1 Solar Radiation

The Sun Sun-Earth Geometry

Sun

Earth
1.39 x 109m 32’ 1.27x107m

1.5 x 1011m

Fig. 1.2 Sun-Earth Geometry

yy The shape of the earth is oblate spheroid, i.e.,

earth is flattened at the poles and bulges at
the equator.
Fig. 1.1 The Sun
yy The diameter of the sun (DS) is about 1.39 × 109 m.
yy The average diameter of the earth (DE) is
yy The sun is a huge hot ball of plasma (the about 1.27 × 107 m.
fourth state of matter). yy The distance between the sun and the earth
yy The sun is about 4.6 billion years old. is about 1.5 x 1011 m (1 astronomical unit). Due
yy It is the most important source of energy for to the oblate spheroidal shape of the earth,
life on earth. this distance varies about ±1.7%.
yy Sun is mainly composed of hydrogen yy The sunlight takes about 8 minutes and
and helium with traces of some other 20 seconds to reach the earth.
elements. yy Solar rays subtend an angle of 32’ on the
yy Due to continuous nuclear fusion reaction earth’s surface.
inside the core of the sun, the hydrogen is
being converted into helium. Spectral Distribution of Solar Radiation
yy At this time in the sun’s life, it has about 73% yy Solar energy is mostly in the radiation form
hydrogen and 25% helium. which is in the EM wave.
yy The temperature of the sun’s core is about 15 yy Sun is assumed to be a Black Body. Hence, it
million K, owing to the nuclear fusion reaction is diffusive in nature (Emission is independent
inside the core. of direction).
yy The surface temperature of the sun is about yy The radiation coming from the sun is
5778 K. essentially equivalent to black-body radiation.
yy The diameter of the sun is approximately yy Solar radiation is a sub-part of thermal
1.39 × 109 m. radiation as shown in the figure below:

Solar Radiation 5
 It can be seen from the above figure that: yy Solar radiations are short-wave radiations.
yy Thermal radiation lies in the range of 0.1 μm yy Visible light lies in the range of 0.4 μm to 0.7 μm.
to 100 μm. yy Solar radiation contains some parts of UV
yy Solar radiation lies in the range of 0.3 μm to rays and IR rays along with a full visible
2.5 μm. range.

The spectral solar irradiation distribution for extraterrestrial and terrestrial radiation is shown in the
figure below:

Thermal Radiation

Solar
X-rays
Gamma Microwave
UV rays Visible Infrared
rays

10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 0.3 0.4 0.7 1 2.5 10 102 103 104
Wavelenth () in m

Fig. 1.3 Solar Radiation on the Spectrum of Electromagnetic Radiation

Ultraviolet
2200 Visible Infrared
2000
Spectral Solar radiation(W/m2 .m)

1800 Extraterrestrial
1600 radiation(1)
1400
1200
1000 Terrestrial
radiation(2)
800
600
400
200

0.3 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Wavelenght (m)

Fig. 1.4 Spectral Distribution of Solar Radiation

yy T
 he area under the curve (1) represents the yy Most solar radiation lies in the range of 0.3 µm
total extraterrestrial radiation intensities in to 2.5 µm with maximum spectral intensity at
W/m2. Similarly, the area under the curve 0.49 µm (Visible region).
(2) represents the total terrestrial radiation yy About 6.4% of solar radiation radiated from
intensities in W/m2. the sun is in the UV region of the spectrum.

6 Solar Radiation
 48% is in the IR region and the remaining propagation of the radiation at the mean distance
45.6% is in the visible region. of the earth from the sun (1 astronomical unit).
The exact value of the solar constant is not known
with certainty but it is believed to be between
UV (= 6.4%) 1,353 and 1,395 W/m2.
Sun IR (= 48%) Earth The universally accepted standard value of the
Visible (= 45.6%)
solar constant is:
ISC = 1367 W/m2
Fig. 1.5 Spectral Regions of Solar Radiation Or ISC = 1.958 langley per minute
[1 langley = 1 cal/cm2]
Solar Constant (ISC) Or ISC = 4.921 MJ/m2/h
The solar constant is defined as the mean solar
radiation energy received per unit time, on a unit Extraterrestrial and Terrestrial Solar
surface area perpendicular to the direction of Radiation

Sun
Reflected back
into space

rial
est
at err
r n
Ext regio Scattering
O2 O3,H O
ere Absorption CO 2
s ph ) , du st
o us 2
AtmPoro
( gio
n Beam Diffus
on e ra
l re radiati
str
ia Re diatio
Ter
re (Lfle n
on cted
ce g w fr
u rfa aveom
s len ear
rt h’s gth th
Ea )
Earth

Fig. 1.6 Propagation of Solar Radiation through the Atmosphere

Extraterrestrial Radiation: Solar radiation incident Variation in the extraterrestrial radiation is given
on the outer atmosphere of the earth is known by the following relation:
as extraterrestrial radiation. It is the measure
  360  n  
of the solar radiation that would be received in In  ISC 1  0.033 cos  
  365  
the absence of atmosphere. The extraterrestrial
radiation deviates from the value of the solar Where n is the day of the year counted from 1st
constant because of the following two reasons: January, i.e., n = 1 for 1st January.
1. Fluctuation in the radiation emitted by the
sun. Note: Extraterrestrial radiation varies by ±
2. Variation in the distance between earth and 3.3% over a year.
sun due to elliptical motion of the earth.

Solar Radiation 7
 Diffuse radiation (Id): The radiation received on
Note: 21 June (Summer solstice in the a terrestrial surface (scattered by aerosols and
northern hemisphere) → longest day of the dust) from all parts of the sky dome is known as
year in the northern hemisphere. diffuse radiation.
21 December (Winter solstice in the northern The diffuse radiation is anisotropic in nature.
hemisphere) → shortest day of the year in Total radiation (IT): The sum total of the beam
the northern hemisphere. and diffuse solar radiation is known as total
21 March (spring equinox) → day and night radiation.
of equal length. IT  Ib  Id
23 September (autumn equinox) → day and
night of equal length. yy When total radiation is measured on the
earth’s surface, it is known as solar insolation
at the place.
yy When total radiation is measured on a
Note: On 21 June, horizontal surface, it is known as global
n = 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 21 = 172 days radiation (Ig).
Albedo: The earth reflects nearly 30% of the total
  360  172  
 In  ISC 1  0.033 cos   solar radiant energy to space by reflection from
  365  
clouds, by scattering and by reflection on the
 1322.6 W / m2 earth’s surface. This is called the albedo of the
On 21 December, earth’s atmospheric system.
n = 355 Air mass coefficient or Air mass ratio: It is the
ratio of the path length of beam radiation through
  360  355  
 In  ISC 1  0.033 cos   the atmosphere, to the path length if the sun
  365 
were at its zenith.
 1411.4 W / m2 AMR represent the mass of the atmosphere
through which the beam radiation passes, to the
mass it would pass through if the sun is directly
When solar radiation passes through the overhead.
atmosphere it is affected by several phenomena Air mass ratio (or simply air mass) is denoted by
like absorption and scattering. Even a fraction of ‘m’ or ‘AMR’
solar radiation is reflected to space.
Terrestrial radiation: Terrestrial radiation is solar
radiation that reaches the earth’s surface after Sun
passing through the earth’s atmosphere.
The following definitions with respect to terrestrial Sun

radiation are important from the study point of view: C

B
Solar irradiation or irradiance: The rate of solar Z
energy incident per unit area of the surface is
A
known as solar irradiation or irradiance.
ere
ph

Beam Radiation (Ib): It is also known as direct

os
m

radiation. It is the solar radiation propagating in a Earth

At

straight line and received on the earth’s surface

without change in direction is called beam or
direct radiation. Fig. 1.7 Solar Radiation Passing Through the
Atmosphere

8 Solar Radiation
By definition, the air mass ratio is given by:
AB 1 Sun
60
0

AC cos z = 2) AMR = 0
( R
A M

Where θZ is the Zenith angle:

yy Just above the earth’s atmosphere AMR = 1

e
er
(extraterrestrial solar radiation), AMR = 0 and

ph
os
is indicated by AM0.

m
Earth

At
yy At sea level, when the sun is at Zenith or
directly overhead, then θz = 0° → AMR = 1.
yy When the angle subtended by zenith and line Fig. 1.8 Values of AMR at a Different Point
of sight of the sun is 60°, then θz = 60° →
AMR = 2. Important angles in solar radiation
yy The sun is low during winter, so the zenith The angle between the rotational axis and the
angle is high and hence AMR is higher than orbital axis of a rotating body is known as axial
during summer. tilt or obliquity. Our earth does not rotate about
its orbital axis. The obliquity of the earth is 23½˚.

Ro
ta
Orbital axis t
N ax iona
is l
N

Tropic

o
23 1/2
231/2N of Cancer
India
Equaitorial Actual
Plane

Tropic of
231/2S Capricorn

Fig. 1.9

1. Latitude (φ): Latitude of any location is the By convention,

angle made by the radial line joining the Latitude is positive for the northern
location (P) to the centre of the earth with hemisphere and negative for the southern
the projection of the line on the equatorial hemisphere. It should be noted that India lies
plane. in the northern hemisphere.
Position of 2. Longitude (ψ): Longitude of any location is
observer the angle made by the projection of the line
Equatorial
Plane P of the location on the equatorial plane to the
 projection of the line having the same latitude
O as that of Greenwich (England).
The Greenwich meridian is also known as the
prime meridian which divides the eastern and
western hemispheres of the earth.
Figure: Latitude of a location By convention,
Fig. 1.10 Latitude of a Location
Longitude is positive for eastward of
Greenwich and negative for westward of

Solar Radiation 9
 Greenwich. It should be noted that India lies
Solved Examples
in the eastern hemisphere.
The position or location of any place on the 1. Determine the angle subtended by a line
earth’s surface can be determined by knowing joining the centres of the earth and the sun
its longitude and latitude. with its projection on the earth’s equatorial
3. Declination angle (δ): Declination angle is the plane on 15th February 2022.
angle subtended by a line joining the centres Solution:
of the earth and the sun with its projection For 15th February, n = 31 + 15 = 46
on the earth’s equatorial plane. Declination  360 
 23.45 sin  (284  n) 
occurs because the earth is inclined to its  365 
 360 
orbital plane at an angle of 66½˚.  23.45 sin  (284  46)    13.29
 365 

N Equatorial 2. Determine the solar declination angle on 27th

Plane
May 2022.
Sun  Solution:
Earth
For 27th May 2022, n = 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 27 = 147
S
 360 
 23.45 sin  (284  n) 
 365 
Fig. 1.11 Declination Angle  360 
 23.45 sin  (284  147)   21.27
 365 
The variation of declination angle (d) is given
by Cooper’s relation:
 360  4. Hour angle (ω): Hour angle is the angle
 23.45 sin  (284  n) 
 365  through which the earth must rotate to bring
Where n is the number of days, counted from the meridian of the point directly under the
1st January. For example, for 23rd May 2022, sun. In other words, it is the angle through
n can be calculated as n = 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 which the earth has rotated since solar noon.
+ 23 = 143. It is the angular measure of time at the rate
The above equation gives the declination  360 
15˚per hour   15 / hr  .
angle in degrees.  24 hours 
Declination angle (d) is maximum (+23.45˚) It is measured from noon.
on 21st June and minimum (–23.45˚) on 22nd Hour angle → Negative for the forenoon
December. d is zero on equinox days i.e., 22nd Hour angle → Positive for the afternoon
March and 22nd September. For calculating the hour angle, we can use
the following formula:
30
   12 : 00  solar time (in hours)  15
Declination angle, (Degrees)

20
For example: At 07:00 hrs,
10
   12 : 00  7 : 00  15  5  15  75
0
At 20:00 hrs,
-10
   12 : 00  20 : 00  15   8  15   120
-20
At noon,
-30
Sept.22 Dec.22 Mar. 22 June. 21    12 : 00  12 : 00  15  0  15  0

Fig. 1.12 Variation in declination angle

10 Solar Radiation
 It can be seen that at solar noon, the hour Local Apparent Time (LAT)
angle is zero as sun rays are in line with the It is also known as local solar time (LST).
local meridian. LAT is used for the calculating hour angle (ω).
5. Altitude (or Inclination) Angle (α): It is the Local apparent time (LAT) is different from local
angle between the direction of the sun’s rays time observed on a clock (known as local clock
(passing through the point) and its projection time). LAT can be obtained from local clock time
on the horizontal plane. if the following two corrections are applied:
6. Zenith angle (θz): It is the vertical angle 1. Correction is due to the difference between
between the direction of the sun’s rays and the longitude of a location and the longitude
the line perpendicular to the horizontal plane on which the standard time is determined.
through the point. 2. Equation of time correction.
a. The altitude angle and Zenith angle are Earth rotates 1˚ longitude for every 4 minutes
complementary angles. (4 min/degree). So, the first correction has
  z  90 a magnitude of 4 minutes for each degree
difference in longitude. The second correction is
Z =900 required because the earth’s orbit and the rate of
rotation are subject to certain fluctuations.
LAT = ST ± 4 (Standard time longitude
– longitude of location) + weq
The positive sign is used if the standard time
longitude of the country lies in the western
hemisphere and the negative sign is used if
the standard time longitude lies in the eastern
Z hemisphere.


P Solved Examples

3. Determine the local solar time corresponding

to 13:30 IST on July 1 at Delhi (28°35’N,
77°12’E). The equation of time correction on
July 1 is – 4 minutes. In India, the standard
time is based on 82°30’E (which passes
Fig. 1.13 Altitude Angle and Zenith Angle
through Mirzapur, near Allahabad in Uttar
Pradesh)
7. Solar azimuth angle (γS): It is the angle on
Solution:
the horizontal plane between the line due
Since India lies in the eastern hemisphere so we
south and the projection of the sun’s ray on
will use a negative sign.
the horizontal plane.
LAT (LST) = ST – 4 (ST Longitude – Longitude of
8. Surface azimuth angle (γ): It is the angle in
Location) + weq
the horizontal plane, between the line due
= 13.50 h – 4(82.5 – 77.2) min – 4 min
south and the horizontal projection of normal
= 13.50 h – 21.2 min – 4 min
to the inclined plane surface.
= 13.50 h – 25.2 min
9. Angle of incidence (θ): It is the angle between
= 13.50 h – 0.42 h
the direction of the sun’s ray on the plane
= 13.08 h = 13 h 4.8 min
surface and the normal to that surface.
= 13 h 4 min 48 s
10. Slope or Tilt angle (β): It is the angle made
Estimation of solar radiation on a horizontal
by the plane surface (tilted plane) with the
surface: An empirical equation
horizontal surface.

Solar Radiation 11
 Since measurement of the availability of solar Solar Radiation on an Inclined Surface
radiation at every location is not possible or rather
The total solar radiation incident on an inclined
not feasible, so researchers have developed an
surface has 3 components:
empirical formula by using various meteorological
1. Beam radiation
data like the number of sunshine hours, length of
2. Diffuse radiation
the day, number of clear sky days, etc.
3. Reflected radiation from ground and
The empirical relation for estimating the monthly
surroundings
average availability of solar radiation is given
below:
Hg  D 
a  b L  Total Solar Radiation
Ho D 
 max 
Where,
Hg → Monthly average of the daily global radiation
Beam Diffuse Reflected
on a horizontal surface at a given location. radiation radiation radiation
Ho → Monthly average of daily extraterrestrial
radiation that would fall on a horizontal surface Fig. 1.14 Total Solar Radiation
at the same location.
DL → Monthly average measured solar day length,
in hours (sunshine hours per day).
Dmax → Monthly average of the longest day
length, in hours (maximum possible sunshine
hours per day).
a, b → Constants for a location depend on Beam
latitude, the elevation of the location and radiation Diffuse
sunshine hours. Be radiation
am Reflected Inclined
radiation surface
Solved Examples Normal

4. The following observations were made for
the month of June in Kolkata:
Maximum possible sunshine hours = 9 h
Average sunshine hours per day = 8.5 h
Fig. 1.15 Total Solar Radiation on an Inclined Surface
Average of daily extraterrestrial radiation =
2100 kJ/m2/day Solar concentrating collectors are installed in such
Constants a and b for Kolkata are 0.28 and a way that they always face the sun using its tracking
0.42 respectively. mechanism so that they can intercept maximum
Calculate the average daily global radiation solar radiation. So solar collectors are tilted at
for the month of June in Kolkata. an angle to the horizontal. However, radiation
Solution: measuring instruments are generally designed to
Hg  D  measure the values of solar radiation falling on a
a  b L 
Ho D horizontal surface. Hence it is essential to convert
 max 
the values obtained for the horizontal surface to
Hg  8.5  the corresponding values for the inclined surface.
 0.28  0.42  
2100  9  Total radiation falling on an inclined surface at
203 any instant is given by:
Hg   2100 = 1421 kJ/m2/day
300 IT = IbRb + IdRd + (Ib + Id) Rr ... (i)

12 Solar Radiation
 IT Ib Rb Id Rd
   Rr  IT  Ib  Id 
Ig Ig Ig

IT


Ig  Id  Rb 
Id
Rd  Rr
Ig Ig Ig
Where, IT  I  I
Ib → Beam radiation incident on inclined surface   1  d  Rb  d Rd  Rr
Ig  Ig  Ig
Id → Diffuse radiation incident on inclined surface
Ir = (Ib + Id) → Reflected radiation incident on
inclined surface (It is to be noted here that both
Solar Radiation Measurement
beam and diffuse components of radiation undergo The working of solar equipment requires solar
reflection from the ground and the surrounding) radiation data which is measured using the
Rb is known as the tilt factor for beam radiation following instruments:
Rd is known as the tilt factor for diffuse radiation Pyranometer: It measures the global or diffuse
Rr is known as the tilt factor for reflected radiation radiation on a horizontal surface.
Tilt factor for Beam Radiation: It is the ratio of It operates on the principle of Thermopile.
beam radiation falling on an inclined surface to Thermopile is an electronic device that converts
that falling on a horizontal surface. thermal energy into electrical energy.
It is given by the following relation: It consists of a black surface that heats up when
cos  exposed to solar radiation. Its temperature rises
Rb   ... (ii)
cos Z until the rate of heat gain from solar radiation
equals the heat loss by conduction, convection
Where θ = Angle of incidence, θZ = Zenith angle
and radiation. On the black surface, the hot
Tilt factor for Diffuse Radiation: It is the ratio of
junctions of a thermopile are attached, while
diffuse radiation falling on an inclined surface to
the cold junctions are placed in a position such
that falling on a horizontal surface.
that they do not receive radiation (completely
It is given by the following relation:
shaded). An electrical output voltage generated
1  cos   ... (iii) by the temperature difference between the
Rd 
2 black and the white surfaces indicates the
Where β is Slope (or tilt angle) intensity of solar radiation. The output can be
1  cos 
It is to be mentioned here that the term obtained on a strip chart or a digital printout
2
is known as the radiation shape factor for an over a period of time. This is a measure of global
inclined surface with reference to the sky. radiation.
Tilt factor for Reflected Radiation: It is the ratio of The sensing element of the thermopile is covered
reflected radiation falling on an inclined surface by two concentric hemispherical glass domes to
to that falling on a horizontal surface. shield it from wind and rain and also reduce the
It is given by the following relation: convection currents.
The pyranometer can also be used to measure
(1  cos )  ... (iv)
Rr  diffuse sky radiation by providing a shading ring
2
or disc to shade the direct sun rays. The shading
Where r is reflectivity ring is provided with an arrangement such that
1  cos 
It is to be mentioned here that the term is its plane is parallel to the plane of the sun’s
2
known as the radiation shape factor for an inclined path across the sky. Consequently, it shades
surface with reference to the surrounding ground. the thermopile element at all times from direct
Now, sunshine and the pyranometer measures only
On dividing equation (i) by Ig, we get the ratio of the diffuse radiation obtained from the sky. A
solar radiation falling on an inclined surface to continuous record can be obtained either on
that falling on a horizontal surface. an electronic chart or on an integrated digital
printout system. As the shading ring blocks a
IT Ib Rb Id Rd
   Rr  IT  Ib  Id  certain amount of diffuse sky radiation besides
Ig Ig Ig
direct radiation, a correction factor is applied to
IT


Ig  Id  Rb 
Id
Rd  Rr
the measured value.
Ig Ig Ig

IT  I  I
  1  d  Rb  d Rd  Rr
Ig  Radiation
Solar Ig  Ig 13
 Sunshine recorder: The duration of hours of
bright sunshine in a day is measured by a
sunshine recorder. It consists of a glass sphere
installed in a section of the spherical metal bowl,
having grooves for holding a recorder card strip.
The card is prepared from special paper bearing a
time scale. The glass sphere is adjusted to focus
sun rays to a point on the card strip. As the sun
Pyranometer Pyranometer with shadow moves, the focused bright sunshine burns a path
along this paper.
Fig. 1.16 Pyranometer
The length of the trace thus obtained on the
paper is the direct measure of the duration of
Pyrheliometer: A pyrheliometer is an instrument
bright sunshine.
that measures beam radiation on a surface normal
Three overlapping pairs of grooves are provided
to the sun’s rays. The sensor is a thermopile and
in the spherical segment to take care of the
its disc is located at the base of a tube whose
different seasons of the year.
axis is aligned in the direction of the sun’s rays.
Thus, diffuse radiation is blocked from the sensor
surface. It is mounted at the end of a cylindrical
Spherical
tube, with a series of diaphragms (the aperture
lens
is limited to an angle of 5.42°). The instrument
is mounted on a motor-driven heliostat which
is adjusted every week to cover changes in the
sun’s declination. The output of the pyrheliometer
can either be recorded on a strip chart recorder
or integrated over a suitable period. The Spherical
pyrheliometer readings give data for atmospheric bowl section
turbidity and provide a clearness index.

Long collimator tube

Sun ray

Diaphragm
Fig. 1.18 Sunshine Recorder

Sensing
element Scope of Solar Energy in India
Pivots for India’s mainland extends between 8˚4′N and
2 - axis 37˚6′N latitudes. Due to the geographical location
rotation
of India, the country is blessed with abundant
solar energy, which encourages it to utilize
its solar energy potential. With the increasing
population, triggering global warming and
depletion of fossil fuels, India is looking forward
to the most abundant and cleanest source of
energy on the earth.
Pytheliometer
About 5000 kWh of solar energy is incident over
the land area of the country with most parts
receiving 4-7 kWh/m2 per day. As per the Ministry
Fig. 1.17 Pyrheliometer
of New and Renewable Energy, the current

14 Solar Radiation
installed capacity of solar power is 57.7 GW. India yy To enhance its forest cover which will absorb
is well behind its target of installing 100 GW of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2e by 2030.
solar capacity by 2022. However, the National In the year 2021, at COP26 (Glasgow), India
Institute of Solar Energy (NISE), estimated that updated its INDC and committed to reducing
India’s solar potential is about 748 GW assuming the emissions intensity of its GDP by 45 % by
3% of the wasteland area to be covered by solar 2030, from the 2005 level and achieving about
PV modules. 50% cumulative electric power installed capacity
India had submitted its Intended Nationally from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources by
Determined contribution (INDC) to the secretariat 2030.
of the United Nations Framework Convention With such huge targets and international
on Climate Change (UNFCCC) at COP21 (Paris commitments, solar energy can play a vital role
Agreement) in 2015 in which it pledged: in achieving the aim.
yy To reduce the emission intensity of its GDP by Different state governments are also coming up
33 to 35% by 2030 below 2005 levels. with schemes and policies to boost the solar
yy To have a minimum of 40% of total power sector. Rajasthan, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu are the
capacity from renewable sources by 2030. leading states in terms of installed solar capacity.

Practice Exercise

1. The amount of solar energy received on (A) Both A and R are individually true and R
the earth’s surface per unit area per unit is the correct explanation of A.
time is known as the solar constant. The (B) Both A and R are individually true but R
dimensional formula for solar constant is: is NOT the correct explanation of A.
(A) [M1L1T-2] (C) A is true but R is false.
(B) [M1L2T-2] (D) A is false but R is true.
(C) [M1L0T-3]
(D) [M2L0T-1] 5. Assertion (A): For measuring global radiation
using a pyranometer, the sensing element of
2. The amount of energy received in unit time the thermopile is covered by two concentric
on a unit area perpendicular to the sun’s hemispherical glass domes.
direction at the mean distance of the earth Reason (R): The sensing element must be a
from the sun is called ________ shield from wind and rain.
(A) Intensity of solar radiation. (A) Both A and R are individually true and R
(B) Solar radiation. is the correct explanation of A.
(C) Solar constant. (B) Both A and R are individually true but R
(D) Air mass. is NOT the correct explanation of A.
(C) A is true but R is false.
3. What is the standard value of solar constant
(D) A is false but R is true.
adopted by the World Radiation Centre?
 [ESE 2021] 6. Statement I: Pyranometer is used to measure
(A) 1192 W/m2 diffuse solar radiation by blocking the direct
(B) 1084 W/m2 radiation with a shadow band.
(C) 1927 W/m2 Statement II: Pyrheliometer is used to
(D) 1367 W/m2 measure diffuse radiation. [ESE 2017]
(A) Both Statement I and Statement II are
4. Assertion (A): Hour angle is 0˚at solar noon.
individually true and Statement II is the
Reason (R): At solar noon, sun rays are in line
correct explanation of Statement I.
with the local meridian.

Solar Radiation 15
 (B) Both Statement I and Statement II are 10. The angle through which the earth must
individually true but Statement II is not turn to bring the meridian of a point directly
the correct explanation of Statement II. in line with the sun’s rays is called:
(C) Statement I is true but Statement II is  [ESE 2020]
false. (A) Altitude angle
(D) Statement I is false but Statement II is (B) Hour angle
true. (C) Solar azimuth angle
(D) Zenith angle
7. A good approximation of the measured solar
spectrum is made by:  [ESE 2019] 11. Consider the following statements regarding
(A) Black-body energy distribution solar radiation measurements:
(B) Planck’s energy distribution I. Pyranometer collimates the radiation
(C) Inverse square law to determine the beam intensity as a
(D) Solar constant function of incident angle.
II. Pyranometer measures the total
8. The angle between the sun’s ray and its hemispherical solar radiation.
projection on a horizontal surface is known III. Pyrheliometer collimates the radiation
as: [ESE 2022] to determine the beam intensity as a
(A) Inclination angle function of incident angle.
(B) Zenith angle Which of the above statements is/are
(C) Solar azimuth angle correct? [ESE 2022]
(D) Hour angle (A) I only
(B) II and III only
9. The rate at which solar energy arrives at the
(C) I and II only
top of the atmosphere is called: [ESE 2022]
(D) III only
(A) Total energy
(B) Radiation
(C) Solar constant
(D) Radiation constant

Practice Exercise

1. A flat plate collector tilted by 30° from (C) Zenith angle

the horizontal plane and facing south (D) Surface azimuth angle
is located at Delhi (28.7°N, 77.2°E). The (E) Declination angle
standard longitude for IST is 81.73°E. On 15th
November at 1:30 pm (IST) calculate: 3. Define the term solar constant, extra­
1. Declination angle terrestrial solar radiation and terrestrial
2. Hour angle solar radiation. Briefly explain why
3. Zenith angle extraterrestrial radiation deviates from the
4. Angle of incidence value of the solar constant.
5. Number of daylight hours
4. Discuss the following solar radiation
2. Explain the following angles used in solar measurement instruments:
radiation geometry with a neat sketch: a. Pyranometer
(A) Hour angle b. Pyrheliometer
(B) Altitude angle c. Sunshine recorder

16 Solar Radiation
 Answer Key

1. (C)  
2. (B)  
3. (D)  
4. (A)  
5. (A)  
6. (C)  
7. (B)  
8. (A)  
9. (C) 10. (B)
11. (B)

Solar Radiation 17