Cells and Batteries
Cells and Batteries
Cells and Batteries
The purpose of an electric cell is to convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
A simple cell comprises two dissimilar conductors (electrodes) in an electrolyte. Such a cell
is shown in Fig. below comprising copper and zinc electrodes.
An electric current is found to flow between the electrodes. Other possible electrode pairs
exist, including zinc–lead and zinc–iron. The electrode potential (i.e. the p.d.f. measured
between the electrodes) varies for each pair of metals. By knowing the e.m.f. of each metal
with respect to some standard electrode, the e.m.f. of any pair of metals may be determined.
The standard used is the hydrogen electrode. The electrochemical series is a way of listing
elements in order of electrical potential
In a simple cell, two faults exist those due to polarisation and local action.
Polarisation
If the simple cell shown in Fig. above is left connected for some time, the current I decreases
rapidly. This is because of the formation of a film of hydrogen bubbles on the copper anode.
This effect is known as the polarisation of the cell. The hydrogen prevents full contact
between the copper electrode and the electrolyte and this increases the internal resistance of
the cell.
The effect can be overcome by using a chemical depolarising agent or depolariser, such as
potassium dichromate which removes the hydrogen bubbles as they form. This allows the cell
to deliver a steady current.
Local action
When commercial zinc is placed in dilute sulphuric acid, hydrogen gas is liberated from it
and the zinc dissolves. The reason for this is that impurities, such as traces of iron, are present
in the zinc, which set up small primary cells with the zinc. These small cells are short-
circuited by the electrolyte, with the result that localised currents flow causing corrosion. This
action is known as local action of the cell.
This may be prevented by rubbing a small amount of mercury on the zinc surface, which
forms a protective layer on the surface of the electrode.
When two metals are used in a simple cell the electrochemical series maybe used to predict
the behaviour of the cell:
(i) The metal that is higher in the series acts as the negative electrode, and vice versa. For
example,
the zinc electrode in the cell shown in Fig. above is negative and the copper electrode is
positive.
(ii) The greater the separation in the series between the two metals the greater is the e.m.f.
produced by the cell.
The electrochemical series is representative of the order of reactivity of the metals and their
compounds:
(i) The higher metals in the series react more readily with oxygen and vice-versa.
(ii) When two metal electrodes are used in a simple cell the one that is higher in the
series tends to dissolve in the electrolyte.
Corrosion
Corrosion is the gradual destruction of a metal in a damp atmosphere by means of simple cell
action. In addition to the presence of moisture and air required for rusting, an electrolyte, an
anode and a cathode are required for corrosion. Thus, if metals widely spaced in the
electrochemical series, are used in contact with each other in the presence of an electrolyte,
corrosion will occur.
The effects of corrosion include the weakening of structures, the reduction of the life of
components and materials, the wastage of materials and the expense of replacement.
Corrosion may be prevented by coating with paint, grease, plastic coatings and enamels, or
by plating with tin or chromium. Also, iron may be galvanised, i.e., plated with zinc, the layer
of zinc helping to prevent the iron from corroding.
E.m.f. and internal resistance of a cell
The electromotive force (e.m.f.), E, of a cell is the p.d. between its terminals when it is not
connected to a load (i.e. the cell is on ‘no load’). Thee.m.f. of a cell is measured by using a
high resistance voltmeter connected in parallel with the cell.
The voltage available at the terminals of a cell falls when a load is connected.This is caused
by the internal resistance of the cell which is the opposition of the material of the cell to the
flow of current.
( E−V )
Internal Resistance (r) =
I
Where E is the emf of the device; V is the potential difference between the device; I is the
current in the device. Internal Resistance is the result of the resistance in the battery or the
accumulation in the battery. the equation used to derive this is as follows:
V = (E – Ir)
A battery is a combination of more than one cell.
The cells in a battery may be connected in series or in parallel.
(i) For cells connected in series:
Total e.m.f. =sum of cell’s e.m.f.s
Total internal resistance=sum of cell’s internal resistances
(ii) For cells connected in parallel:
If each cell has the same e.m.f. and internal resistance: Total e.m.f. =e.m.f. of one cell
1
Total internal resistance of n cells = × internal resistance of one cell
n
Problem 1. Eight cells, each with an internal resistance of 0.2Ω and an e.m.f. of 2.2V are
connected (a) in series, (b) in parallel. Determine the e.m.f. and the internal resistance of the
batteries so formed.
(a) When connected in series,
total e.m.f. =sum of cell’s e.m.f. =2.2×8=17.6V
Total internal resistance =sum of cell’s internal resistance =0.2×8=1.6Ω
(b) When connected in parallel,
total e.m.f =e.m.f. of one cell =2.2V
1
Total internal resistance of 8 cells = ×internal resistance of one cell
n
1
= ×0.2=0.025Ω
8
Problem 2. A cell has an internal resistance of 0.02Ω and an e.m.f. of 2.0V. Calculate its
terminal p.d. if it delivers (a) 5A (b)50A.
(a) Terminal p.d. V=E−Ir
Where E =e.m.f. of cell, I =current flowing and r =internal resistance of cell E =2.0V,
I =5Aandr =0.02Ω
Hence terminal p.d. V=2.0− (5) (0.02) =2.0−0.1=1.9V
(b) When the current is 50A, terminal p.d., V = E−Ir=2.0−50(0.02) i.e. V=2.0−1.0=1.0V
Thus, the terminal p.d. decreases as the current drawn increases.
Problem 3. The p.d. at the terminals of a battery is 25V when no load is connected and 24V
when a load taking 10A is connected. Determine the internal resistance of the battery.
When no load is connected the e.m.f. of the battery, E, is equal to the terminal p.d., V,
i.e.E=25V When current I=10A and terminal p.d. V =24V,
thenV =E−Ir i.e. 24=25−(10)r
Hence, rearranging, gives 10r =25−24=1
and the internal resistance,
r=1/10 =0.1Ω
Problem 4. Ten 1.5V cells, each having an internal resistance of 0.2Ω, are connected in series
to a load of 58Ω. Determine (a) the current flowing in the circuit and(b)thep.d.at the battery
terminals.
(a) For ten cells, battery e.m.f., E=10×1.5=15V, and the total internal resistance ,r
=10×0.2=2Ω.
When connected to a 58Ω load
e.m.f
Current I =
total resistance
15
=
58+2
15
= =0.25A
60
(b) P.d. at battery terminals, V=E−Ir i.e. V =15−(0.25)(2)=14.5V
Primary cells
Primary cells cannot be recharged, that is, the conversion of chemical energy to electrical
energy is irreversible and the cell cannot be used once the chemicals are exhausted. Examples
of primary cells include the Leclanché cell and the mercury cell.
Lechlanché cell
A typical dry Lechlanché cell is shown in Fig. below. Such a cell has an e.m.f. of about 1.5V
when new, but this falls rapidly if in continuous use due to polarisation. The hydrogen film on
the carbon electrode forms faster than can be dissipated by the depolariser. The Lechlanché
cell is suitable only for intermittent use.
Metal cap
CARBON ROD ANODE
(positive terminal)
Pitch seal
DEPOLARIZER
to remove hydrogen produced
on rod surface.
(ammonium chloride, manganese dioxide
and powdered carbon)
ELECTROLYTE
(sal ammoniac, zinc chloride,
plaster of paris, water)
Applications including torches, transistor radios, bells, indicator circuits, gas lighters,
controlling switchgear, and so on.
Advantages
The cell is the most commonly used of primary cells,
1. It is cheap
2. Requires little maintenance
3. Has a shelf life of about 2 years.
Disadvantages
1. The cell cannot be used continuously due to effects of polarization.
2. Incapable of supplying heavy currents.
3. Has high internal resistance, due to the resistance of the plates and the electrolyte.
Mercury cell
A typical mercury cell is shown in Fig. below. Such a cell has an e.m.f. of about 1.3V, which
remains constant for a relatively long time. Its main advantages over the Lechlanché cell is its
smaller size and its long shelf life.
Typical practical applications include hearing aids, medical electronics, cameras and for
guided missiles.
Insulating gasket
Steel case anode
(positive terminal)
Zinc cylinder
Electrolyte
(potassium hydroxide)
Mercuric oxide
Insulation
MERCURY CELL
Secondary cells
Secondary cells can be recharged after use, that is, the conversion of chemical energy to
electrical energy is reversible and the cell may be used many times. Examples of secondary
cells include the lead–acid cell and the nickel cadmium and nickel–metal cells.Practical
applications of such cells include car batteries, telephone circuits and for traction purposes
such as milk delivery vans and fork lift trucks.
Lead–acid cell
A typical lead–acid cell is constructed of:
(i) A container made of glass, ebonite or plastic.
(ii) Lead plates
(a) the negative plate (cathode) consists of spongy lead
(b) the positive plate(anode)is formed by pressing lead peroxide into the lead grid.
The plates are interleaved as shown in the plan view of Fig. below to increase their effective
cross- sectional area and to minimise internal resistance.
(iii) Separators made of glass, celluloid or wood.
(iv) An electrolyte, which is a mixture of sulphuric acid and distilled water.
When a cell supplies current to a load it is said to be discharging. During discharge:
(i) The lead peroxide (positive plate) and the spongy lead (negative plate) are converted into
lead sulphate, and
(ii) The oxygen in the lead peroxide combines with hydrogen in the electrolyte to form water.
The electrolyte is therefore weakened and the relative density falls.
The terminal p.d. of a lead–acid cell when fully discharged is about1.8V.
A cell is charged by connecting a d.c. supply to its terminals, the positive terminal of the cell
being connected to the positive terminal of the supply.The charging current flows in the
reverse direction to the discharge current and the chemical action is reversed.
During charging:
(i) the lead sulphate on the positive and negative plates is converted back to lead
peroxide and lead respectively, and
(ii) The water content of the electrolyte decreases as the oxygen released from the
electrolyte combines with the lead of the positive plate. The relative density of the
electrolyte thus increases.
The colour of the positive plate when fully charged is dark brown and when discharged is
light brown. The colour of the negative plate when fully charged is grey and when
discharged is light grey.
Indication of fully charged cell are as follows:
(i) Gassing freely
(ii) High and constant specific gravity
(iii) Charging voltage steady(2.8v per cell on charge)
(iv)Charging current steady
(v) Colour of plates :positive-cholocate brown,negative-bright grey
Nickel cadmium and nickel–metal cells
In both types the positive plate is made of nickel hydroxide enclosed in finely perforated steel
tubes, the resistance being reduced by the addition of pure nickel or graphite.
The tubes are assembled into nickel–steel plates. In the nickel–metal cell, (sometimes called
the Edison cell or nife cell), the negative plate is made of iron oxide, with the resistance being
reduced by a little mercuric oxide, the whole being enclosed in perforated steel tubes and
assembled in steel plates.
In the nickel cadmium cell the negative plate is made of cadmium. The electrolyte in each
type of cell is a solution of potassium hydroxide, which does not undergo any chemical
change, and thus the quantity can be reduced to a minimum.
The plates are separated by insulating rods and assembled in steel containers, which are then
enclosed in a non-metallic crate to insulate the cells from one another. The average discharge
p.d. of an alkaline cell is about 1.2V.
Advantages of a nickel cadmium cell or a nickel– metal cell over a lead–acid cell include:
(i) More robust construction
(ii) Capable of withstanding heavy charging and discharging currents without damage
(iii) Has a longer life
(iv)For a given capacity is lighter in weight
(v) Can be left indefinitely in any state of charge or discharge without damage
(vi)Is not self-discharging
Disadvantages of nickel cadmium and nickel–metal cells over a lead–acid cell include:
(i) Is relatively more expensive
(ii) Requires more cells for a given e.m.f.
(iii) Has a higher internal resistance
(iv) Must be kept sealed
(v) Has a lower efficiency
Practical application examples include traction and marine work, lighting in railway
carriages, military portable radios and for starting diesel and petrol engines.
Cell capacity
The capacity of a cell is measured in ampere-hours (Ah). A fully charged 50Ah battery rated
for 10h discharge can be discharged at a steady current of 5A for 10h,but if the load current is
increased to10A then the battery is discharged in 3–4h, since the higher the discharge current,
the lower is the effective capacity of the battery.
Methods of charging batteries
The methods of charging can be put into four categories:
a) Trickle charge
b) Constant current
c) Constant voltage
d) Floating system
Trickle charging
A small current is passed through the battery for a long period. Charging a fully charged
battery at a rate equal to its self-discharge rate, thus enabling the battery to remain at its fully
charged level; this state occurs almost exclusively when the battery is not loaded, as trickle
charging will not keep a battery charged if current is being drawn by a load.
Constant current
The charging current is held constant by means of variable resistance in the charging circuit.
Constant voltage
The voltage is held constant throughout the charge by means of a variable resistance.
Floating system
In this method (used in car-charging systems) the dc generator recharges the battery when
falls below a certain voltage. The charging current is automatically cutout when a certain
voltage is reached, so that the battery does not feed back into the generator.