CHAPTER # 1 ⟹ CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Short Questions

17. Write the difference between:

(a) Resolution and Magnification (b) Cytoplasm of Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cell
(c) Rough ER and Smooth ER (d) Chromatin and Chromosome
Ans. (a) Resolution and Magnification:
Resolution Magnification
1. The ability to differentiate the closet distance It is the power by which we can see the things
between two points is called resolution power. larger than with our naked eye.
2. This resolution can be increased with the aid of The magnification power of microscope is
lenses. determined by multiplying X values of ocular lens
X value of objective lens. Therefore, a microscope
will have (10 X 40 = 400X) 400X magnifying
power.
3. Resolution of eyes the human naked eye can Magnification of Naked eye is 1X
differentiate between two points, which are at
least 0.1 mm apart.
4. (CM) Resolution of Compound microscope is 2.0 Magnification of CM is 500X
μm
5. Electron microscope (EM) resolution is 2-4 Å Magnification of EM is 2,000,000X
(b) Cytoplasm of Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cell:
Cytoplasm of Eukaryotic Cell Cytoplasm of Prokaryotic Cell
1. Cytoplasm is less dense due to separation of The cytoplasm is dense.
nucleoplasm by nuclear membrane.
2. Various vacuoles and granules of food are also Small vacuoles and granules of store food e.g.
present. In plants vacuoles are larger in size. glycogen, proteins, fats are present in bacteria.
3. Water in cells is variable i.e. bone cells have 20% About 90% of the cell in water.
of water while nerve cells have 89% (70% is
average water found in eukaryotic cells).
4. Cytoplasm contains large number of Cytoplasm has no membrane bounded
membranous organelles. organelles.
(c) Rough ER and Smooth ER:
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER), which has Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER), which has
ribosomes, attached to them. RER is also called no ribosomes. SER is also called agranular
granular endoplasmic reticulum. endoplasmic reticulum.
2. It is usually located near nucleus. It is usually located after RER (away from nucleus)
3. RER is involved in the synthesis of exportable SER helps in transport of materials from RER and
proteins. from one part of the cell to other.
4. RER provides mechanical support to the cell so SER involved in the metabolism of different types
that its shape is maintained. of molecules (lipids. Phospholipids, steroids and
carbohydrates).
5. RER can store proteins. SER helps in detoxification of harmful drugs and

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 poisons.

(d) Chromatin and Chromosome:

Chromatin Chromosome
1. Contains Unwounded DNA Contains Tightly packaged DNA
2. Found throughout interphase Found only during cell division
3. DNA is being used for macromolecule synthesis DNA is not being used for macromolecules
synthesis

CHAPTER # 2 ⟹ BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

Short Questions

29. Write the difference between:

Ans. (a) Major and Minor Bioelements:
Major Bioelements Minor Bioelements
1. The six commonest bioelements forming 99% of The elements found as less than 1% are called
protoplasm are called major bioelements. minor bioelements.
2. Examples: Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen etc. Examples: Potassium, Sulphur, Chlorine etc.
(b) Dimer and Polymer:
Dimer Polymer
1. The product of condensation reaction is called a Molecules formed of repeating units are called
dimer. polymers.
2. It can be hydrolyzed and gives two monomers. On hydrolysis, it yields a large number of
monomers.
3. Examples: Sucrose Maltose, Lactose, Dipeptides Examples: Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose, Protein,
and NAD. nucleic acids.
(c) Polar and Non-Polar Covalent Bond:
Polar Covalent Bond Non-Polar Covalent Bond
1. In this case, sharing of electron between atoms of In this case, sharing of electrons between two
the molecules is unequal. atoms is equal. Therefore, Covalent bond is non-
polar.
2. The atom which attracts electron more towards It is neutral. It has no difference of charges.
itself become partially negative and other
become partially positive.

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 3. Example: Water. Example: Molecule of H 2 ,CO 3 etc.
(d) Polyhydroxy Aldehyde and Polyhydroxy Ketone:
Polyhydroxy Aldehyde Polyhydroxy Ketone
1. The sugar with aldehyde group is also called aldo- The sugar with ketone group is called keto-sugar.
sugar.
2. Example: Glyceraldehyde, Ribose, Glucose etc. Example: Dihydroxyacetone, Fructose etc.
(e) Alpha and Beta Glucose:
α −¿ Glucose β−¿ Glucose
1. In α −¿ glucose, −OH group is present In β−¿ glucose, −OH group is present upward
downward on C−1. on C−1.

(f) D-Glucose and L-Glucose:

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 D-Glucose L-Glucose
1. Dextrose is the common name used for D- Glucose is a simple sugar with the chemical
glucose. formula C 6 H 12 O 6.
2. Can only be found in the form of D-glucose. Can be found in the form of D-glucose and L-
glucose.
3. Rotates plane polarized light to the right direction D-glucose rotates plane polarized light to the
(Dexter side). right direction; L-glucose rotates it to the left
direction.
4. Can be obtained mainly from starches. Can be obtained from many forms of
carbohydrates.
5. Abundant in nature. D-glucose is abundant in nature, but L-glucose is
less abundant.
6. Does not occur as enantiomers. Occurs as enantiomers.

(j) Tertiary and Quaternary Structure of Proteins:

Tertiary Structure of Proteins Quaternary Structure of Proteins
1. In the tertiary structure, a polypeptide chain Quaternary proteins are polymers of several
bends and folds upon itself are forming a global tertiary structures.
shape.
2. Tertiary Structure is maintained by: In quaternary structure, the highly complex
a. Ionic Bonds polypeptide tertiary chains are aggregated & held
b. Disulphide ¿ Bonds together by:
c. Hydrogen Bonding a. Hydrophobic Interactions
b. Hydrogen Bonds
c. Ionic Bonds
(k) Purine and Pyrimidine:
Purine Pyrimidine
1. These are smaller bases. These are smaller bases.
2. These have double ringed structure. These are single ringed structure.
3. Purine bases are also of two types. These are Pyrimidine bases are of three types. These are
Adenine (A) and Guanine (G). Cytosine (C), Thymine (T) and Uracil (U). Thymine
is only found in DNA but Uracil is found only in
RNA.
(l) Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids:
Saturated Fatty Acids (Animal Fats) Unsaturated Fatty Acids (Plant Fats/Oils)

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 1. They do not possess any double bond in their They possess one or more double bond in their
carbon chains. carbon chains.
2. They have straight chains. They have bend at the double bond.
3. They have higher melting point than oils. They have lower melting point.
4. They are solid at room temperature. They are liquid at room temperature.
5. They occur is most animal fats. They occur in most plant fats.
6. Hydrogenation has no effect on saturated fatty Hydrogenation convert unsaturated fatty acids
acids. into saturated ones.
(m) DNA and RNA:
DNA RNA
1. It is called deoxy-ribonucleic acids. It is called ribonucleic acids has single standard
structure.
2. It is a double helix. It has single standard structure.
3. In its nitrogen bases are A, T, G and C. In its nitrogen bases are A, U, G and C.
4. DNA has fixed amount in a cell. RNA has variable amount in a cell.
5. It has Deoxyribose with formula C 5 H 10 O 4. It has Ribose with formula C 5 H 10 O 5.
6. It is involved in the formation of chromosomes. They are involved in protein synthesis.
7. They are found and function usually in nucleus. They are formed in nucleus but function in
cytoplasm.
8. A large number of nucleotides are found in it. A limited number of nucleotides are found in it.

CHAPTER # 4 ⟹ BIOENERGETICS
Short Questions

14. Write the difference between:

Ans. (a) Chlorophyll a and Chlorophyll b:
Chlorophyll a Chlorophyll b
1. Molecular formula of Chlorophyll a is Molecular formula of Chlorophyll b is
C 55 H 72 O5 N 4 Mg. C 55 H 70 O6 N 4 Mg .
2. The functional group bonded to the porphyrin is The functional group bonded to the porphyrin is
the methyl group (−CH 3 ). the carbonyl group (−CHO).
3. It is Blue-Green in colour. It is Yellow-Green in colour.
4. It is found in all photosynthesis organisms except It is found with Chlorophyll a in all green plants
photosynthesis bacteria. (embryophytes) and green algae.
5. Chlorophyll a is the most abundant type of It is less abundant type.
chlorophyll.
6. It directly involves in the light reactions which
The Chlorophyll b transfer the energy to
converts solar energy to chemical energy. chlorophyll a.
7. “Chlorophyll a” initiates the light reactions. It is a
Chlorophyll b is the accessory pigment because it
chief photosynthesis pigment. absorbs light and transfer the energy to
Chlorophyll a.
8. Chlorophyll a has many forms which differ It has only one form.

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 slightly in red absorbing peaks (e.g. at 670, 680,
690, 700 nm).
(b) Carotene and Xanthophylls:
Carotene Xanthophylls
1. Carotene are Orange to Red coloured pigments Xanthophylls are Yellow or Brown in colour and
and are composed of isoprenoid units. are composed of isoprenoid units.
2. Carotene does not contain an oxygen atom in Xanthophylls contains an oxygen atom in its
their structure. structure.
3. Carotene mainly occurs in cantaloupe, mangoes, While Xanthophylls occurs in kale, spinach, turnip
papaya, carrots, sweet potatoes, spinach, kale greens, summer squash, pumpkin, paprika,
and pumpkin. yellow-fleshed fruits, avocado and egg yolk.
4. Example: Beta-Carotene, which is a carotene, Example: While lutein and vioxanthin, which are
absorbs 450 nm wavelength. xanthophylls, absorb 435 nm.
(c) Action and Absorption Spectrum:
Action Spectrum Absorption Spectrum
1. A graph which shows the relative effectiveness of A graph which shows the absorption of light of
different wavelengths (colours) of light in driving different wavelengths by a pigment is called
photosynthesis is called action spectrum of absorption spectrum of the pigment.
photosynthesis.

(e) Antenna Complex and Reaction Center:

Antenna Complex Reaction Center
1. Surrounds the reaction center and is composed Typically located at the core of the photosystem,
of various pigment molecules, such as chlorophyll where it receives high-energy electrons from the
and carotenoids. antenna complex.
2. Primary responsible for capturing photons of light Responsible for the actual conversion of light
and transferring their energy to the reaction energy into chemical energy through the transfer
center. of electrons.
3. Utilizes resonance energy transfer to efficiently Contains specialized chlorophyll molecules
funnel absorbed light energy towards the capable of initiating and facilitating electron
reaction center. transfer reactions.
4. Contains a diverse array of pigment molecules Includes a primary electron acceptor molecule
with different absorption spectra, enabling the that receives energized electrons from the
photosystem to capture a wide range of reaction center chlorophyll.
wavelengths of light.
(f) Photosystem I and II:
Photosystem I Photosystem II
1. Photosystem-I has chlorophyll-a which absorbs Photosystem-II has chlorophyll-a which absorbs
maximum light of 700 nm and is called P700. best the light of 680 nm and is called P680.
2. All the energy is transferred from molecule to All the energy is transferred from molecule to
molecule and finally to reaction centre of a molecule and finally to reaction centre of a

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 specialized from the chlorophyll-a knows as P700 specialized from the chlorophyll-a knows as P680
in PS-I. in PS-II.
3. During electron flow in PS-I only NADP H 2 is During electron flow in PS-II only ATP produced
produced and no ATP is produced. and no NADP H 2 is produced.
4. In thylakoid membrane PS-II comes first and PS-I In thylakoid membrane PS-II comes first and PS-I
comes later. comes later.
(g) Light Dependent and Light Independent Reactions of Photosynthesis:
Light Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis Light Independent Reactions of Photosynthesis
1. They occur in the thylakoid membrane of Dark reactions occur in the stroma of the
chloroplast. chloroplast.
2. Light reactions depend on the sunlight. Dark reactions are independent of sunlight.
3. Chlorophylls are the pigments involved in light No pigments are involved in the dark reaction.
reaction.
4. Photolysis occurs in PS-II during the light reaction. No photolysis occurs during the dark reaction.
5. Oxygen is liberated during the light reaction. Caron dioxide is filled during the dark reaction.
6. ATP and NADP H are produced during the light Glucose is produced by using the energy from
reaction. ATP and NADP H , produced in the light
reaction.
(h) Oxidative Phosphorylation and Phosphorylation:
Oxidative Phosphorylation Phosphorylation
1. The synthesis of ATP molecule in the presence of The synthesis of ATP due to light energy is called
oxygen is called oxidative phosphorylation. photophosphorylation.
2. Normally, oxidative phosphorylation takes place As the electrons move down the chain, their
during respiratory chain. Three ATP molecules are energy goes on decreasing. This energy is used by
formed during three steps of respiratory chain. the thylakoid’s membranes of chloroplast to ATP.
3. It takes place during transport of electrons It occurs during transfer of electron through
through ETC present in the inner membrane of electron transport chain of photosystem 2 of
mitochondria. chloroplast.
(i) Cyclic and Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation:
Cyclic Photophosphorylation Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation
1. In cyclic electron flow, there is returning back of In non-cyclic electron flow, electron does not
the same excited electrons to excited chlorophyll return back to same excited chlorophyll.
by producing a molecule of ATP.
2. Only photosystem II is involved in it. Both photosystem I and II are involved in it.
3. Only molecule of ATP is produced during non- End productive of non-cyclic electron flow is ATP
cyclic electron flow. and NADP H .
4. It is less common electron flow. It is a short circuit It is most common electron flow. It regularly,
to supply ATP. supplies ATP and NADP H for photosynthesis.
(j) C 3 and C 4 CO 2 Fixation:
C 3 CO 2 Fixation C 4 CO 2 Fixation
1. Photosynthesis occurs in mesophyll cells. Photosynthesis occurs in mesophyll & bundle
sheath cell.
2. The CO 2 molecule acceptor is RuBP . The CO 2 acceptor molecule in phosphoenol

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 pyruvate.
3. First stable product is a 3 C compound called The first stable product is a 4 C compound called
3 PGA . OAA .
4. Photorespiration rate is high and leads to loss of Photosynthesis is negligible and it is almost
fixed CO 2. it decreases CO 2 fixation rate. absent. Hence, it increases CO 2 fixation rate.
5. Optimum temperature is 20 to 25o C . Optimum temperature is 30 to 40 o C .
6. Examples: CO 3 plants are rice, wheat and potato. Examples: CO 4 plants are maize, sugarcane etc.
(k) Lactic Acid and Alcoholic Fermentation:
Lactic Acid Fermentation Alcoholic Fermentation
1. In this case, each Pyruvic acid molecule is The Pyruvic acid is broken down into alcohol and
converted into lactic C 3 H 6 O3. CO 2 by alcoholic fermentation.
2. It occurs in muscle cells of human and in other Alcoholic fermentation takes place in some
animals. primitive cells and some eukaryotic cells like
yeasts.
3. It takes place during extreme physical activities It takes in special types of anaerobic bacteria and
like sprinting. The oxygen cannot be transported yeast.
to the cells during such extreme activities.
Therefore, Pyruvic acid is changed into lactic acid.
4. While xanthophyll occurs in kale, spinach, turnip Carotene mainly occurs in cantaloupe, mangoes,
greens, summer squash, pumpkin, paprika, papaya, carrots, sweet potatoes, spinach, kale
yellow-fleshed fruits, avocado and egg yolk. and pumpkin.
(l) Calvin Cycle and Krebs Cycle:
Calvin Cycle Krebs Cycle
1. It is a part of dark reaction of photosynthesis. It is a part of aerobic respiration.
2. It takes place in the stroma of chloroplast. It takes place in Matrix of mitochondria.
3. In its ATP and NADPH 2 are used. It leads to synthesize ATP, NADH 2 , FADH 2.
4. It occurs only in photosynthetic plants. It takes place in all organisms with Aerobic
respiration.
5. In it is CO 2 is used and carbohydrates are In it is CO 2 is produced and carbohydrates are
formed. generally used.
6. This process does not demand the presence of This process does not take place without oxygen.
O 2.
7. It was discovered by Calvin. It was discovered by Hans Kreb.
8. Calvin Cycle is also named as: Kreb Cycle is also named as:
 C 3 Cycle  Citric Acid Cycle
 Dark Reaction  TCA Cycle
 Light Independent Reaction  Szent-Gyorgyi Krebs Cycle
(m) Oxidative Phosphorylation and Substrate Level Phosphorylation:
Oxidative Phosphorylation Substrate Level Phosphorylation
1. Oxidative phosphorylation refers to a type of Substrate level phosphorylation refers to a type
phosphorylation which uses the energy released of phosphorylation in which phosphate group is
from the electron transport chain to generate transferred from a substrate to ADP.
ATP.

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 2. Oxidative phosphorylation occurs on the inner Substrate level phosphorylation occurs in the
membrane of mitochondria. cytoplasm and mitochondria matrix.
3. Phosphate groups are added from the energy A phosphate group is directly removed from a
released in the electron transport chain. substrate by a coupled reaction and transferred
into ADP.
4. Substrate phosphorylation is a direct Oxidative phosphorylation is an indirect
phosphorylation. phosphorylation.
5. Oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the electron Substrate level phosphorylation occurs in the
transport chain. glycolysis and krebs cycle.
6. NADN+ and FADH+ are oxidation during the NAD and FAD are reduced during the substrate
oxidation phosphorylation. level phosphorylation.
7. Thirty-four ATPs are produced during the Four ATPs are produced during the substrate
oxidative phosphorylation. level phosphorylation.
(n) Glycolysis and Krebs Cycle:
Glycolysis Krebs Cycle
1. It is a linear pathway. It is a cycle pathway.
2. It occurs in the cell cytoplasm. It occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.
3. It occurs in both aerobic and anaerobic It occurs in aerobic respiration.
respiration.
4. It generates 2 NADH 2 and 2 ATP molecules on It produces 6 NADH 2 , 2 FADH 2 and 2 ATP
the breakdown of one glucose molecule. molecules on the breakdown of two acetyl- CoA
molecules.

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