Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 1113–1121

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Waste to energy bio-digester selection and design model for the organic MARK
fraction of municipal solid waste
⁎
Anthony Njuguna Matheria, , Charles Mbohwab, Freeman Ntulia, Mohamed Belaida,
Tumisang Seodigengc, Jane Catherine Ngilad, Cecilia Kinuthia Njengae
a
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg 2028, South Africa
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg 2028, South Africa
c
Department of Chemical Engineering, Vaal University of Technology, Private Bag ×021-Vanderbijilpark 1911, Andries Potgieter Blvd, South Africa
d
Department of Applied Chemistry, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg 2028, South Africa
e
UN Environment in South Africa, Regional Office for Southern Africa, 351 Francis Baard Street, P.O. BOX 6541, Pretoria, South Africa

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this study, a feasibility study was carried out in terms of quantification-characterization of waste, biomethane
Anaerobic digestion potential from organic biomass and bio-digester selection and designing. From waste quantification, 38% was
Bio-digester found to be an organic fraction of the municipal solid waste (OFMSW) of the 1.4 million tonnes per year. The
Mesophilic temperature composition of the waste was investigated using a laboratory batch anaerobic digester for biochemical methane
OFMSW
potential (BMP) and the waste to energy bio-digester selection and design for the anaerobic co-digestion of
Design model
Quantification-characterization
different OFMSW originating from the City of Johannesburg landfills. The carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratio of
OFMSW was found to be below 13. Through co-digestion, the C/N ratio settled at 15. Laboratory experimental
data from 500 ml batch anaerobic digester operating at a mesophilic temperature of 37 °C and pH of 6.9 had a
good productivity of methane of average 59% recommended in the literature and was used to derive the volume
of digester and surface area. The artificial intelligence (AI) technique was applied to select the most preferred
digester model. Using the application of the simple multi-attribute rating (SMART) technique of multiple-criteria
decision analysis (MCDA) as a decision support tool, the most preferred option of a bio-digester model was
selected from a list of potential alternatives available in the market. The continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR)
scored highest with 79% and was selected as the most preferred digester for the OFMSW digestion. The geometry
of the biodigester parameters was found to be comparable and economically feasible with the process para-
meters, energy generation from the BMP and scale up model for the independent power producer (IPP).

1. Introduction renewable, clean (green) and sustainable like bioenergy, wind, solar,
geothermal, hydropower and fuel cells [5]. With the regards to sus-
The energy demand globally is increasing due to population growth tainable development goal (SDG-7), it is more desirable to create sus-
and industrialization. It has exponential growth over time with a pre- tainable worldwide energy system [6]. Municipal solid waste (MSW), a
dicted 85% increase between 2010 and 2030 globally. Approximately by-product of the lifestyle of urban dwellers, comprises of wastes from
85% of the world's energy supply is obtained from non-renewable fossil household, offices, restaurants, market, industries among others ha-
fuels sources such as coal, oil and natural gas. These fuels yield high zardous waste [7,8]. The rapid development has led to severe problems
quantities of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, particularly carbon di- with waste management and running out of the landfill airspace that
oxide (CO2). The continuous use of fossil fuels is leading to the long- requires urgent waste management mitigation measures. There are
term potential risk of energy insecurity and simultaneously degrading several obstacles confronting MSW management within the cities. Some
the environment with the high CO2 emissions [1–3]. According to of such obstacles are; interrelation of economic growth and urbaniza-
Cornish [4] from energy systems, South Africa has the highest carbon tion; complexity of the waste stream due to different class of citizen
emissions level in Africa due to coal energy generation as compared to living within the city; lack of adequate facilities that will expedite waste
large emitter like China with per capita emission much lower than separation at source; overstretching of the superannuated infra-
South Africa. This call for the alternative source of energy that is structure; and also the waste management technologies that are handy,

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tonynjuguna22@gmail.com (A. Njuguna Matheri).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.09.051
Received 8 June 2016; Received in revised form 30 July 2017; Accepted 14 September 2017
Available online 10 October 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Njuguna Matheri et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 1113–1121

are very costly compared to the cost of land-filling [7,8]. Separation of and substrate type with regards to the HRT, biogas yield and level of the
waste at the source and adopting zero waste economic incentive en- technology [21].
courage household to reduce waste. The organic waste can be converted
to energy using waste to energy alternative routes that include thermal 1.2. Factors affecting the choice of a biogas plant
conversion; gasification, incineration, pyrolysis and liquefaction and
biological processes; fermentation, hydrolysis and anaerobic digestion Bio-digester designing is essentially the final stage of the AD plan-
for biogas and biomethane production [9]. ning process. Ultimately, a successful bio-digester plant design should
Biogas is produced by the breakdown of biomass (organic com- be able to respond to a number of factors that include climate condi-
pound) using microorganism under controlled variables [10]. The tions, substrate quality and quantity, availability of the construction
biomass is sourced from biodegradables compounds such as agri- materials, geotechnical, specialized skill labour and standardization
culture waste, animal waste, municipal solid waste, sewage sludge and [21]. Bearing in mind that bio-digesters operate optimally at tem-
industrial waste [11,12]. Biogas is a mixture of gases such as methane perature ranges between 30 °C and 40 °C for the mesophilic and 40 °C to
(60%), carbon dioxide (30%) and other traces of ammonia, hydrogen 55 °C for the thermophilic in cooler regions, it is advisable for the de-
sulphide, hydrogen, carbon monoxide and oxygen. Energy derived signer to incorporate heating accessories and insulation to the design.
from biogas and biomethane (upgraded biogas) is used in the form of The design should respond to the prevailing climatic conditions of the
heat, fuel, electricity and beverage grade CO2 after carbon capture location. The organic loading rate to be used will dictate the sizing of
from biogas upgrade. Biogas production takes place in series of five the digester as well as the inlet and outlet design. Sourcing the feed-
fundamental steps namely: disintegration, hydrolysis, acidogenesis, stock locally minimize the cost and this lower the operational cost and
acetogenesis and methanogenesis [13–15]. The various parameters thus maximizing the firm profits. To guide the designer on the nature of
that control the performance of the anaerobic digestion include; the subsoil, the geotechnical investigation is highly required. Biogas
nature of substrate, optimum trace metals concentration, nutrient technology requires high levels of specialized skilled labour. The labour
supply (carbon to nitrogen ratio), constant temperature, organic factor cuts across from the contractors, planner to the operators. The
loading rate (OLR), agitation intensity, hydraulic retention time gaps can be bridged through training of the involved parties at a cost.
(HRT), partial pressure, an amount of inhibitors (e.g. ammonia) and The planners must carefully study the prevailing standards currently on
exclusion of oxygen [15,16]. the market in terms of pricing and product quality for the large scale
projects prior to commissioning [21].
1.1. Anaerobic digesters
1.3. Anaerobic digester design model selection
Anaerobic digestion (AD) can be performed as a continuous or a
batch process depending on the biomass being digested and the digester The modern technology designs are probabilistic in nature and the
configuration [17]. In a continuous digestion process, biomass is con- evaluation criterion is multi-dimensional. The anaerobic digester design
stantly added in phases to the digester on an interval while the end model has a secure niche in the artificial intelligence (AI) research and
products are constantly removed. This results in constant biogas pro- techniques. This utilizes the principle component of analysis to enhance
duction. A multiple or single digester in a sequence may be used [18]. the overall performance using the artificial neural network (ANN)
In a batch process, the biomass is added to the digester at the onset of [23–25]. This calls for complex technology that can capture all the
the AD and is maintained over the hydraulic retention time [17]. The dimensions of decision making. The most effective and existing tech-
main characteristic of anaerobic digester technologies include: type of nology selection methods include; multi-criteria decision analysis
digester; covered lagoon, plug flow, complete mix, fixed film, up-flow (MCDA) approach that is employed by decision makers and stake-
anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB), vertical and horizontal digester, holders to make recommendations from a set of finite seemingly similar
temperature range that include psychrophilic, mesophilic and thermo- options base on the highest score against a pre-defined set of criteria.
philic, digester environ that include wet and dry digestion, process This techniques aim to achieve a decisive goal from a set of alternatives
stages that include single, multiple stages and lastly loading rate using pre-set selection factors herein referred to as the criteria [26]. The
strategy that include batch, continuous and semi-batch. The selection of selection criteria are assigned weights base on their highest level of
bio-digester depends on the dry matter (DM) content of the biomass. importance. Using appropriate techniques, the alternatives are awarded
The two AD technologies systems include dry digestion for the solid scores depending on how well they perform with regard to particular
digestion of the biomass; the DM content of the substrate is more than criteria. Finally, ranks of alternatives are computed as an aggregate sum
15% (usually from 20% to 40%). Wet digestion for the liquid digestion; of products of the alternatives with corresponding criteria. The decision
the average DM content of the substrate is less than 15%. The wet di- is then made based on ranking [27].
gestion is applied to biomass like sewage sludge and liquid animal Several variations in MCDA technique employs the mathematical
manure while dry digestion is applied to municipal organic waste, and psychology. These include; case-based reasoning (CBR), simple
agriculture waste, household and restaurant organic waste [19,20]. multi-attribute rating technique (SMART) and analytic hierarchy pro-
Table 1 shows the comparison of various technology, digesters types, cess (AHP). AHP aims at analyzing and organizing complex decisions

Table 1
Comparison of various digester types [21,22].

Technology Digester type Substrate type HRT (days) Biogas yield Technology level

Wet digestion Covered lagoon Thin manure 20–200 Poor Low

Plug flow Think manure 20–40 Poor Low
Complete mix Liquid and Solid 20–80 Good Medium
Fixed film Liquid 1–20. Good High
UASB Liquid 0.5–2 Good High
Dry digestion Batch 20–30 Good Medium
Vertical Agricultural and municipal feedstock 20–40 Good High
Horizontal 20–40 Good High

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Table 2
The Saaty's scale intensity 1–9 [9,28].

Intensity of Importance Definition

1 Equal importance/preference
2 Weak
3 Moderate importance/preference
4 Moderate plus
5 Strong importance/preference
6 Strong plus
7 Very strong or demonstrated importance/preference
8 Very, very strong
9 Extremely importance/preference

basing on their relative importance independent of each other [28,29].

From the study done by Saaty [28], he developed a scale of 1–9 to score
alternatives base on their relative importance as shown in Table 2. Fig. 1. Biogas production set-up; (Biochemical methane potential (BMP) test, (1)
Thermostatic water bath, (2) Glass bottle reactor (digesters), (3) CO2- Fixing unit and (4)
The major drawback of the AHP was the alteration of ranks in cases
Gas volume measuring device.
where new alternatives were introduced into an already analyzed
problem [28,29]. By applying the SMART technique, alternatives are
ranked based on ratings that are assigned directly from their natural ethanol 99.5% and 1 ml water). The prepared NaOH with pH indicator
scales [30,31]. The merit of the SMART technique over AHP is that the was used to determine the saturation point for the cleaning solution to
decision-making model is developed independently of the alternatives. be replaced. The substrate was prepared and fed into the digesters. The
Therefore, an introduction of new alternatives does not affect the rat- digesters were purged with nitrogen to expel the oxygen and create an
ings of the original ones making it a simple and a more flexible tech- anaerobic condition. The digesters were connected to a 100 ml bottles
nique [31]. In CBR, problem-solving is done basing judgement on si- containing 80 ml NaOH and pH indicator solution, which was used as a
milar past problems and experiences [32]. scrubber. The gas exiting the CO2 fixing unit (carbon capture) was sent
The main objective of this study was to undertake the feasibility to the flow cell (gas collection unit) where the gas produced was
study on the waste to energy. This included; investigating the use of measured using downwards displacement method on a daily basis until
laboratory batch anaerobic digestion for biochemical methane potential the completion of the retention time.
(BMP) and the waste to energy process selection and design modelling
for the anaerobic co-digestion of organic fraction of municipal solid 2.3. Waste to energy bio-digester selection and design model
waste (OFMSW) originating from the city's landfill and other substrate
from market waste to sewage sludge to be used as biofuel for the city 2.3.1. Bio-digester selection model
buses and electricity generation for the surrounding community. Multiple criteria decision analysis (MCDA) technique was employed
to select the most suitable bio-digester technology for substrate based
on weight of: cost of the digester (0.17), local availability of the digester
2. Material and methods
(0.18), temperature regulation ability (0.1), scalability (0.2) substrate
suitability (0.2), ease of construction (0.1) and presence of agitation
2.1. Waste quantification and characterization
accessory (0.05). This involved the identification of the suitable di-
gesters for OFMSW with regards to the feasibility study of the organic
The research was undertaken at Robinson deep landfill,
compound. To enable appropriate digester selection, identification of
Johannesburg market, cattle farm A, wastewater treatment A, City of
the stakeholders in the bioenergy and green economy industry, seeking
Johannesburg, South Africa. This involved quantification exercise by
the unbiased opinion and facts with regard to the histological tech-
measurement of the general waste at the point of generation. Waste
nologies from the experts and modelling the obtained solution for the
quantification-characterization was done to ascertain the composition.
detailed analysis was taken into consideration. The digesters in-
This included chemical and physical composition with regards to the
vestigated included: complete mix- continuous stirred tank reactor
different category of waste, total solids (TS), volatile solids (VS),
(CSTR), up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB), plug flow, covered
moisture content (MC), C/N ratio and elemental analysis for carbon,
lagoon and fixed film.
nitrogen, sulphur and hydrogen in accordance with the standard
The decision matrix approach (DMA) or weighted-sum method
methods (APHA 1995) [33].
(WSM) was employed. This evaluated each alternative respectively with
respect to each criterion and then multiply by the importance of the
2.2. Bio-methane potential criterion. The result was given by the sum of overall criteria for the
particular alternatives to generate the ranks of the alternative.
To determine biomethane production rate, a batch digester was fed
N
with the co-digested substrates and inoculum (digested cow dung-CD)
Ri = ∑ aij wj
under pre-set conditions of 37 °C and pH of 6.9 as shown in Fig. 1. j=1 (1)
Bioprocess control AMPTS II was used to perform BMP for OFMSW and
the co-digested substrate. The AMPTS II consists of a digester, CO2 where: Ri is the rank of the ith alternative, aij is the actual value of the ith
fixing unit and gas collection unit. The setup was in batch process. A alternative in term of the jth criterion, n order and wj is the weight or
500 ml digester, with the organic loading rate of 400 ml was used for importance of the jth criterion [34,35]. Each was evaluated with respect
biomethane production which had headspace of 100 ml. NaOH, CaCO4 to each criterion. The computation of the results was shown in Table 3.
and Ca(OH)2 was used for CO2 removal. Using NaOH, a 3 M NaOH
solution was prepared by mixing 240 g pure NaOH with distilled water 2.3.2. Waste to energy design model
up to 2 ml. The solution was used as the scrubbing solution to absorb Using the results obtained from the feasibility study, the appropriate
the impurities. A pH indicator solution was added to NaOH solution size and dimensioning of the bio-digester was determined using stan-
with 0.4% thymolphthalein pH-indicator solution (40 mg in 9 ml dard procedure considering substrate composition. Bio-digester

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Table 3
Multiple criteria decision analysis for bio-digester selection.

Criteria Cost Local Scalability OFMSW Temperature Presence of Ease of

availability suitability regulation ability agitation construction
accessory

Weight 0.17 0.18 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.1

Digester Score Wt. Score Score Wt. Score Wt. Score Score Wt. Score Wt. Score Score Wt. Score Wt. Total
types Score Score Score Score score

1 Complete 0.65 0.11 0.80 0.14 0.85 0.17 0.80 0.16 0.80 0.08 0.90 0.05 0.75 0.08 0.79
Mix- CSTR
2 UASB 0.50 0.09 0.75 0.14 0.65 0.13 0.30 0.06 0.75 0.08 0.80 0.04 0.75 0.08 0.60
3 Plug flow 0.70 0.12 0.60 0.11 1.00 0.20 0.40 0.08 0.60 0.06 0.60 0.03 0.75 0.08 0.67
4 Covered 0.80 0.14 0.80 0.14 0.40 0.08 0.50 0.10 0.50 0.05 0.30 0.02 0.80 0.08 0.61
Lagoon
5 Fixed film 0.65 0.11 0.70 0.13 0.40 0.08 0.60 0.12 0.70 0.07 0.75 0.04 0.75 0.08 0.62

Thus the diameter of the digester (D);

4Vr
D=
π (8)
Taking the gas holder/digester radial clearance to be 20 mm, gives a
diameter (d) of the gas holder as;

4Vr ⎞
d = (D −0.04) = ⎜⎛ ⎟ − 0.04

⎝ π ⎠ (9)
Given a gas holder volume (Vg), the height (h) of the gas holder is
therefore given by;
−2
4Vg 4Vg ⎛ ⎛ 4Vr ⎞ ⎞
h= = *⎜ ⎜ 3 ⎟ − 0.04⎟
πd 2 π ⎝⎝ π ⎠ ⎠ (10)
Fig. 2. Bio-digester with single dome.

2.3.2.2. Design using organic loading rate (Digesters' volume and surface
designing was used to demonstrate the correct geometry and dimen-
area). Total weight of mixture [21,37,38]. The Design of Biodigester is
sions of the bio-digester parameters required to satisfy a given organic indicated in Fig. 3.
loading rate conditions. This involved the use of suitable prescribe
model to determine dimensions and geometric equations: Wt = (Wvc + Wvs + Wvg ) + 2 (11)

Diameter of the digester cylinder is;

2.3.2.1. Design using waste quantification and characterization. Using
1.173
data obtained from the waste quantification and characterization, d = ( 3 dcap ) (12)
appropriate input parameters like the substrate volumetric flow rates
were ascertained. The aided in biodigester as shown in Fig. 2 [36]: Volume of the digester top dome;
Volume of digester;
Vr = Q*HRT (2)
where: Vr = volume of the digester, Q = volumetric flow rate, HRT =
hydraulic retention time. Volume of gas holder is taken as half digester
volume (Vg);
Vr
Vg =
2 (3)
Total biodigester volume (Vd);
Vd = Vr + Vg (4)
The digester cylindrical tank of volume (Vr);
πD 2H
Vr =
4 (5)
where: Vr = digester volume, D = diameter of the tank and H = height
of the digester. Assume height of the digester equal diameter of di-
gester;
D~H (6)

πD3
Vr =
4 (7) Fig. 3. Bio-digester with two dome.

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(3r 2 + f12 )*πf1 3. Results and discussion

V1 =
6 (13)
In this study, co-digestion of OFMSW, market vegetables, animal
where: V1 = volume of the digester top dome, f = height of dome and r manure and sewage sludge were evaluated for the purpose of getting
= radius of the digester. Volume of the digester cylinder; the bio-methane potentials at the optimum temperature of 37 °C, an
V2 = πr 2h (14) initial pH of 6.9, digester selection and designing.

where: V2 = volume of the digester cylinder, f = height of digester and

3.1. Waste quantification
r = radius of the digester. Volume of the digester bottom dome;

(3r 2 + f22 )*πf2 The results showed that 1,444,772 t per annum of domestic waste
V3 =
6 (15) was generated in the City's of 3.2 million citizens every year as reported
by City of Johannesburg, South Africa Pikitup (2015) [39]. Littering
where: V3 = volume of the digester bottom dome, f = height of dome alone cost the City 5.7 million dollars a year while illegal dumping costs
and r = radius of the digester. Surface area of digester top dome; another 6.2 million dollars per annum [39]. From our investigation
S1 = 2πp1 f1 (16) shown in Fig. 4, the landfill comprised of 34% organic, 5%, 3%, 1% and
17% were the metals, textile/fabric/leather, special care waste and
where: S1 = surface area of the digester top dome, f = height of dome others general waste respectively. The organic waste was the most
and p = radius of the digester. Surface area of the digester main cy- abundant component of the MSW, accounting to 34%. Recyclables
linder body; waste (paper/paperboards, plastics and glass) was the second-largest
S2 = πdh (17) component 12%, 19% and 9% respectively.
The organic fraction of MSW was the main substrate that was fed in
where: S2 = surface area of the digester cylinder body, h = height of the digesters for BMP from the landfills site. Utilizing these organic
digester and d = diameter of the digester. Surface area of the digester wastes to energy generation saves airspace and assist in waste man-
bottom dome; agement mitigation measures.
S3 = 2πp2 f2 (18)
3.2. Substrate characterization
where: S3 = surface area of the digester bottom dome, f = height of
dome, p = radius of the digester. Table 4 shows the substrate characterization of market fruit and
For the determination of safety in operation. The mixture act on two vegetable waste, sewage sludge, garden waste, cow manure as in-
surface areas, that of the bottom sphere and that of the cylinder hence oculum, food waste and the mixed organic fraction of the municipal
that designed area will be; solid waste.
Sa = πd (0.5d + h) (19) The TS% for mixed and garden waste was 27.33% and 29.26%, with
the moisture content of 72.67 and 70.74 respectively. It was observed
Pressure will then be; that there was no significant difference in TS% between mixed waste
F and garden waste. The TS% for the fruit waste was extremely low with
P= 9.69%. The high TS% of mixed MSW was due to the heterogeneous
πd (0.5d + h) (20)
nature of the waste with elements of uncooked grains, some garden
For safety of plant without failure, the pressure or stress developed waste and other foreign bodies. VS (TS%) was relatively high, favouring
must be less than the bearing capacity multiplied by the strength of the anaerobic digestion and ranged between 72.26–87.65% except for the
concrete and divided by a factor of safety; sludge where the VS% was low due to wastewater treatment (WWT)
aerobic and anaerobic digestion during the WWT process. The main
bcap*fc
P< advantage of the sewage sludge was the microbes that came with the
n (21)
sludge for the AD process. High VS% indicates high nutrients content of
where: n = safety factor 10%, bcap = bearing capacity, fc = strength of the substrate for the microbial growth and thus high biomethane pro-
concrete. duction. The moisture content was recorded optimum for the AD pro-
Equation the expression gives; cess. The C/N ratio for waste fruits, vegetables and garden waste was
below the optimal range of (10–30:1), indicating imbalanced nutrients
F bcap*fc
< (C/N) required by microorganisms during AD. Mixed waste had C/N
πd (0.5d + h) n (22) ratio of 14.56. From samples with high C/N ratio, co-digestion with a

Fig. 4. Municipal solid waste quantification at Robinson deep

landfill at the City of Johannesburg.

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Table 4
Substrate characterization of the substrate.

Substrate C H N S MC (%) VS (%) TS (%) C/N ratio

Fruits 5.17 2.90 0.95 0.00 90.30 82.78 9.69 5.44

Vegetables 5.97 2.52 0.99 0.00 86.24 87.65 13.75 6.03
Sewage sludge 47.66 6.64 3.18 1.16 37.16 37.18 62.82 15.47
Inoculum (CD) 41.61 5.44 1.97 1.81 1.81 47.18 98.18 21.12
Garden waste 19.67 5.36 1.96 0.00 70.74 72.26 29.26 10.03
Food waste 23.33 7.31 1.79 0.00 54.65 94.96 45.35 13.03
Mixed MSW 13.25 6.25 0.91 0.00 72.67 80.69 27.33 14.56

substrate of low C/N ratio was recommended. High C/N ratio leads to a the production of methane. It has the highest methane yield which was
high production of carboxylic acids thus inhibiting the digestion due to also enhanced by the mixing for 60 s interval under retention time. The
the high competition of nitrogen with the microbes. Likewise, low C/N mixer speed was adjusted to 80% to enhance homogeneity for microbial
ratio lead to a high production of ammonia that poison the digestion and substrates at a constant mesophilic temperature of 37 °C. The im-
process. From the ultimate and proximate analysis of the waste stream portance of the hydrothermal processing increases the production of
characterised, mono-digestion was possible for the substrate within the biomethane and better the bugs in anaerobic digestion according to
acceptable range of parameters studied. However, for optimality and to Posmanik et al. [40]. From the 500 ml digester and 400 mg organic
reduce the need for high-level control of process parameters, co-di- loading rate, 805 Nml/gVS of methane production gave an equivalent
gestion of waste streams was highly recommended. of 0.169 MJ that was 0.0046 kWh of energy. According to Nizamu et al.
[41] 1 m3 of methane from grass gave an approximately 37.78 MJ and
3.3. Biochemical methane potential (BMP) 10.49 kWh of energy, while 1 m3 of methane from dairy manure gave
21 MJ of energy and 5.83 kWh [42]. According to the Mojapelo et al.
The analysis was experimentally achieved on a laboratory scale [43], the energy content of biogas is directly proportional to CH4
using batch automatic methane potential test system (AMPTS II). In this concentration and 1 m3 of CH4 from OFMSW has a calorific value of
system, biochemical methane potential (BMP) tests were performed to around 9.81 kWh with zero CO2 [43].
determine the anaerobic biodegradability and optimum methane po-
tential of waste as well as the biodegradation rate on a laboratory scale. 3.4. Bio-digester selection and design
The organic loading rate ratio of 1:2 was considered with regards to VS
% of each substrate. The pH was regulated with calcium hydroxide (Ca Using MCDA-SMART techniques, a suitable model was selected
(OH)2), sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and from a list of potential alternatives (cost, scalability, local availability
sulphuric acid (H2SO4). This BMP assay was performed per day and and substrate suitability, the presence of agitation accessory, tem-
presented as in Fig. 5. perature regulation ability and ease of construction) as showed in
The result shows co-digestion of OFMSW with other substrates. Fig. 6. The developed list of bio-digesters (CSTR, UASB, plug flow,
CaCO3 had higher biodegradability rate compared to other pH reg- covered lagoon and fixed film) alongside a summary of their attributes
ulators like; Ca(OH)2 and NaOH. This was because calcium provided are indicated and elaborated.
nutrients for microbial growth and minimized accumulation of the The overall priority of the anaerobic digestion is presented in Fig. 7.
volatile fatty acids that lower the pH. However, using CaCO3 for pH The scalability of the bio-digester and their suitability to handle
adjustment may not be advisable as large quantities of CaCO4 are re- substrate were taken to be the ruling factors for digester selection each
quired and this is not economically feasible as high costs may be in- having individual weighted factors of 0.2. Ease of construction and
curred and cementing of the soil when digestate is used as bio-fertilizer temperature regulation ability both weighed relatively lower at 0.1
or organic fertilizer. Methane production under CaCO3 was approxi- because the technologies were relatively easy to set up and therefore
mately 3800 Nml/gVS compared with NaOH 148 Nml/gVS and Ca temperature can easily be regulated as the operating factor. The relative
(OH)2 which was approximately 221 Nml/gVS. Using bioprocess locally availability of digester and cost price of the individual digester
loading rate gave higher methane content without the use of any re- was of importance because both factors had a direct implication on the
agent to regulate the pH. Optimum organic loading rate has proven to overall project cost in terms of the capital cost. Local purchased elim-
be self-pH regulator. OFMSW inoculated with cow dung produced inates the added cost of the transport, inspection, retails facilities,
326 Nml/gVS while OFMSW and sewage sludge produced 805 Nml/ packaging and handling. Locally purchased is claimed to be better for
gVS respectively due to the availability of the nutrients and the proper the working conditions and economic environment (green politics) that
balance of the pH. However, the ratio of 1:2 optimise the efficiency for enhance currency fluctuation and thus impact on overall cost. All this

4500 Fig. 5. Methane production from co-digestion of

Biomethane Accumulation (Nml/

OFMSW.
4000
3500 OFMSW_CaCO3

3000 OFMSW_NaOH
gVS)

2500
OFMSW_Ca(OH)2
2000 Methane production from co-digestion of OFMSW
1500 OFMSW

1000 OFMSW and Sludge

500
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Retention time (Days)

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Fig. 6. Bio-digester ranking against each criterion.

data obtained from quantification and characterization, the appropriate

input parameters like the organic loading rate were ascertained. This
aided bio-digester design as presented in Table 6 and 7.
The BMP digester of 500 ml with the organic loading rate of 400 ml
gave a total bio-digester volume of 0.012 m3 with gas holder while bio-
digester with two dome gave 0.014 m3 with gas holder and digestate
holder. The energy content of 0.004 m3 biomethane (calculation) was
equivalent to 0.042 kWh and that from the experiment was
0.0046 kWh. For the average weight of the 1.4 million tonnes per
annum weight with 34% organic fraction of the solid waste in the City
of Johannesburg (CoJ), the digester capacity was approximated to be
16,995 m3 with one gas holder and 19486.27 m3 with gas holder and
digestate holder. The energy content from 5665 m3 of biomethane was
Fig. 7. Overall priority of each technology in anaerobic digestion process. equivalent to 59.43 MW. The reference calculation was according to the
study done by Nizamu et al. [41]; 1 m3 of methane giving approxi-
mately 37.78 MJ and 10.49 kWh of energy. According to Kuria et al.
prioritized the financial systems through balance of the financial sta- [36], 5.48 kg per day of the organic compound gave digester size of
bility, innovation and economic growth (FSIEG). They weighed 0.18 0.49 m3 and gas holder of 0.25 m3 with retention time of 50 days which
and 0.17 respectively. The least important factor was the presence of was compatible with the results shown using the methodology formula
agitation accessories weighing 0.05. Continuous stirred tank reactor of the sizing and dimensioning; digester 0.41 m3 and gas holder of
(digester-CSTR) scored highest with 0.79 and was selected for the de- 0.27 m3. Same results were achieved with a retention time of 28 days
sign of the bio-digester for the biomethane production. where Caslin [42] a bioenergy specialist show that 461 m3 with a
Table 5 shows the historical waste data for the City of Johannes- loading rate of 16.438 m3/day resulted to 460.264 m3 that was ac-
burg. The average total weight was indicated as 1,444,772 t/annum cording to our study. According to Curry et al. [44], there was a small
and 3958.28 t/day with the valuable organic compound of an average variation of the results on digester size of 27.12–30 m3 and gas holder
weight of 491,222.48 t/annum and 1348.82 t/day. Utilizing these or- of 13.56–10 m3 but the overall volume was the same with 40.68–40 m3
ganic compounds to energy saves disposal sites, mitigation of the cli- respectively. According to New Horizon [45], the only state of art waste
mate change due to a reduction in CO2 and CH4 emission, transporta- to energy (WtE) plant at Cape Town, South Africa (SA), 60 t/day or
tion cost, odour reduction, carbon capture, zero waste and large pure organic from landfills produce 1250 m3/h of raw biogas. This
benefits of energy generation (renewable natural gas-RNG-bio- show the potential of adopting the WtE technology in South Africa and
methane), liquid CO2 and organic fertilizer from the digestate. Using other Nations.

Table 5
Historical waste management data from the City of Johannesburg.

Ton/Annum Robinson Deep Ennerdale Marie Louise Goudkoppies Ton/ann Organic compounds Ton/ann

2008–09 363,661 130,602 383,265 221,911 1,099,439 373,809.26

2009–10 521,417 114,363 334,616 295,716 1,266,112 430,478.08
2010–11 449,254 121,710 417,578 470,278 1,458,820 495,998.80
2011–12 594,261 127,108 512,798 428,669 1,662,836 565,364.24
2012–13 670,166 106,698 472,738 420,415 1,670,017 567,805.78
2013–14 773,409 91,296 320,688 326,016 1,511,409 513,879.06
Average (ton/annum) 562,028 115,296 406,947 360,501 1,444,772 491,222.48
Average (ton/day) 1539.80 315.88 1114.92 987.67 3958.28 1348.81

Using data obtained from quantification and characterization, the appropriate input parameters like the organic loading rate were ascertained. This aided bio-digester design as presented
in Table 6 and 7.

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A. Njuguna Matheri et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 1113–1121

Table 6
Design based on the volume and surface area from quantification.

Digester d (m) r (m) f1 (m) V1 (m3) h (m) V2 (m) f2 (m) V3 (m3) p1 (m) S1 (m2) S2 (m2) p2 (m) S3 (m) Total V (m3)

BMP 0.22 0.11 0.11 0.003 0.22 0.008 0.11 0.001 0.11 0.08 0.15 0.11 0.08 0.014
CoJ-Scale up 24.35 12.18 12.80 4076.35 24.35 11333.565 12.80 4076.35 12.18 979.08 1861.78 12.18 979.08 19486.27

Table 7
Design based on the volume from waste quantification.

Digester Q (m3/day) HRT (days) Vr (m3) D (m) H (m) d (m) h (m) Vg m 3 Vd m 3

BMP 0.0004 20.00 0.008 0.22 0.22 0.18 0.16 0.0040 0.012
CoJ-Scale up 566.50 20.00 11,330 24.35 24.35 24.31 12.21 5665 16,995

Where: V1 = volume of the digester top dome, f = height of dome, r = radius of the digester, V2 = volume of the digester cylinder, H = height of digester, S1 = surface area of the
digester top dome, p = radius of the dome, S2 = surface area of the digester cylinder body, D = diameter of the digester, S3 = surface area of the digester bottom dome, BMP =
biomethane potential set-up from feasibility study and CoJ = City of Johannesburg scale up digester from historical data.

3.5. Operation and maintenance of bio-digesters Acknowledgements

A carefully designed AD system should be easily run and maintained The authors wish to express their appreciation to Process Energy
without difficulty. However, this requires constant attention from the Environmental and Technology Station (PEETS) funded by Technology
owners of the plant. Poor maintenance of the plant results in opera- Innovation Agency (TIA), South Africa National Energy Development
tional problems which can have effects such as reduction in the amount Institute (SANEDI), City of Johannesburg-Green Economy (CoJ): CoJ/
of biogas available for consumption. The following are the activities UJ/WTE/FS001 through Mr. Thabo Maahlatsi, Prof. Charles Mbohwa;
that should be carried out in the running of an AD system to ensure its Water Research Commission (WRC)- K5/2563 and University of
proper functionality. Johannesburg for allowing us to conduct the research. Dr Robert
Huberts and Dr Caliphs Zvinowanda for assisting with some of the
• The gas holder must be cleaned regularly cleaned so as to avoid the analysis equipment. Mr Samson Masebinu, Dr Jeffrey Bosire Orina, Dr
accumulation of solids that eventually reduce the gas storage ca- Martin Magu and Dr Agbenyeku Emmanuel for technical support.
pacity by taking up the volume.
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