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UNIT 5 Superconductor... Nanomaterials

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Unit-5: Superconductors and Nano-Materials

Superconductivity: Certain metals and alloys exhibit almost zero resistivity (i.e. infinite
conductivity), when they are cooled to sufficiently low temperatures. This effect is called
superconductivity.
Temperature dependence of resistivity in superconducting materials:
A superconductor is a material that exhibits zero resistance at and below a critical temperature,
Tc
as shown in Figure. The temperature at which the transition from normal state to
superconducting state takes place on cooling in the absence of magnetic field is called critical
temperature or transition temperature.

Properties of superconductors:-
1. It is a low temperature phenomenon.
2. The transition temperature is different for different substances.
3. Materials having high normal resistivities exhibit superconductivity.
4. Materials for whichsuperconductivity.

The Meissner effect: When a weak magnetic is applied to a superconducting specimen


at a temperature below transition temperature TC the magnetic flux lines are expelled. This
phenomenon is called Meissner effect.
When a superconductor is cooled below the critical temperature, the Meissner effect occurs,
which causes a magnetic field to be ejected from it when it enters the superconducting state.
This Meissner state breaks when the magnetic field (either external or produced by current
flowing superconductor itself) increases beyond a certain value and sample starts behaving like an
ordinary conductor.

Temperature dependence of critical field:


This certain value of magnetic field beyond which superconductor returns to ordinary state is called
Critical Magnetic Field. The value of the critical magnetic field depends on temperature. The value of
the critical magnetic field increases when the temperature below the critical temperature reduces. The
figure below shows the variation in the critical magnetic field with temperature.

Persistent Current:
If a ring made of a superconductor is placed in a magnetic field above its critical temperature, now
cool the ring of superconductor below its critical temperature and now if we remove the magnetic field
a current is induced in ring due to its self-inductance. By Lenz law the direction of this induced current
is such that it opposes the change in flux passing through the ring. As the ring is in superconducting
state (zero resistance), the current induced is ring will be continue to flow this current is called the
persistent current. This persistent current produce a magnetic flux which makes the magnetic flux
passing through the ring constant.
Type I and type II superconductors:-
Based on the diamagnetic response superconductors can be classified into two types.
Type I superconductors: The metals which exhibit zero resistivity at low temperatures and have the
property of excluding magnetic fields from the interior of the superconductor (Meissner effect). They are
called Type I superconductors (also is known as soft superconductors). The superconductivity exists only
below their critical temperatures and below a critical magnetic field strength. Type I superconductors are
well described by the BCS theory.
Examples: - Al, Zn, Hg and Sn

Super
M conducting Normal
state
state

H Hc

Type II superconductors:-

Superconductors made from alloys are called Type II superconductors. Besides being mechanically
harder than Type I superconductors, they exhibit much higher critical magnetic fields. Type II
superconductors such as niobium-titanium (NbTi) are used in the construction of high
field superconducting magnets.

Type-II superconductors usually exist in a mixed state of normal and superconducting regions. This is
sometimes called a vortex state, because vortices of superconducting currents surround filaments or
cores of normal material.
In type II superconductors, the specimen is in pure superconducting state up to the field 𝐻𝐶1
(lower critical field) when the field is increased beyond 𝐻𝐶2 (upper critical state) the magnetic
flux lines start penetrating. The specimen is in mixed state between 𝐻𝐶1and𝐻𝐶2.

Above𝐻 𝐶2 , the specimen is in normal state. These superconductors are known as hard

superconductors.

Normal
Super state
M
conductin
Vortex
g state region

HC 1
HC 2

Examples: - Zr, Nb

High-temperature superconductors: High-temperature superconductors (abbreviated high-Tc or HTS)


are defined as those whose critical temperature is above 30 K. The most important large scale
applications of superconductivity are in: power transmission lines, energy storage devices, fault current
limiters, fabrication of electric generators and motors, MAGLEV vehicles, in medicine (see Section 6)
and applications in particle accelerators.High-temperature superconductivity reveals its secret. High-
temperature superconductivity, the ability of certain materials to conduct electricity with zero
electrical resistance at temperatures above the boiling point of liquid nitrogen.
Examples of high-Tc cuprate superconductors include La1.85Ba0.15CuO4 , and YBCO (Yttrium-
Barium-Copper-Oxide), which is famous as the first material to achieve superconductivity above the
boiling point of liquid nitrogen.
Until recently, only certain compounds of copper and oxygen (so- called "cuprates") were believed to
have HTS properties, and the term high-temperature superconductor was used interchangeably with
cuprate superconductor for compounds such as bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide (BSCCO) and
yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO). However, several iron-based compounds are now known to be
superconducting at high temperatures. • Mainly We will Discuss Cuprates Iron Based Superconductors.
Properties and applications of superconductors:

The superconducting material shows some extraordinary properties which make them very important for
modern technology. The research is still going on to understand and utilise these extraordinary properties
of superconductors in various fields of technology. Such properties of superconductors are listed below-

1. Zero Electric Resistance (Infinite Conductivity)


2. Meissner Effect: Expulsion of magnetic field
3. Critical Temperature/Transition Temperature
4. Critical Magnetic Field
5. Persistent Currents
6. Josephson Currents
7. Critical Current
Applications of superconductors:
(i) Superconductors form the basis of energy saving power systems, namely the superconducting generators,
which are smaller in size and weight, in comparison with conventional generators.
(ii) Superconducting magnets have been used to levitate trains above its rails. They can be driven at high speed
with minimal expenditure of energy.
(iii) Superconducting magnetic propulsion systems may be used to launch satellites into orbits directly from the
earth without the use of rockets.
(iv) High efficiency ore-separating machines may be built using superconducting magnets which can be used
to separate tumor cells from healthy cells by high gradient magnetic separation method.
(v) Since the current in a superconducting wire can flow without any change in magnitude, it can be used for
transmission lines.

Nanomaterials :
The particles are made with extremely tiny materials to possess unique physical as well as chemical
properties are referred to as nonmaterial. The single dimension of this material is less or equivalent to 100
nanometers.
Nanotechnology is the most common term which deals with nanoscale materials. This technology is to
make use of minute objects. The property of the materials changes when the bulk is split into small sizes.
The nanoscale materials possess unique properties in the fields of electronic, optical or mechanical, etc.
Even in ancient days, these materials are used as dyes in ceramics. The insulators at the molecular stages
can behave as conductors at this nanoscale. The behavior of the nanomaterials is based on the surface area
rather than the composition present in the particle. The usage of the nanomaterials in
the microprocessors leads to an increment in the density of the transistors.
The nano-sized particles are available in nature. It can be created from carbons or any minerals like silver.
They must have the dimension lying from 1 nm to about 100 nm. The lab microscopes are used for
observing these materials because they are not visible to the naked eye.
Properties
The quantum properties of the materials get affected as the sizes are reduced. The small size of these
materials makes them free from internal imperfections present in structures and gain protection from
mechanical failures. Even thermal and catalytic properties are observed once the bulk material is broken
down to the nanoscale. An increase in the ratio of the area of the surface to volume leads the system to
become more reactive. These materials can rearrange the crystalline structure on dispersion.
Examples
In the field of cosmetics, the material called titanium oxide is used in the sunscreens. The field of sports
utilizes nanotubes of carbons to produce bats used in baseball. Because the bats made from this will be
lighter in weight resulting in the improvement of performance. Further, antimicrobial items like mats and
towels are made using nanotechnology so that illness due to bacteria can be prevented and are used by
sportspersons.
The systems made of sensors use nanomaterials called titanium dioxide in their development. It is helpful
in the military to detect the presence of biological agents. The plastic chairs used in gardens uses the
coatings of nanomaterial called titanium dioxide. A film on the creating is created so that any dirt is
dissolved can be removed with the next shower. and cleans the chairs.
Classification of Nanomaterials
Zero Dimension: These materials don’t have any dimensions. Point materials including oxides,
semiconductors, quantum dots, hollow spheres, etc.

One Dimension: The one billionth of any given unit that is a film of thin type is known as one dimension
nanoparticles. It is used in engineering, electronics, chemistry, and so on for many decades. These are used
in the construction of nanorods, nanowires, nanotubes, etc.

Two Dimension: This structure consists of two dimensions that are outside the range of nanometric size. It
has characteristics dependent upon the shapes. Monolayer, Multilayer, Self- assembled, etc. comes under
this category.
Three Dimension: In this, the structure consists of three dimensions. These are most widely used in
magnetic materials, catalysts, and so on. These 3-D structures are further categorized as Fullerenes,
Dendrimers, and Quantum Dots.

From the classification, it is evident that the behavior of these particles is purely based on shapes, sizes,
morphologies, and dimensions.

BASIC CONCEPT OF QUANTUM DOTS


Quantum dots are tiny specks of material, so small that some people say they have no dimensions.
They exist as points of materials, typically 1/10,000 the size of a human hair.
Quantum dots are nanoparticles made from semiconducting materials.
Quantum dots can be made from a range of materials, currently the most commonly used materials include
zinc sulphide, lead sulphide, cadmium selenide and indium phosphide. Many of the promising applications
for quantum dots will see them used within the human body. Quantum dots work in much the same way
but a quantum dot crystal acts as one very large atom. Large quantum dots produce light with a long
wavelength and small quantum dots produce light with small wavelengths. In terms of colour in the visible
spectrum, this means large quantum dots produce red light and small quantum dots produce blue light –
sizes in between account for all the other colours in the spectrum.

Quantum wires : Quantum wires are extremely narrow structures where electron transport is
possible only in a very few transverse modes. Quantum wires can be used as electron waveguides.
Semiconductor quantum wires have been used to make switchable high-speed lasers. A quantum wire is an
electrically conducting wire in which quantum effects influence the transport properties. Usually such
effects appear in the dimension of nanometers, so they are also referred to as nanowires. These are one-
dimensional (1D) structures in which electrons are free to move in one direction, while quantization occurs
in the remaining two directions. They appear like tubes and wires with diameters in the nanometer range
and lengths of several micrometers.

FABRICATION OF NANO MATERIALS


Nanofabrication involves the manufacture of nanostructures, that is, products with none, one, or two
dimension in the nanometer range, and most commonly used as basic units in the manufacture of
microelectronic, semiconductors, optics, etc. Nanomaterials are categorized as zero-dimensional (0D) (for
example, nanoparticles), one-dimensional (1D) (for example, nanotubes & nanorods), two-dimensional
(2D) (for example, graphene), and three-dimensional (3D) (for example, nanoprisms & nanoflowers)
Cutting, punching, forming, shearing, stamping, welding are common fabrication techniques used to
shape, cut, or mold raw metal material into a final product. Fabrication is distinct from other
manufacturing processes.
TOP DOWN AND BOTTOM UP APPROACHES
There are plenty of methods to synthesis nano materials. These methods aregrouped into two
categories namely Top-Down and Bottom-Up techniques. The techniques are classified based
on the phase of the starting material. In the Top-down class of techniques, the starting material
is in solid state, whereas in Bottom-Up techniques the starting material is either in gaseous
state or in liquid state.Top-down approach refers to a subtractive process in which a bulk
startingmaterial is divided into smaller ones of nanosize. Bottom-up approach refers to an
additive process that starts with precursor atoms (or) molecules which combine to form
nanosized structure.
TOP DOWN APPROACH (CVD): Methods to produce nanoparticles from atoms are chemical processes
based on transformations in solution e.g. sol-gel processing, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), plasma or
flame spraying synthesis, laser pyrolysis, atomic or molecular condensation. These chemical processes rely
on the availability of appropriate “metal-organic” molecules as precursors. Sol-gel processing differs from
other chemical processes because of its relatively low processing temperature. This makes the sol-gel
process cost-effective and versatile. In spraying processes, the flow of reactants (gas, liquid in form of
aerosols or mixtures of both) is introduced to high-energy flame produced for example by plasma spraying
equipment or carbon dioxide laser. The reactants decompose and particles are formed in a flame by
homogeneous nucleation and growth. Rapid cooling results in the formation of nanoscale particles.
These are chemical processes to materials based on transformations in solution such as sol-gel processing,
hydro or solvothermal syntheses, Metal-Organic Decomposition (MOD), or in the vapor phase chemical
vapor deposition (CVD). Most chemical routes rely on the availability of appropriate “metal-organic”
molecules as precursors. Among the various precursors of metal oxides, namely metal b-diketonates, and
metal carboxylates, metal alkoxides are the most versatile. They are available for nearly all elements and
cost-effective synthesis from cheap feedstock have been developed for some.
How to Control the Construction and Growth of the Nanoparticles. Chemical vapour deposition (CVD)
synthesis is achieved by putting a carbon source in the gas phase and using an energy source, such as
plasma or a resistively heated coil, to transfer energy to a gaseous carbon molecule.

Top-down and bottom-up processes of nanosized material preparation.


BOTTOM-UP TECHNIQUES

Sol-Gel Synthesis: The sol-gel technique is a long-established industrial process for the generation of
colloidal nanoparticles from the liquid phase, which has been further developed in the last years for the
production of advanced nanomaterials and coatings. Sol-gel-processes are well adapted for oxide
nanoparticles and composites nanopowders synthesis. The main advantages of sol-gel techniques for the
preparation of materials are low temperature of processing, versatility, and flexible archeology allowing
easy shaping and embedding. They offer unique opportunities for access to organic-inorganic materials.
The most commonly used precursors of oxides are alkoxides, because of their commercial availability and
the high liability of the M-OR bond allowing facile tailoring in situ during processing.Sol-gel is one of the
simple wet chemical techniques suitable for the preparation of nanoparticles (mostly oxides) and
nanocrytalline thin films. It is a superior method to all available methods since this method is employed for
large scale production at low cost.This method is based on inorganic polymerization reaction including
hydrolysis, polycondensation, gelation, aging, drying and calcinations or sintering.

Nanomaterials : Applications
Nanomaterials are utilized in various processes of manufacturing, health care, products as well as
insulation, and so on. Some of the most important applications are listed as follows:
1) The applications of bioimaging prefer these materials. Because these particles can possess to vary
the intensity of the colors in the solutions. This is made possible by changing the thickness of the
shell, the percentage of gold, and the aspect ratio.
2) The nano-size particles such as gold will melt at lower temperatures in comparison to the bulkier
ones.
3) Nanomaterials are utilized in various processes of manufacturing, health care, products as well as
insulation, and so on.
4) Health care consisting of artificially developed enzymes are made from these nanomaterials. These
enzymes are useful in the diagnosis of a tumor and biosensing
5) The paints using materials protect from UV rays and are convenient during cleaning.
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