Class 5: Quantum harmonic oscillator – Ladder operators

Ladder operators
The time independent Schrödinger equation for the quantum harmonic oscillator can be written as

1
2m
( p 2 + m 2ω 2 x 2 )ψ = Eψ , (5.1)

where the momentum operator p is

d
p = −iℏ . (5.2)
dx

If p were a number, we could factorize

p 2 + m 2ω 2 x 2 = ( −ip + mω x )( ip + mω x ) . (5.3)

However, we need to remember that p is an operator. In fact, because

 d  d 
( −ip + mω x )( ip + mω x )ψ =  −ℏ + mω x   ℏ + mω x ψ
 dx   dx 
 d   dψ 
=  −ℏ + mω x   ℏ + mω xψ 
 dx   dx 
d  dψ  dψ
= −ℏ ℏ + mω xψ  + mω xℏ + m 2ω 2 x 2ψ
dx  dx  dx (5.4)
d 2ψ d dψ
= −ℏ2 2
− ℏ ( mω xψ ) + mω xℏ + m 2ω 2 x 2ψ
dx dx dx
d 2ψ
= − ℏ 2 2 − mω ℏψ + m 2ω 2 x 2ψ
dx
= p ψ + m 2ω 2 x 2ψ − mω ℏψ
2

we see that there is an extra term, such that

p 2 + m2ω 2 x 2 = ( −ip + mω x )( ip + mω x ) + mω ℏ (5.5)

Even so it is useful to consider the two dimensionless operators

1
a+ = ( −ip + mω x ) , (5.6)
2ℏmω

and

1
 1
a− = ( +ip + mω x ) . (5.7)
2ℏmω

The reason for labeling the operators with subscripts + and – will become clear later. Since the order of
operation is important, we have

1 1
a− a+ = ( +ip + mω x ) ( −ip + mω x )
2ℏmω 2ℏmω
(5.8)
1
=  p 2 + m2ω 2 x 2 − imω ( xp − px )  ,
2ℏmω 

and

1 1
a+ a− = ( −ip + mω x ) ( +ip + mω x )
2ℏmω 2ℏmω
(5.9)
1
=  p 2 + m2ω 2 x 2 + imω ( xp − px )  .
2ℏmω

Each expression contains the combination xp − px which is called the commutator of x and p.

The standard notation for the commutator of two operators A and B is

[ A, B ] = AB − BA. (5.10)

Since

dψ d
[ x, p ]ψ = −i ℏ x + iℏ ( xψ ) = iℏψ , (5.11)
dx dx

we can write

[ x, p ] = iℏ. (5.12)

Also, because the Hamiltonian is

p 2 mω 2 x 2 1
H=
2m
+
2
=
2m
( p2 + m2ω 2 x2 ) , (5.13)

we have

1  1  H 1
a− a+ =
ℏω  H + 2 ℏω  = ℏω + 2 . (5.14)

Similarly

2
 1  1  H 1
a+ a− =  H + ℏω  = − . (5.15)
ℏω  2  ℏω 2

These last two equations can be combined to show that

1
H= ℏω ( a− a+ + a+ a− ) . (5.16)
2

We also see that

[ a− , a+ ] = a− a+ − a+ a− = 1. (5.17)

The Schrödinger equation can be written as

 1 E
 a− a+ − ψ = ψ, (5.18)
 2 ℏω

or as

 1 E
 a+ a− + ψ = ψ. (5.19)
 2 ℏω

Suppose we have a solution ψ of the Schrödinger equation corresponding to energy E. Then a+ψ is also
a solution to the Schrödinger equation but for energy E + ℏω. To see why, consider

 1
H ( a+ψ ) = ℏω  a+ a− +  ( a+ψ )
 2
 1 
= ℏω  a+ a− a+ψ + a+ψ  (5.20)
 2 
 1 
= ℏω a+  a− a+ψ + ψ  .
 2 

Now using equation (5.14), this gives

 1 1 1 
H ( a+ψ ) = ℏω a+  Hψ + ψ + ψ  = a+ ( Eψ + ℏωψ )
 ℏω 2 2  (5.21)
= ( E + ℏω ) a+ψ ,

which proves our contention.

Similarly, if ψ is a solution of the Schrödinger equation corresponding to energy E, then a−ψ is also a
solution to the Schrödinger equation but for energy E − ℏω. The operators a+ and a− are called ladder

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operators, because the raising operator a+ moves up the energy ladder by a step of ℏω and the lowering
operator a− moves down the energy ladder by a step of ℏω.

Since the minimum value of the potential energy is zero and occurs at a single value of x, the lowest
energy for the QHO must be greater than zero. Let the wave function for the minimum energy be ψ 0 ( x ) .
Since there is no energy level below this minimum value, we must have

a−ψ 0 = 0. (5.22)

When combined with the normalization condition, this equation allows us to find ψ 0 ( x ) , since it gives

( +ip + mω x )ψ 0 = 0. (5.23)

The normalized solution is found to be

14 mω x 2
 mω  −
ψ 0 ( x) =   e
2ℏ
. (5.24)
 πℏ 

The energy of this state is easily found by applying the Hamiltonian operator given by equation (5.15)

 1 1
Hψ 0 = ℏω  a+ a− + ψ 0 = ℏωψ 0 . (5.25)
 2 2

We see that the lowest energy is

1
E0 = ℏω , (5.26)
2

and by applying the raising operator, the energy of the nth state is

 1
En =  n +  ℏ ω , (5.27)
 2

Normalization of the wave functions

Although the ladder operators can be used to create a new wave function from a given normalized wave
function, the new wave function is not normalized. To determine the normalization constant, we need to
explore some more properties of the ladder operators. First consider
∞

∫ f ( a g ) dx,
∗
+ (5.28)
−∞

where f and g are functions of x. Putting in the explicit form of the operator, we have

4
 ∞ ∞
1  dg 
∫ f ( a+ g ) dx = ∫  −ℏf
∗ ∗
+ mω xf ∗ g  dx
−∞ 2ℏmω −∞
dx 
1  d ( f ∗g )
∞
df ∗ 
∫   dx
∗
= − ℏ + ℏ g + mω xf g (5.29)
2ℏmω −∞  
dx dx

1 ∞ 1
∞
 df ∗ ∗ 
  ∫
∗
=  − ℏf g  +  ℏg dx + mω xf g  dx.
2ℏmω −∞
2ℏmω −∞  

Provided f ∗ g → 0 as x → ∞, the first term on the last line is zero. Also the remaining integral is

1
∞
 df ∗ ∗ 
∞

∫−∞ ℏg dx + mω xf g  dx = −∞∫ g ( a− f ) dx.

∗
(5.30)
2ℏmω

Hence we have shown that

∞ ∞

−∞
∫ f ∗ ( a+ g ) dx = ∫ g (a
−∞
− f ∗ ) dx. (5.31)

In a similar manner, we can show that

∞ ∞

−∞
∫ f ∗ ( a− g ) dx = ∫ g (a
−∞
+ f ∗ ) dx. (5.32)

(The operators a− and a+ are said to be Hermitian conjugates.)

Suppose ψ n represents a normalized wave functions for any value of n. Let g = ψ n and f = a+ψ n in
equation (5.31). Then
∞ ∞ ∞

∫ ( a+ψ n ) ( a+ψ n ) dx = ∫ ψ n  a− ( a+ψ n )  dx = ∫ ψ n ( a− a+ψ n ) dx.

∗ ∗ ∗
(5.33)
−∞ −∞ −∞

Using equation (5.14) and equation (5.27), we have

a− a+ψ n* = ( n + 1)ψ n* . (5.34)

On using this in equation (5.33), we get

∞ ∞

∫ ( a ψ ) ( a ψ ) dx = ∫ ψ ( n + 1)ψ
∗ ∗
+ n + n n n dx. (5.35)
−∞ −∞

Since the wave functions are assumed normalized, we see that

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 a+ψ n = n + 1ψ n +1. (5.36)

In a similar way, by starting with equation (5.32), we find

a−ψ n = nψ n −1. (5.37)

Since

1 1 2 1 3
ψn = a+ψ n −1 = ( a+ ) ψ n−2 = ( a+ ) ψ n−3 = ⋯,
n n ( n − 1) n ( n − 1)( n − 2 )

we see that

1 n
ψn = ( a+ ) ψ 0 . (5.38)
n!

Problem 2.12 Find x , p , x 2 , p 2 , and T for the nth stationary state of the harmonic oscillator.
Check that the Uncertainty Principle is satisfied.

From equations (5.6) and (5.7), we find

2mω
a− + a+ = x, (5.39)
ℏ

and

2
a− − a+ = ip. (5.40)
ℏmω

Hence

∞ ∞
ℏ
x = ∫ ψ n xψ n dx = ∫ ψ n ( a− + a+ )ψ n dx = 0,
−∞
2mω −∞

where use has been made of the orthogonality of the wave functions, and the lowering and raising
properties of the ladder operators.

Similarly we see that p = 0.

Also

6
 ∞ ∞ ∞
ℏ ℏ
= ∫ ψ n x ψ n dx = ∫ ∫ ψ n ( a− 2 + a− a+ + a+ a− + a+ 2 )ψ n dx
2
x 2 2
ψ n ( a− + a+ ) ψ n dx =
−∞
2mω −∞ 2mω −∞
En  1 ℏ
= 2
= n+  ,
mω  2  mω

where we have used equation (5.16). Similarly

∞ ∞ ∞
ℏmω ℏmω
= ∫ ψ n p ψ n dx = − ∫ ∫ ψ n ( a− 2 − a− a+ − a+ a_ + a+ 2 )ψ n dx
2
p 2 2
ψ n ( a− − a+ ) ψ n dx = −
−∞
2 −∞
2 −∞
∞
ℏmω ℏmω 2 En  1
= ∫
2 −∞
ψ n ( a− a+ + a+ a_ )ψ n dx =
2 ℏω 
=  n +  ℏmω.
2

Also,

p2 1 1 1
T = =  n +  ℏω = En .
2m 2 2 2

To check whether the Uncertainty Principle holds, consider

 1 ℏ  1  1
σ xσ p = x2 p2 =  n +  ⋅  n +  ℏmω =  n +  ℏ.
 2  mω  2  2

We see that the principle holds, with equality for n = 0.

Orthonormality of the wave functions

The stationary state wave functions for the harmonic oscillator are orthonormal, i.e.
∞

∫ψ ψ
−∞
m n dx = δ mn . (5.41)

The orthogonality of the wave function can be shown by considering

∞ ∞ ∞

∫ ψ m Hψ n dx = ∫ ψ m Enψ n dx = En ∫ ψ mψ n dx.
−∞ −∞ −∞
(5.42)

Now

∞ ∞
 ℏ2 d 2  ℏ2
∞
d 2ψ n
∞

∫ ψ m Hψ n dx = −∞∫ ψ m  − 2m dx 2 + V ψ n dx = − 2m −∞∫ ψ m dx 2 dx + −∞∫ ψ mVψ n dx

−∞
(5.43)

By integration by parts, we have

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 ∞ ∞ ∞
d 2ψ n  dψ n  dψ m dψ n
∫−∞ m dx 2 dx = ψ m dx  −∞ − −∞∫ dx dx dx
ψ
∞ ∞
(5.44)
∞
 dψ n   dψ m  d 2ψ m
= ψ m

−
dx  −∞ 
ψ n + ∫ dx 2 ψ n dx.
dx  −∞ −∞

Applying the boundary conditions, the first two terms on the right hand side are both equal to zero.
Putting the result in equation (5.43), we have
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
ℏ2 d 2ψ m
∫ ψ m Hψ n dx = −
−∞
∫ n dx 2 dx + −∞∫ ψ nVψ m dx = −∞∫ ψ n Hψ m dx = Em −∞∫ ψ nψ m dx.
2m −∞
ψ (5.45)

Hence
∞ ∞
Em ∫ ψ nψ m dx = En ∫ ψ nψ m dx. (5.46)
−∞ −∞

Because the energy values are not equal if m ≠ n, we see that the wave functions must be orthogonal.

This is a quite general result, which does not depend on the particular potential energy function. Two
wave functions that have different energies are orthogonal.