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Lecture Notes 1

This document discusses key concepts in probability and statistics including: 1. Descriptive statistics involves collecting, organizing and summarizing data, while inferential statistics involves generalizing from samples to populations. 2. Variables can be qualitative like gender or quantitative like age, and can be classified as discrete, continuous, ordinal or nominal. 3. Data can be collected through primary methods like surveys or secondary methods from existing sources. Common sampling techniques include random, systematic, stratified and cluster sampling.

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6 views

Lecture Notes 1

This document discusses key concepts in probability and statistics including: 1. Descriptive statistics involves collecting, organizing and summarizing data, while inferential statistics involves generalizing from samples to populations. 2. Variables can be qualitative like gender or quantitative like age, and can be classified as discrete, continuous, ordinal or nominal. 3. Data can be collected through primary methods like surveys or secondary methods from existing sources. Common sampling techniques include random, systematic, stratified and cluster sampling.

Uploaded by

mi5180907
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Lecture 1

1- The Nature of Probability and Statistics


1-1 Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
Statistics is the science of conducting studies to collect, organize, summarize, analyze, and draw
conclusions from data.
Data can be used in different ways. Statistics is divided into two main areas, depending on how
data are used:
1- Descriptive statistics consists of the collection,
organization, presentation, and summarization of Statistical
Methods
data.
2- Inferential statistics consists of generalizing from
samples to populations, performing estimations and
Descriptive
hypothesis tests, determining relationships among Statistics Statistics
variables, and making predictions.

 A population consists of all subjects (human or otherwise) that are being studied.
 A sample is a group of subjects selected from a population.

Types of Descriptive Statistics: Descriptive


Statistics
1- Measure of central tendency:
Mean, Median, Mode,
Midrange and Weighted Mean
Measures of Measures of Measures of
2- Measure of variation: Central Variation Position
Range, Variance, Standard Tendency

Deviation and Coefficient of Variation


3- Measure of position:
Standard Score, Percentiles, Quartiles, Deciles and Outliers.

PHM111s - Probability and Statistics


There are two major divisions of inferential statistics:

1- A confidence interval gives a range of values


for an unknown parameter of the population by Statistics
measuring a statistical sample.
2- Tests of significance or hypothesis
testing where scientists make a claim about the
population by analyzing a statistical sample.

The data is summarized by the researcher, in a useful way, with the help of numerical and
graphical tools such as charts, tables, and graphs, to represent data in an accurate way.
Moreover, the text is presented in support of the diagrams, to explain what they represent.

1-2 Variables and Types of Data


Data are the values (measurements or observations) that the variables can assume.

Different Types of Data:


A variable can be defined as a characteristic that can take different values (e.g. measures of
temperature, height, weight, cost and gender) unlike Constants which are characteristics that have
values that do not change (e.g. pi (π) = 3.14159… and e = 2.71828….)

Variables can be classified as qualitative or quantitative:


1- Qualitative variables are variables that can be
expressed not in terms of numbers, but rather by
means of a natural language description, according
to some characteristic or attribute.
For example: gender (male or female), beauty of Qualitative Quantitative
variables variables
individual, intelligence of people, …

PHM111s - Probability and Statistics


Qualitative variables can be further classified into two groups: ordinal and nominal:

i) A categorical variable whose categories can be meaningfully ordered is called ordinal


variable. For example: size (small, medium, large, etc.), Attitudes (strongly disagree,
disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree), a student's grade in an exam (A, B, C or Fail) are
ordinal variables.

ii) When it does not matter which way the categories are ordered in tabular or graphical
displays of the data (i.e. all orderings are equally meaningful), we call them nominal
categories. For example: a student's religion (Atheist, Christian, Muslim, Hindu), gender,
or sport.

2- Quantitative variables are numerical and can be ordered or ranked. For example, the
variable age is numerical, and people can be ranked in order according to the value of their
ages. Other examples of quantitative variables are heights, weights, and body temperatures.

Quantitative variables can be further classified into two groups: discrete and continuous:

i) A variable whose values are generally countable is called discrete. For example: the
number of books, marks in examination.

ii) A variable that may contain any value within some range is called continuous. It can
take integral and fractional values both. For example: height, weight, length, time, etc.

So, in addition to being classified as qualitative or quantitative, variables can be classified by how
they are categorized, counted, or measured as in the following chart:

PHM111s - Probability and Statistics


Qualitative Quantitative
(Categorical variables) (Numerical variables)

Ordinal Nominal Discrete Continuous


variables variables variables variables

1-3 Data Collection and Sampling Techniques

The method of collecting data is considered one of the


most important phases that statistical research mainly
depends on. Collecting data in such scientific methods
will lead to get accurate outcomes when doing
Primary Secondary
operations of statistical inference and proper decision Data Data
making.

Resources of collecting data

1- Primary resources (Field resources):

These are the resources which we originally get data such as interviewing or questionnaires. This
type is distinguished by accuracy. However, it needs time and efforts beside it is highly expensive
to conduct such a type.

PHM111s - Probability and Statistics


2- Secondary resources (historical resources):

We can get our data from authorities and agencies formally work such as central agency for public
mobilization and statistics, internet and media. This type is a good type of resources such that it
saves time and money.

Methods of collecting data

The method of collecting data is determined according to the aim and the size of the statistical
society under study.

For example: The students of a faculty represent a statistical society whose value is the student.

1. Method of mass population:

It means to collect the data related to the phenomenon of the statistical society. It's used to include
all the society such as the population. This type is including all the values. It’s unbiased and the
outcomes are so accurate.

The disadvantages of such a method are: it needs long time and great efforts. Furthermore, it
costs much money.

2. Methods of samples:

It mainly depends upon selecting a sample from the statistical society that it represents. We
conduct researches on the sample. The outcomes we get are generalized on the whole society. This
type saves time, efforts and money, …

The disadvantage of the sample methods is: the outcomes of such type are not accurate if the
selected sample doesn’t represent all the society well. In such a case the sample is called biased.

PHM111s - Probability and Statistics


To obtain samples that are unbiased—i.e., that give each subject in the population an equally
likely chance of being selected—statisticians use four basic methods of sampling: random,
systematic, stratified, and cluster sampling:

• Random Subjects are selected by random numbers.

• Systematic Subjects are selected by using every kth number after the first subject is
randomly selected from 1 through k.

PHM111s - Probability and Statistics


• Stratified Subjects are selected by dividing up the population into groups (strata), and
subjects are randomly selected within groups.

• Cluster Subjects are selected by using an intact group that is representative of the
population.

PHM111s - Probability and Statistics

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