POLYMER CHEMISTRY CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS

Polymer Chemistry
Notes by

Indranil Chakraborty
Department of Chemistry
Part-I

(History and classification of polymers)

Paper-DSE 4T (6th Sem)

Lecture Note-1

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 POLYMER CHEMISTRY CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS

History of development

Polymers have been with us from the beginning of time, and form the building blocks of life. Animals,
plants- all classes of living organisms - are composed of polymers. However in the middle of the 20th century
we began to understand the true nature of polymers. This understanding came with the development of plastics,
which are true man-made materials that are the ultimate tribute to man’s creativity and ingenuity. Subsequently
polymers have changed our lives. It is hard to visualize today’s world with all its luxury and comfort without
man-made polymeric materials.
The word polymer is derived from the greek words; poly and meros, meaning many and parts,
respectively. Some scientists prefer to use the word macromolecule, or large molecule, instead of polymer.
Cellulose nitrate was the first plastic synthesised in 1862 to overcome the shortage of ivory from which
billiard balls were made. Cellulose nitrate was derived from cellulose, a natural polymer. The first truly man-
made plastic came
41 years later (in 1909) when Dr. Leo Hendrick Baekeland developed phenol-formaldehyde plastics (phenolics),
the source of such diverse materials as electric iron and cookware handles, grinding wheels, and electrical plugs.
Staudinger first proposed the theory that polymers were composed of giant molecules, and he coined the word
macromolecule to describe them. Carothers discovered nylon, and his fundamental research (through which nylon
was actually discovered) contributed considerably to the elucidation of the nature of polymers. His classification
of polymers as condensation or addition polymers persists today.

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 POLYMER CHEMISTRY CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS

Introduction of Plastics Materials

Date Material Typical Use

1868 Cellulose nitrate Eyeglass frames

1909 Phenol–formaldehyde Telephone handsets, knobs, handles
1919 Casein Knitting needles
1926 Alkyds Electrical insulators
1927 Cellulose acetate Toothbrushes, packaging
1927 Poly(vinyl chloride) Raincoats, flooring
1929 Urea–formaldehyde Lighting fixtures, electrical switches
1935 Ethyl cellulose Flashlight cases
1936 Polyacrylonitrile Brush backs, displays
1936 Poly(vinyl acetate) Flash bulb lining, adhesives
1938 Cellulose acetate Irrigation pipe
butyrate
1938 Polystyrene Kitchenwares, toys
1938 Nylon (polyamide) Gears, fibers, films
1938 Poly(vinyl acetal) Safety glass interlayer
1939 Poly(vinylidene chloride) Auto seat covers, films, paper, coatings
1939 Melamine–formaldehyde Tableware
1942 Polyester (cross-linkable) Boat hulls
1942 Polyethylene (low density) Squeezable bottles
1943 Fluoropolymers Industrial gaskets, slip coatings
1943 Silicone Rubber goods
1945 Cellulose propionate Automatic pens and pencils
1947 Epoxies Tools and jigs
1948 Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymer Luggage, radio and television cabinets
1949 Allylic Electrical connectors
1954 Polyurethane Foam cushions
1956 Acetal resin Automotive parts
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 POLYMER CHEMISTRY CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS

1957 Polypropylene Safety helmets, carpet fiber

1957 Polycarbonate Appliance parts
1959 Chlorinated polyether Valves and fittings
1962 Phenoxy resin Adhesives, coatings
1962 Polyallomer Typewriter cases
1964 Ionomer resins Skin packages, moldings
1964 Polyphenylene oxide Battery cases, high temperature moldings
1964 Polyimide Bearings High temperature films and wire coatings
1964 Ethylene–vinyl acetate Heavy gauge flexible sheeting
1965 Polybutene Films
1965 Polysulfone Electrical/electronic parts
1970 Thermoplastic polyester Electrical/electronic parts
1971 Hydroxy acrylates Contact lenses
1973 Polybutylene Piping
1974 Aromatic polyamides High-strength tire cord
1975 Nitrile barrier resins Containers

BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

Thus a polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule) built up by the repetition of small chemical units.
To illustrate this, following equation shows the formation of the polymer polystyrene.

Equation 1

The styrene molecule (1) contains a double bond. The resulting structure, enclosed in square brackets, is the
polymer polystyrene (2). Styrene is a monomer, which is defined as “any molecule that can be converted to a
polymer by combining with other molecules of the same or different type”. The unit in square brackets is
called the repeating unit. Notice that the structure of the repeating unit is not exactly the same as that of the

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 POLYMER CHEMISTRY CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS

monomer even though both possess identical atoms occupying similar relative positions. The conversion of the
monomer to the polymer involves a rearrangement of electrons. The residue from the monomer employed in the
preparation of a polymer is referred to as the structural unit. In the case of polystyrene, the polymer is derived
from a single monomer (styrene) and, consequently, the structural unit of the polystyrene chain is the same as its
repeating unit. Other examples of polymers of this type are polyethylene, polyacrylonitrile, and polypropylene.
Some polymers are formed
However, some polymers are derived from the mutual reaction of two or more monomers that are chemically
similar but not identical. For example, poly (hexamethylene adipamide) or nylon 6,6 (5) is made from the reaction
of hexamethylenediamine (3) and adipic acid (4).

Equation 2

The repeating unit here consists of two structural units: the residue from
hexamethylenediamine; and , the residue from adipic acid. Other polymers that have
repeating units with more than one structural unit include poly (ethylene terephthalate) and proteins. The
constitution of a polymer is usually described in terms of its structural units.
The subscript designation, n, in the equations indicates the number of repeating units present in the
polymer chain (molecule). This is known as the degree of polymerization (DP). It specifies the length of the
polymer molecule. Polymerization proceeds by the reaction of monomers to form a dimer, which in turn reacts
with another monomer to form a trimer and so on. Reaction may also be between dimers, trimers, or any
molecular species within the reaction mixture to form a progressively larger molecule. In either case, a series of
linkages is built between the repeating units, and the resulting polymer molecule, often called a polymer chain.
Low-molecular-weight polymerization products such as dimers, trimers, tetramers, etc., are referred to as
oligomers. They generally possess undesirable thermal and mechanical properties. A high degree of
polymerization is normally required for a material to develop useful properties so that it can be appropriately
described as a polymer. Polystyrene, with a degree of polymerization of 7, is a viscous liquid (not of much use),
whereas commercial grade polystyrene is a solid and the DP ›1000 . It must be emphasized, that no clear
distinction has been established between the sizes of oligomers and polymers. The degree of polymerization can
quantitatively estimate the molecular size of a polymer. This can also be done by use of the term molecular weight
(MW). By definition, M W of the polymer = DP × Mol wt of repeating unit. To illustrate this let us go back to
polystyrene (2). There are eight carbon atoms and eight hydrogen atoms in the repeating unit. Thus, the molecular
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 POLYMER CHEMISTRY CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS

weight of the repeating unit is 104 (8×12 + 1×8). For commercial grade polystyrene, DP ~1000. Consequently,
the molecular weight of this type of polystyrene is 104,000. Molecular weight has a profound effect on the
properties of a polymer.

A given polymer sample (like a piece of polystyrene from our kitchenware) is actually composed of millions of
polymer molecules having different chain lengths (except for some biological polymers like proteins, which have
a single, well-defined molecular weight [monodispersed]). This means that a distribution of molecular weight
exists for synthetic polymers. A typical molecular weight distribution curve for a polymer is shown as:

The experimental measurement of molecular weight in the given sample gives only an average value. Two types
of molecular weight averages are most commonly considered: the number-average molecular weight
represented by Mn, and the weight-average molecular weight, Mw. The number-average molecular weight is
derived from measurements that count the number of molecules in the given sample. On the other hand, the
weight-average molecular weight is based on its size.
Their ratio Mw/Mn indicates the differences in the chain lengths of the constituent polymer molecules in
a given sample are. That is, this ratio is a measure of polydispersity, and consequently it is often referred to as
the heterogeneity index. In an ideal polymer such as a protein, all the polymer molecules are of the same size
(Mw= Mn or Mw/Mn= 1). This is not true for synthetic polymers – the numerical value of Mw is always greater
than that of Mn. Thus as the ratio Mw/MN increases, the molecular weight distribution becomes broader.

DIFFERENT SCHEMES OF CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS

Polymers can be classified in many different ways. The classification is based on the origin of the polymer,
polymer structure, polymerization mechanism, preparative techniques, or thermal behaviour.
A. ORIGIN

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 POLYMER CHEMISTRY CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS

Natural vs. Synthetic

Polymers may either be naturally occurring or purely synthetic. Enzymes, nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates
are polymers of natural origin. Their structures, are normally very complex. Starch, cellulose, and natural rubber,
on the other hand, are examples of polymers of plant origin (natural) but have relatively simpler structures than
those of enzymes or proteins.
On the other hand there are a large number of synthetic (man-made) polymers consisting of various families:
fibres, elastomers, plastics, adhesives, etc.

B. POLYMER STRUCTURE
1. Linear, Branched or Cross-linked, Ladder vs. Functionality
A polymer is formed when a very large number of structural units (repeating units, monomers) are made to link
up by covalent bonds under appropriate conditions. Certainly even if the conditions are “right” not all simple
(small) organic molecules possess the ability to form polymers. In order to understand the type of molecules that
can form a polymer, two terms are important to know.
Functionality: The functionality of a molecule is simply its interlinking capacity, or the number of sites it
has available for bonding with other molecules under the specific polymerization conditions. A molecule
may be classified as monofunctional, bifunctional, or polyfunctional depending on whether it has one, two, or
greater than two sites available for linking with other molecules. For example, styrene is bi functional. Because,
it has an extra pair of electrons in the double bond by which it can form two bonds. The presence of two
condensable groups in both hexamethylene diamine (–NH2) and adipic acid (–COOH) makes them bifunctional.
However, functionality as defined in case of polymers differs from the conventional terminology of organic
chemistry where, for example, the double bond in styrene represents a single functional group. The interlinking
capacity of a monomer is ordinarily apparent from its structure, functionality (as used in polymerization reactions)
is specific for a given reaction.
A few examples will illustrate this.
 A diamine like hexamethylenediamine has a functionality of 2 in amide-forming reactions such as that
shown in equation 2. However, in esterification reactions a diamine has a functionality of zero.
 Butadiene, due to the presence of two double bonds is expected to be tetrafunctional, but it can also have
a functionality of 2 depending on the reaction conditions

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Equation 3

Since 1,2/ 3,4 /1,4 linking makes it bi functional. In all these cases one double bond still remains unreacted. But
under appropriate reaction conditions such as high temperature or crosslinking reactions, the molecule can
undergo additional reaction at this double bond .Butadiene thus becomes tetra functional even though all the
reactive sites may not be activated under the same conditions.
Monomers containing functional groups that react under different conditions are said to possess latent
functionality
Now let us consider the reaction between two monofunctional monomers such as in an esterification reaction
(Equation 4). It is observed that the reactive groups on the acid and alcohol are used up completely and that the
product ester (11) is incapable of further esterification reaction.

Equation 4

But when two bifunctional molecules react in an esterification reaction (Equation 5), the product , ester (14) is
itself bifunctional because it is terminated on either side by groups that are capable of further reaction. And this
process can be repeated almost indefinitely.
Polyfunctional molecules also behave like this. So, the generation of a polymer through repetition of one or
a few elementary units requires that the molecule(s) must be at least bifunctional.

Equation 5

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 POLYMER CHEMISTRY CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS

The structural units resulting from the reaction of monomers may be linked together in any possible arrangement.
Bifunctional structural units can only link with two other structural units in linear fashion. The resulting polymer
is therefore essentially linear. Whereas the reaction between polyfunctional molecules produce structural units
that may be linked so as to form nonlinear structures. In some cases the side growth of each polymer chain may
be terminated resulting in the formation of branched polymers. In other cases, growing polymer chains become
chemically linked to each other, resulting in a cross-linked system.

Polystyrene (2), polyethylene (21), polyacrylonitrile (22), poly (methyl methacrylate) (23), and poly(vinyl
chloride) (24) are typical examples of linear polymers.

The formation of a cross-linked polymer is exemplified by the reaction of epoxy polymers, which is used
traditionally as adhesives, coatings, as the most common matrix in aerospace composite materials etc. Epoxides
at ordinary temperature exists as low molecular-weight viscous liquids or prepolymers. The most widely used
prepolymer is diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA),

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 POLYMER CHEMISTRY CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS

The transformation of this viscous liquid into a hard, cross-linked three-dimensional molecular network involves
the reaction of the prepolymer with reagents such as amines or Lewis acids. This reaction is known as curing.
Stepwise reactions are shown below
Step-I The attack of an epoxide group by the primary amine

Equation 6
Step-II : The combination of the resulting secondary amine with a second epoxy group to form a branch point
(19).

Equation 7

The presence of these branch points ultimately leads to a cross-linked infusible and insoluble polymer with
structures such as (20).

(20)

Pendant group: It is a small group of atoms (even a small chain sometimes) that hangs off from the main chain
(that is, the backbone of the polymer). Pendant groups are usually part of the repeat unit of the polymer

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polypropylene polyvinylalcohol polystyrene

Properties: Their structure and chemical nature can confer unique properties on a polymer. For example, linear
and branched polymers are usually soluble in some solvent at normal temperatures. But the presence of polar
pendant groups can considerably reduce their solubility at room temperature. Since cross-linked polymers are
chemically tied together and solubility essentially involves the separation of solute molecules by solvent
molecules, cross-linked polymers do not dissolve, but can only be swelled by liquids.
The presence of cross-linking confers stability on polymers. Highly cross-linked polymers are generally rigid
and high-melting. Cross-links occur randomly in a cross-linked polymer.
Ladder polymers: This constitute a group of polymers with a regular sequence of cross-links. A ladder polymer
consists of two parallel linear strands of molecules with a regular sequence of crosslinks. Ladder polymers have
only condensed cyclic units in the chain; they are also commonly referred to as double-chain or double-strand
polymers. A typical example is poly(imidazopyrrolone) (27), which is obtained by the polymerization of
aromatic dianhydrides such as pyromellitic dianhydride (25) or aromatic tetracarboxylic acids with orthoaromatic
tetramines like 1,2,4,5-tetraaminobenzene (26).

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The molecular structure of ladder polymers is more rigid than that of conventional linear polymers. Many such
polymers display exceptional thermal, mechanical, and electrical behaviour. Their thermal stability is due to the
molecular structure, which requires that two bonds must be broken at a cleavage site in order to disrupt the overall
integrity of the molecule; when only one bond is broken, the second holds the entire molecule together

2. Amorphous and Crystalline

Structurally, polymers in the solid state may be classified as amorphous or crystalline. When polymers are
cooled from the molten state or concentrated from the solution, molecules are often attracted to each other and
tend to aggregate as closely as possible into a solid with the least possible potential energy leading to crystalline
polymers. For some polymers, individual chains are folded and packed regularly in an orderly fashion resulting
in formation of a solid crystalline polymer with a long-range, three-dimensional, ordered arrangement.
However, since the polymer chains are very long, it is impossible for the chains to fit into a perfect arrangement,
and measure of imperfection always exists. The degree of crystallinity, i.e., the fraction of the total polymer in
the crystalline regions, may vary from a few percentage points to about 90% depending on the crystallization
conditions. Examples of crystalline polymers include polyethylene (21), polyacrylonitrile (22), poly (ethylene
terephthalate) (28), and polytetrafluoroethylene (29).

In contrast to crystallised polymers, the polymers consisting of chains lacking ordered arrangement are known
as amorphous polymers. They are characterized in the solid state by a short-range order of repeating units. These
polymers vitrify, forming an amorphous glassy solid in which the molecular chains are arranged at random and
even entangled. Poly (methyl methacrylate) (23) and polycarbonate (30) are typical examples.

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Melting of either polymers marks the beginning of disorder. There are, however, some polymers which differ
from this general scheme in that the structure of the ordered regions is more or less disturbed. These are known
as liquid crystalline polymers. They have phases characterized by structures intermediate between the ordered
crystalline structure and the disordered fluid state. Solids of liquid crystalline polymers melt to form fluids in
which much of the molecular order is retained within a certain range of temperature. The ordering is sufficient to
impart some solid like properties on the fluid, but the forces of attraction between molecules are not strong enough
to prevent flow. An example of a liquid crystalline polymer is polybenzamide (31). Liquid crystalline polymers
are important in the fabrication of lightweight, ultra-high-strength, and temperature-resistant fibers and films such
as Dupont’s Kevlar and Monsanto’s X-500.

3. Homopolymer and Copolymer

Depending on the composition polymers may be further classified into two categories homo polymers or
copolymers. Polymers composed of only one repeating unit in the polymer molecules are known as
homopolymers.
Polymers composed of two different repeating units in the polymer molecule are defined as copolymers.
As indicated earlier, some polymers such as nylon 6,6 (5) and poly(ethylene terephthalate) (28) have repeating
units composed of more than one structural unit. Such polymers are still considered homopolymers.

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An example is the copolymer (32) formed when styrene and acrylonitrile are polymerized in the same reactor.
The repeating unit and the structural unit of a polymer are not necessarily the same.

Equation 8
The repeating units on the copolymer chain may be arranged in various degrees of order along the backbone; it
is even possible for one type of backbone to have branches of another type. There are several types of copolymer
systems:
• Random copolymer -The repeating units are arranged randomly on the chain molecule. If we represent the
repeating units by A and B, then the random copolymer might have the structure shown below:

-AABBABABBAAABAABBA-
• Alternating copolymer -There is an ordered (alternating) arrangement of the two repeating units along the
polymer chain:
-ABABABABABAB-

• Block copolymer - The chain consists of relatively long sequences (blocks) of each repeating unit chemically
bound together:
-AAAAA- BBBBBBBB -AAAAAAAAA –BBBB-

• Graft copolymer Sequences of one monomer (repeating unit) are “grafted” onto a backbone of the other
monomer type

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4. Fibers, Plastics, or Elastomers

Polymers may also be classified as fibers, plastics, or elastomers. The reason for this is related to how the atoms
in a molecule (large or small) are hooked together. To form bonds, atoms employ valence electrons.
Consequently, the type of bond formed depends on the electronic configuration of the atoms.
Depending on the extent of electron involvement, chemical bonds may be classified as either primary or
secondary. Primary bonds are of three types: ionic, metallic, and covalent. The atoms in a polymer are mostly,
although not exclusively, bonded together by covalent bonds. The forces of attraction responsible for the cohesive
aggregation between individual molecules are referred to as secondary valence forces such as van der Waals,
hydrogen, and dipole bonds.
Since secondary bonds do not involve valence electrons, they are weak (generally hydrogen and dipole bonds are
much stronger than van der Waals bonds.) bonds molecules must come together as closely as possible for
secondary bonds to have maximum effect. The ability for close alignment of molecules depends on the structure
of the molecules.
Those molecules with regular structure can align themselves very closely for effective utilization of the secondary
intermolecular bonding forces. The result is the formation of a fiber. Fibers are linear polymers with high
symmetry and high intermolecular forces that result usually from the presence of polar groups. They are
characterized by high modulus, high tensile strength, and moderate extensibilities. There are, on the other hand,
some molecules with irregular structure, weak intermolecular attractive forces, and very flexible polymer chains.
These are generally referred to as elastomers. Chain segments of elastomers can undergo high local mobility. In
absence of applied (tensile) stress, molecules of elastomers usually assume coiled shapes. Consequently,
elastomers exhibit high extensibility (up to 1000%) from which they recover rapidly on the removal of the
imposed stress. Elastomers generally have low initial modulus in tension, but when stretched they stiffen.

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 POLYMER CHEMISTRY CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS

Plastics fall between the structural extremes represented by fibers and elastomers. However, in spite of the
possible differences in chemical structure, the demarcation between fibers and plastics may sometimes seem to
be unclear. Polymers such as polypropylene and polyamides can be used as fibers and as plastics by a proper
choice of processing conditions.

C. POLYMERIZATION MECHANISM
Depending on the type of polymerization reaction involved in their formation polymers may be classified broadly
as condensation, addition, or ring-opening polymers,
Condensation polymers are formed from a series of condensation reactions type, in which any two species
(monomers, dimers, trimers, etc.) can react at any time leading to a larger molecule where a small molecule,
usually water or ammonia, is eliminated. A typical condensation polymerization reaction is the formation of a
polyester through the reaction of a glycol and a dicarboxylic acid (Equation 9 )
Examples of condensation polymers include polyamides (e.g., nylon 6,6) (5); polyesters (e.g., poly(ethylene
terephthalate) (28); and urea-formaldehyde and phenol–formaldehyde resins.

Equation 9

Addition polymers are produced by reactions in which monomers are added one after another to a rapidly
growing chain. The growing polymer in addition polymerization proceeds via a chain mechanism. Like all
chain reactions, three fundamental steps are involved: initiation, propagation, and termination. Monomers
generally employed in addition polymerization are unsaturated (usually with carbon-carbon double bonds).
Examples of addition polymers are polystyrene (2), polyethylene (21),polyacrylonitrile (22), poly(methyl
methacrylate) (23),and poly(vinyl chloride) (24).
As the name suggests, ring-opening polymerization polymers are derived from the cleavage and then
polymerization of cyclic compounds. An example of ring-opening polymerization is shown below:

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 POLYMER CHEMISTRY CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS

Equation 10

D. THERMAL BEHAVIOR
On the basis of thermal (thermomechanical) response polymers can be classified as thermoplastics and
thermosets.
As the name suggests, thermoplastic polymers soften and flow under the action of heat and pressure. Upon
cooling, the polymer hardens and assumes the shape of the mold (container). Thermoplastics, when compounded
with appropriate ingredients, can usually withstand several of these heating and cooling cycles without suffering
any structural breakdown. This behaviour is similar to that of candle wax. Examples of thermoplastic polymers
are polyethylene, polystyrene, and nylon.

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A thermoset is a polymer that, when heated, undergoes a chemical change to produce a cross-linked, solid
polymer. Thermosets usually exist initially as liquids called prepolymers; they can be shaped into desired forms
by the application of heat and pressure, but are incapable of undergoing repeated cycles of softening and
hardening. Examples of thermosetting polymers include urea–formaldehyde, phenol– formaldehyde, and
epoxies.
The basic structural difference between thermoplastics and thermosets is that thermoplastic polymers are
composed mainly of linear and branched molecules, whereas thermosets are made up of cross-linked systems.
Recall from our previous discussion that linear and branched polymers consist of molecules that are not
chemically tied together. It is therefore possible for individual chains to slide past one another. For cross-linked
systems, however, chains are linked chemically; consequently, chains will not flow freely even under the
application of heat and pressure.
The differences in the thermal behavior of thermoplastics and thermosets are best illustrated by
considering the change in modulus with temperature for both polymers (Figure 1.3). At low temperatures, a
thermoplastic polymer (both crystalline and amorphous) exists as a hard and rigid glass. As the temperature is
increased, it changes from a glass to a rubbery elastomer to a viscous melt that is capable of flowing - hence

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 POLYMER CHEMISTRY CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS

this phase is also known as the flow region. (The transitions between the different phases or regions of thermal
behavior are characterized by drops in the magnitude of the modulus -usually two to three orders. As we shall
see later, differences exist between amorphous and crystalline thermoplastics in the details and nature of these
transitions). For the thermosetting polymer, on the other hand, the modulus remains high in the rubbery region,
while the flow region disappears.

E. PREPARATIVE TECHNIQUE

Polymers can be classified according to the techniques used during the polymerization of the monomer into bulk,
solution, suspension and emulsion polymerization.
In bulk polymerization, only the monomer (and possibly catalyst and initiator, but no solvent) is fed into the
reactor. The monomer undergoes polymerization, at the end of which a (nearly) solid mass is removed as the
polymer product. Bulk polymerization is employed widely in the manufacture of condensation polymers, where
reactions are only mildly exothermic and viscosity is mostly low thus enhancing ready mixing, heat transfer, and
bubble elimination.
Solution polymerization involves polymerization of a monomer in a solvent in which both the monomer
(reactant) and polymer (product) are soluble.
Suspension polymerization refers to polymerization in an aqueous medium with the monomer as the dispersed
phase. Consequently, the polymer resulting from such a system forms a solid dispersed phase.
Emulsion polymerization is similar to suspension polymerization but the initiator is located in the aqueous phase
(continuous phase) in contrast to the monomer (dispersed phase) in suspension polymerization. Besides, in
emulsion polymerization the resulting polymer particles are considerably smaller (about ten times smaller) than
those in suspension polymerization.
F. END USE
Finally, polymers may be classified according to the end use of the polymer. In this case, the polymer
is associated with a specific industry (end use): diene polymers (rubber industry); olefin polymer (sheet, film,
and fiber industries); and acrylics (coating and decorative materials).

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A few points to remember

1. Polymers or macromolecules are giant molecules with molecular weights at least 100 times greater than those
of smaller molecules such as water or methanol.
2. If we disregard metals and inorganic compounds, we observe that practically everything else in this world is
polymeric. This includes the protein and nucleic acid in our bodies, the fibers we use for clothing, the protein and
starch we eat, the elastomers in our automobile tires, and the paint, plastic wall and floor coverings, foam
insulation, dishes, furniture, pipes, and so forth in our homes.
3. In spite of the many varieties of fibers, elastomers, and plastic, they all have a similar structure and are governed
by the same theories. Linear polymers, such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), consist of long chains made
up of thousands of covalently bonded carbon atoms. The repeating unit for HDPE is represented as [CH2CH2]n,
where n is the number of repeating units.
4. Most linear polymers such as HDPE are thermoplastic, i.e., they may be softened by heat and hardened by
cooling in a reversible physical process. However, linear polymers like cellulose, which have very strong
intermolecular forces (hydrogen bonds), cannot be softened by heating below the decomposition temperature.
5. Thermoset polymers are cross linked and cannot be softened by heating. Thermoplastics such as natural rubber
and A-stage resole Bakelite resins can be transformed to thermosetting polymers by the introduction of crosslinks
between the polymer chains.
6. Early developments in polymer technology were empirical because of a lack of knowledge of polymer science.
Advancements in polymer technology were rapid in the 1930s and 1940s because of the theories developed by
Staudinger, Carothers, Mark, and other polymer scientists.
7. Thermoplastic resole resins that may be thermoset by heating are obtained by heating phenol and formaldehyde
on the alkaline side. Novolacs are obtained when an insufficient amount of formaldehyde is reacted in acid
solution. Novolacs are converted to infusible plastics by heating with hexamethylenetetramine.

Excercise

1. Name six polymers that you encounter daily.

2. Which would be more likely to be softened by heat?
(a) (1) unvulcanized rubber, or (2) ebonite.
(b) (1) A-stage, or (2) C-stage resole
(c) (1) cellulose, or (2) cellulose acetate.
3. Name a polymer having the following repeating units:
(a) ethylene (MCH2CH2M)
(b) phenol and formaldehyde residual units.
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(c) amino acid residual units

4. In which of the following polymers will hydrogen bonding predominate?
(a) natural rubber (NR).
(b) linear polyethylene (HDPE)
(c) cellulose.
(d) cellulose nitrate
5. Which of the following products are polymeric?
(a) water
(b) wood
(c) meat
(d) cotton
(e) rubber tires
(f) paint
6. Which of the following is a thermoset or cross-linked polymer?
(a) cellulose
(b) unvulcanized rubber
(c) A-stage resole
(d) cellulose nitrate
(e) molded Bakelite
(f) ebonite
7. Which of the items in question 6 are thermoplastic?
8. Why are so many outstanding polymer scientists alive today?
9. What is the molecular weight of H(CH2CH2)1000H?
10. What is the principal difference between rayon and cellophane?
11. Which is the more heat stable, a resole or a novolac phenolic (Bakelite) resin?

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