce a usually dc output signal to a controller. Proximity sensors
are used in countless manufacturing operations to detect the presence of parts
and machine components. Key specifications include sensor type, maximum
sensing distance, minimum & maximum operating temperatures, along with
dimensions of diameter and length. Proximity sensors are generally short-range
devices but are available too in designs that can detect objects up to several
inches away. One commonly used type of proximity sensor is known as a
capacitive proximity sensor. This device uses the change in capacitance
resulting from a reduction in the separation distance between the plates of a
capacitor, one plate of which is attached to the object being observed, as a
means of determining motion and position of the object from the sensor.

 Pressure Sensors

Pressure Sensors/Detectors/Transducers are electro-mechanical devices that

detect forces per unit area in gases or liquids and provide signals to the inputs
of control and display devices. A pressure sensor/transducer typically uses a
diaphragm and strain gage bridge to detect and measure the force exerted
against a unit area. Key specifications include sensor function, minimum and
maximum working pressures, full-scale accuracy, along with any features
particular to the device. Pressure sensors are used wherever information about
the pressure of a gas or liquid is needed for control or measurement.

 Position Sensors

Position Sensors/Detectors/Transducers are electronic devices used to sense

the positions of valves, doors, throttles, etc. and supply signals to the inputs of
control or display devices. Key specifications include sensor type, sensor
function, measurement range, and features that are specific to the sensor type.
Position sensors are used wherever positional information is needed in a
myriad of control applications. A common position transducer is a so-called
string-pot, or string potentiometer.
  Level Sensors

Level Sensors/Detectors are electronic or electro-mechanical devices used for

determining the height of gases, liquids, or solids in tanks or bins and
providing signals to the inputs of control or display devices. Typical level
sensors use ultrasonic, capacitance, vibratory, or mechanical means to
determine product height. Key specifications include sensor type, sensor
function, and maximum sensing distance. Level sensors/detectors can be of
the contacting or non-contacting type.

 Flame Sensors

Flame Detectors are optoelectronic devices used to sense the presence and
quality of fire and provide signals to the inputs of control devices. A flame
detector typically relies on ultraviolet or infrared detection of the presence of
flame and finds use in many combustion control applications such as burners.
A key specification is detector type. Flame detectors find applications in safety
settings too, such as in under-the-hood fire suppression systems.

 Contact Sensors

Contact sensors refer to any type of sensing device that functions to detect a
condition by relying on physical touch or contact between the sensor and the
object being observed or monitored. A simple type of contact sensor is used in
alarm systems to monitor doors, windows, and other access points. When the
door or window is closed, a magnetic switch provides an indication to the alarm
control unit so that the status of that entry point is known. Similarly, when a
door or window is opened, the contact sensor alerts the alarm controller of the
state of that access point and may trigger an action such as engaging an
audible siren. There are many uses of contact sensors such as temperature
monitoring and as proximity sensors in robotics applications and automated
machinery.
  Non-Contact Sensors

In contrast to contact sensors, non-contact sensors are devices that do not

require a physical touch between the sensor and the object being monitored in
order to function. A familiar example of this type of sensor is the motion
detector used in security lights. Detection of objects within the range of a
motion detector is accomplished using non-mechanical or non-physical means,
such as via detection of passive infrared energy, microwave energy, ultrasonic
waves, etc. Radar guns used by law enforcement to monitor the speed of
vehicles are another example of a form of non-contact sensor. Other types of
devices that fall under the category of non-contact sensors include Hall-effect
sensors, inductive sensors, LVDTs (linear variable differential transformers),
RVDTs (rotary variable differential transformers), and Eddy current sensors, to
name a few.

Advantages, Limitations and Applications of Sensors

Table 2 shows the advantages, limitations and applications of sensors

Sensor Advantages Limitations Applications

Limit Switch • High Current Capability  Requires Physical • Interlocking
• Low Cost  Contact with Target • Basic End-of-
Sensor
• Very Fast Response Time  Very Slow Response Travel Sensing
 Contact Bounce
Photoelectric • Senses all Kinds of • Lens Subject to • Packaging
Sensor Materials Contamination • Material Handling
• Long Life • Sensing Range • Parts Detection
• Longest Sensing Range Affected by Color and
• Very Fast Response Time Reflectivity of Target
Inductive • Resistant to Harsh • Distance Limitations • Industrial &
Sensor Environments Machines
• Very Predictable • Machine Tool
• Long Life • Senses Metal-Only
 • Easy to Install Targets
Capacitive • Detects Through Some • Very Sensitive to • Level Sensing
Sensor Containers Extreme Environmental
• Can Detect Non-Metallic Changes
Targets

Ultrasonic • Senses all Materials • Less Resolution • Anti-Collision

Sensor • Low Repeatability • Doors
• Sensitive to • Web Brake
Temperature Changes • Level Control

3. Transducers

The transducer is a device that changes the physical attributes of the non-
electrical signal into an electrical signal which is easily measurable. The
process of energy conversion in the transducer is known as the transduction.
The transduction is completed into two steps. First, sensing the signal and
then strengthening it for further processing. Figure 3 shows the general block
diagram of transducers.

Figure 3: General block diagram of transducers.

The transducer has three major components; they are the input device, signal
conditioning or processing device and an output device. The input devices
receive the measurand quantity and transfer the proportional analogue signal
 to the conditioning device. The conditioning device modified, filtered, or
attenuates the signal which is easily acceptable by the output devices

Classification of transducers

Transducers may be classified according to their structure, method of

energy conversion and application. Thus we can say that transducers are
classified:

i. As active and passive transducer

ii. According to transduction principle
iii. As analog and digital transducer
iv. As primary and secondary transducer
v. As transducer and inverse transducer

i. Active and Passive transducer:

Active transducers are self-generating type of transducers. These transducers

develop an electrical parameter (i.e. voltage or current) which is proportional to
the quantity under measurement. These transducers do not require any
external source or power for their operation.

Ex: Photovoltaic, thermoelectric, Piezoelectric, electromagnetic transducers.

Passive transducers do not generate any electrical signal by themselves. To

obtain an electrical signal from such transducers, an external source of power
is essential. Passive transducers depend upon the change in an electrical
parameter (R, L, or C). They are also known as externally power driven
transducers.
 Ex:

ii. According to Transduction Principle

The transducers can be classified according to principle used in transduction.

• Capacitive transduction
• Electromagnetic transduction
• Inductive transduction
• Piezoelectric transduction
• Photovoltaic transduction
• Photoconductive transduction

iii. Analog and Digital Transducers

The transducers can be classified on the basis of the output which may be a
continuous function of time or the output may be in discrete steps.
Analog Transducers: These transducers convert the input quantity into an
analog output which is a continuous function of time. A strain gauge, LVDT,
thermocouples or thermistors are called analog transducers as they produce an
output which is a continuous function of time.

Digital Transducers: Digital transducers produce an electrical output in the

form of pulses which forms an unique code. Unique code is generated for each
discrete value sensed

iv. Primary or Secondary Transducers:

Some transducers consist of mechanical device along with the electrical device.
Such transducers mechanical device acts as a primary transducer and
converts physical quantity into mechanical signal.

The electrical device then converts mechanical signal produced by primary

transducer into an electrical signal. Therefore, electrical device acts as a
secondary transducer.

v. Transducer and Inverse Transducer

Transducers convert non-electrical quantity into electrical quantity whereas

inverse transducer converts electrical quantity into non-electrical quantity.

For example, microphone is a transducer which converts sound signal into

an electrical signal whereas loudspeaker is an inverse transducer which
converts electrical signal into sound signal.

4. Active and Passive Transducers

The transducer whose output is obtained in the form of voltage or current

without any additional auxiliary source is known as the active transducer. It
works on the principle of conversion of energy from one form to another. The
active transducer is also known as the self-generating transducer because they
self-develop their electrical output signal. The energy requires for generating
 the output signals are obtained from the physical quantity which is to be
measured.

In passive transducer, the output is obtained by changing the physical

properties (resistance, inductance, and capacitance) of the material. In other
words, the passive transducer takes power from the external energy
source for transduction. The word transduction means conversion of energy
from one form to another.

Basis For Active Transducer Passive Transducer

Comparison

What is The transducer which generates The passive transducer means

the output in the form of voltage the transducer whose internal
or current, without any external parameters like capacitance,
energy source is known as resistance & inductance
active transducer. changes because of the input
signal.

Additional Not Required Required

Energy Source

Working Draw energy from the Take power from the external
Principle measurand source. source which changes the
physical properties of
 transducer.

Design Simple Complicated

Resolution Low High

Output signal Produces from the signal to be Output obtains by receiving the
measured. signal from the external power
source.

Examples Tachogenerator, Thermocouple, Thermistor, Differential

Photovoltaic cell etc. transformer, Photomultiplier
tube, Photovoltaic cell.

Inductive Transducers

 It is basically passive transducers.

 Motion between conductor and magnetic field induces a voltage in the

conductor.

 It is device that converts physical motion into change in inductance.

 It works upon following principle:

i. Variation of Self inductance
ii. Variation of Mutual inductance
 The displacement to be measured is based on 3 variables.
i. Number of turns
ii. Geometric configuration
iii. Permeability of magnetic material.