SECTION 1.

THEORY OF COMPUTER
SCIENCE
DATA REPRESENTATION
NUMBER SYSTEMS
•Candidates should be able to:

o recognise the use of binary numbers in computer systems

o convert positive denary integers into binary and positive binary integers into denary (a
maximum of 16 bits will be used)
o show understanding of the concept of a byte and how the byte is used to measure
memory size
o use binary in computer registers for a given application (such as in robotics, digital
instruments and counting systems)

THE BINARY SYSTEM

•The denary number system counts in multiples of 10.

•This gives the headings of 1s, 10s, 100s, 1000s, etc.

•Denary uses ten separate digits, 0-9, to represent all values.

•Denary is known as a base 10 number system because it uses 10 separate digits to represent
numbers.

•The binary number system is a base 2 number system. It is based on the number 2.

•Thus, only the two ‘values’ 0 and 1 can be used in this system to represent all values.

•Using the same method as denary this gives the headings 20, 21, 22, 23, and so on.

•The typical headings for a binary number with eight digits would be:

•A typical binary number would be: 11101110.

CONVERTING BETWEEN DENARY AND BINARY

Converting From Binary To Denary

•Each time a 1-value appears in a binary number column, the column value (heading) is added to
a total. E.g.:

• in denary

Converting From Denary To Binary

•The conversion from denary numbers to binary numbers can be done in two different ways. is
used for example.

METHOD 1

• in binary

METHOD 2

•This method involves successive division by 2.

•Start with the denary number, 142, and divide it by 2.

•Write the result of the division including the remainder (even if it is 0) under the 142 (142 ÷ 2 =
71 remainder 0);

•Divide again by 2 (71 ÷ 2 = 35 remainder 1) and keep dividing until the result is zero.

•Finally, write down all the remainders in reverse order:

• in binary 14210 = 100011102

BYTES AND MEMORY SIZE

•All data in a computer is measured in multiples of bytes which are groups of bits
•A bit is the basic unit of all computing memory storage terms and is either 1 or 0. The word
comes from binary digit. The byte is the smallest unit of memory in a computer. 1 byte is 8 bits.

•1 byte of memory wouldn’t allow you to store much information so memory size is measured in
the multiples of bytes:

Name of memory size Equivalent denary value

•The above system of numbering now only refers to some storage devices but is technically
inaccurate. It is based on the SI (base 10/ b10) system of units where 1 kilo is equal to 1000.

•A 1 TB hard disk drive would allow the storage of bytes according to this system.

•However, since memory size is actually measured in terms of powers of 2, another system has
been adopted by the IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) that is based on the binary
system. IEC memory size system:

Name of memory size Number of bytes Equivalent denary value

1 kibibyte (1 KiB) → 210 1 024 bytes

1 mebibyte (1 MiB) → 220 1 048 576 bytes

1 gibibyte (1 GiB) → 230 1 073 741 824 bytes

1 tebibyte (1 TiB) → 240 1 099 511 627 776 bytes

1 pebibyte (1 PiB) → 250 1 125 899 906 842 624 bytes

1 exbibyte (1 EiB) → 260 1 152 921 504 606 846 976 bytes

•This system is more accurate. Internal memories (such as RAM and ROM) should be measured
using the IEC system.

•Only the IEC system is covered in the syllabus.

Binary In Computer Registers:

•An example of a use of the binary system is in the use of registers.

•A register is a group of bits; it is often depicted as a table of bits:

•When computers/microprocessors are used to control devices, registers are used as part of the
control system.

•Registers usually hold instructions which can be used to control all the moving parts of an
electronic device.

•When a ‘1’ appears in a cell in a register, it means that some corresponding electrical
component should be powered, such as the back left wheel on a car spinning.

HEXADECIMAL

•Candidates should be able to:

o represent positive numbers in hexadecimal notation

o show understanding of the reasons for choosing hexadecimal notation to represent
numbers
o convert positive hexadecimal integers to and from denary (a maximum of four
hexadecimal digits will be required)
o convert positive hexadecimal integers to and from binary (a maximum of 16-bit binary
numbers will be required)
o represent numbers stored in registers and main memory as hexadecimal
o identify current uses of hexadecimal numbers in computing, such as defining colours in
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), Media Access Control (MAC) addresses, assembly
languages and machine code, debugging

THE HEXADECIMAL SYSTEM

•The hexadecimal number system is closely related to the binary system because both have
bases which are powers of 2.

•Hexadecimal is a base 16 system and therefore needs to use 16 different ‘digits’ to represent
each value.

•Because it is a system based on 16 different digits, the numbers 0 to 9 and the letters A to F are
used to represent each hexadecimal digit.

A in hex = 10 in denary, B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14 and F = 15.

•Using the same method as for denary and binary, this gives the headings , , , , etc.

•A typical hex number is 21F3A.

•Since this means that FOUR binary digits are equivalent to each hexadecimal digit.

•The following table summarises the link between binary, hexadecimal and denary:

BINARY VALUE HEXADECIMAL DENARY

HEXADECIMAL VS BINARY

•Hexadecimal notation is used in place of binary notation because:

o Hexadecimal numbers are easier to read and remember and thus more convenient to
work with.
o Its base is a power of two which means that binary can be accurately represented in
hexadecimal.
o Hexadecimal takes less space and is less complex because four binary digits can be
represented with one hex digit.

CONVERTING BETWEEN HEXADECIMAL AND DENARY

•To convert hexadecimal numbers into denary involves the value headings of each hexadecimal
digit (4096, 256, 16, 1).

•Take each of the hexadecimal digits and multiply it by the corresponding heading value.

•Add all the resultant totals together to give the denary number.

•Remember that the hex digits A → F need to be first converted to the values 10 → 15 before
carrying out the multiplication.

•For example, to convert the hexadecimal number into denary, multiply each hex digit by its
heading value:

•Then add the three totals together to give the denary number.

•There are two methods to convert from denary to hexadecimal. is used for example.

METHOD 1

The headers for hexadecimal are as follows:

•In each stage at each header, subtract the largest multiple of the header from the number,
continuing until is reached.

Convert the hexadecimal number, 45A, into denary.

First of all we have to multiply each hex digit by its heading value:

Then we have to add the three totals together (1024 + 80 + 10) to give the denary number:
METHOD 2

•Repeatedly divide by 16 until reaching “0” then read the remainders backwards.

• in hexadecimal

Since 16 = 24 this means that FOUR binary digits are equivalent to each hexadecimal digit. The
following table summarises the link between binary, hexadecimal and denary:

CONVERTING BETWEEN HEXADECIMAL AND BINARY

•Starting from the right and moving left, split the binary number into groups of 4 bits.

•If the last group has less than 4 bits, then fill it in with 0s from the left.
•Take each group of 4 bits and convert it into denary then hexadecimal, or just straight to
hexadecimal.

NB: To convert from hexadecimal to binary, follow the above steps in reverse order

Current Uses Of Hexadecimal

•The main uses of the hexadecimal system are:

o error codes (debugging)

o MAC addresses
o IPv6 addresses
o HTML colour codes
o assembly languages and machine code

ERROR CODES

•Error codes are often shown as hexadecimal values because they are simpler than binary
values.

•These numbers refer to the memory location of the error and are usually automatically
generated by the computer.

•This makes them very useful for debugging if you know how to work with them.

MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL (MAC) ADDRESSES

•Media Access Control (MAC) address refers to a number which uniquely identifies a device on a
network.

•The MAC address refers to the network interface card (NIC) which is part of the device.

•The MAC address is rarely changed so that a particular device can always be identified no
matter where it is.

•A MAC address is usually made up of 48 bits which are shown as 6 groups of two hexadecimal
digits (although 64-bit addresses also exist):

o NN-NN-NN-DD-DD-DD or
 o NN:NN:NN:DD:DD:DD

•where the first half (NN-NN-NN) is the identity number of the manufacturer of the device and
the second half (DD-DD-DD) is the serial number of the device.

INTERNET PROTOCOL (IP) ADDRESSES

•Each device connected to a network is given an address known as the Internet Protocol (IP)
address.

•An IPv4 address is a 32-bit number written in denary or hexadecimal form: e.g., 109.108.158.1
(or 77.76.9e.01 in hex).

•IPv4 has recently been improved upon by the adoption of IPv6.

•An IPv6 address is a 128-bit number broken down into 16-bit chunks, represented by a
hexadecimal number. For example:
oa8fb:7a88:fff0:0fff:3d21:2085:66fb:f0fa

•IPv6 uses a colon (:) rather than a decimal point (.) as used in IPv4.

HYPERTEXT MARK-UP LANGUAGE (HTML) COLOUR CODES

•HTML is often used to represent colours of text on the computer screen.

•All colours can be made up of different combinations of the three primary colours (red, green
and blue).

•The different intensity of each colour (red, green and blue) is determined by its hexadecimal
value.

•This means different hexadecimal values represent different colours. For example:
o # FF 00 00 represents primary colour red
o # 00 FF 00 represents primary colour green
o # 00 00 FF represents primary colour blue
o # FF 00 FF represents fuchsia
o # FF 80 00 represents orange
o # B1 89 04 represents a tan colour,

and so on producing almost any colour the user wants. The following diagrams show the various
colours that can be selected by altering the hex ‘intensity’ of red, green and blue primary colours.
The colour ‘FF9966’ has been chosen as an example:

•The # symbol always precedes hexadecimal values in HTML code.

•The colour codes are always six hexadecimal digits representing the red, green and blue
components.

ASSEMBLY CODE AND MACHINE CODE

•Computer memory can be referred to directly using machine code or assembly code.

•This can have many advantages to program developers or when carrying out troubleshooting.

•Using hexadecimal makes it much easier, faster and less error prone to write code compared to
binary.

•Using true machine code (which uses binary) is cumbersome and it takes a long time to key in
the values and it is easy to

mistype the digits. For example:

o STO FFA4 (assembly code)

o A5E4 FFA4 (machine code using hexadecimal values)
o 1010 0101 1110 0100 1111 1111 1010 0100 (machine code using binary)

•Machine code and assembly code are examples of low-level languages and are used by
software developers.

DATA STORAGE
•Candidates should be able to:
 o show understanding that sound (music), pictures, video, text and numbers are stored in
different formats
o identify and describe methods of error detection and correction, such as parity checks,
check digits, checksums and Automatic Repeat reQuests (ARQ)
o show understanding of the concept of Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) files,
JPEG files, MP3 and MP4 files
o show understanding of the principles of data compression (lossless and lossy) applied to
music/video, photos and text files

DIFFERENT FORMS OF MEDIA ARE STORED IN DIFFERENT FORMATS

REPRESENTATION OF TEXT AND NUMBERS

•Text is represented by character sets such as ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange) or Unicode.

•A character set is a list of characters that have been defined by computer hardware and
software. The character set is

necessary so that the computer can understand human characters.

•ASCII code is a character set for all the characters on a standard keyboard and control codes

•The standard ASCII code character set consists of 7-bit codes that represent the letters,
numbers and characters found on a standard keyboard, together with 32 control codes.

•Extended ASCII uses 8-bit codes. This gives another 128 codes to allow for characters in non-
English alphabets and for some graphical characters to be included.

•ASCII code has a number of disadvantages.

o It does not represent characters in non-Western languages, for example Chinese

characters.
o The number of characters that can be coded is limited to a maximum of 128 or 256 using
extended ASCII.
o It isn’t universal. Some characters can have different codes depending on the method of
character encoding. For this reason, different methods of coding have been developed
over the years.

•One coding system which developed is Unicode. Unicode can represent all languages of the
world, thus supporting many operating systems, search engines and internet browsers used
globally and can support more characters in total than ASCII.

•ASCII uses one byte to represent a character, whereas Unicode supports up to four bytes per
character.

•When working with numbers using spreadsheets or databases, numbers can be stored in a
number of different formats:

o real, e.g. 2.71678

 o integer, e.g. 3
o date, e.g. 12/08/2016
o time, e.g. 19:45:50
o currency, e.g. $15.50

•It is important that the correct format is chosen when processing numbers, otherwise wrong
operations may be performed and inaccurate results returned.

•If number files undergo any form of file compression, then it tends to be lossless because it is
very important that none of the information/data is lost.

REPRESENTATION OF SOUND

•Soundwaves are vibrations in the air which the human ear senses and interprets as sound.

•Each sound wave has a frequency, wavelength and amplitude. The amplitude specifies the
loudness of the sound.

•Sound waves vary continuously. This means that sound is analogue. Computers cannot work
with analogue data, so sound waves need to be sampled in order to be stored in a computer.

•Sampling means measuring the amplitude of the sound wave. This is done using an analogue
to digital converter (ADC).

•To convert the analogue data to digital, the sound waves are sampled at regular time intervals.

•The amplitude of the sound cannot be measured precisely, so approximate values are stored.

•Binary bits are used to represent each amplitude value.

•The number of bits per sample is known as the sampling resolution (or bit depth).

•Sampling rate is the number of sound samples taken per second. This is measured in hertz
(Hz), where 1 Hz means ‘one sample per second’.

•How sampling is used to record a sound clip:

o the amplitude of the sound wave is first determined at set time intervals (the sampling
rate)
o this gives an approximate representation of the sound wave
o each sample of the sound wave is then encoded as a series of binary digits.

•Using a higher sampling rate or larger resolution will result in a more faithful representation of
the original sound source.

•However, the higher the sampling rate and/or sampling resolution, the greater the file size.

•The benefits and drawbacks of using a larger sampling resolution when recording sound:
THE MIDI FILE FORMAT

•The MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) file format is always associated with the storage
of music files.

•However, MIDI files are not music and don't contain any sounds; instead, MIDI files consist of
lists of commands that instruct a device how to produce a sound or musical note.

•As a result, MIDI files take up relatively little storage space.

•Each MIDI command has a specific sequence of bytes. The first byte is the status byte - this
informs the MIDI device what function to perform.

•Encoded in the status byte is the MIDI channel. MIDI operates on 16 different channels, which
are numbered 0 to 15.

•Examples of MIDI commands include:

o note on/off: this indicates that an instrument key has been pressed/released to
produce/stop producing a musical note
o key pressure: this indicates how hard the key has been pressed.

•Two additional bytes are required:

o a pitch byte, which tells the MIDI device which note to play
o a velocity byte, which tells the device how loud to play the note.

•When music or sound is recorded on a computer system, these MIDI messages are saved in a
file with the extension .mid.

•If this .mid file is played back through a musical instrument the music will be played back in an
identical way to the original.

•The whole piece of music will have been stored as a series of commands but no actual musical
notes.

•This makes it a very versatile file structure, since the same file could be fed back through a
different electronic instrument with different effects to the original.

•However, to play back through an instrument such as a guitar would need the use of sequencer
software, since the MIDI files wouldn't be recognised in their ‘raw’ form.

MPEG-3 (MP3) AND MPEG-4 (MP4)

•MP3 files are used for playing music on computers or mobile phones.
•This compression technology reduces the size of a normal music file by about 90%.

•To reduce file size while maintaining quality, the algorithm removes sounds that the human ear
can’t hear properly. For example:

o removal of sounds outside the human ear range

o if two sounds are played at the same time, only the louder one can be heard, so the
softer sound is eliminated.

•The MP4 file format allows the storage of multimedia files rather than just sound – videos,
photos and animation.

•MP4 is a lossy file compression format, but it still retains an acceptable quality of sound and
video.

REPRESENTATION OF (BITMAP) IMAGES

•Bitmap images are made up of pixels (picture elements); an image is made up of a two-
dimensional matrix of pixels.

•Pixels can take different shapes and don’t have to be square.

•Each pixel can be represented as a binary number, and so a bitmap image is stored in a
computer as a series of binary

numbers, so that:

o a black and white image only requires 1 bit per pixel – this means that each pixel can be
one of two colours, corresponding to either 1 or 0
o if each pixel is represented by 2 bits, then each pixel can be one of four colours (),
corresponding to 00, 01, 10, or 11
o if each pixel is represented by 3 bits, then each pixel can be one of eight colours (),
corresponding to 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111.

•The number of bits used to represent each colour is called the colour depth.

o Increasing colour depth also increases the size of the file when storing an image.

•Image resolution refers to the number of pixels that make up an image.

o For example, an image could contain 4096 × 3072 pixels (12 582 912 pixels in total).

•Photographs with a lower resolution have less detail than those with a higher resolution.

•The drawback of using high resolution images is the increase in file size as the number of pixels
increases.

•A certain amount of reduction in resolution of an image is possible before the loss of quality
becomes noticeable.

JPEG
•JPEG is a lossy file compression algorithm used for bitmap images.

•The JPEG file reduction process is based on two key concepts:

o human eyes don’t detect differences in colour shades as well as they detect differences in
image brightness
o by separating pixel colour from brightness, images can be split into blocks of pixels which
then allows certain information to be discarded from the image without causing any real
noticeable deterioration in quality.

CALCULATION OF FILE SIZE

•The file size of an image is calculated as:

•The size of a mono sound file is calculated as:

o For a stereo sound file, you would then multiply the result by two. 1

•The size of an ASCII text file, in bytes, is roughly to the number of characters contained in that
file.

DATA COMPRESSION
•Sound and image files can be very large. It is therefore necessary to reduce (or compress) the
size of a file in order to:

o to save storage space on devices such as the hard disk drive/solid state drive
o to reduce the time taken to stream a music or video file
o to reduce the time taken to upload, download or transfer a file across a network
o the download/upload process uses up network bandwidth – the maximum rate of
transfer of data across a network, measured in bits per second. Compressed files contain
fewer bits of data than uncompressed files and therefore use less bandwidth, which
results in a faster data transfer rate.
o reduced file size also reduces costs. For example, when using cloud storage, the cost is
based on the size of the files stored. Also, an internet service provider (ISP) may charge a
user based on the amount of data downloaded.

•File compression can either be lossless or lossy.

LOSSY FILE COMPRESSION

•With this technique, the file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary data from the file.
This means the original file cannot be reconstructed once it has been compressed.

•Lossy file compression results in some loss of detail when compared to the original file. The
algorithms used in the lossy technique have to decide which parts of the file need to be retained
and which parts can be discarded.

•For example, when applying a lossy file compression algorithm to:

o an image, it may reduce the resolution and/or the bit/colour depth

 o a sound file, it may reduce the sampling rate and/or the resolution.

•Lossy files are smaller than lossless files which is of great benefit when considering storage and
data transfer rate requirements. Common lossy file compression algorithms are:

o MPEG-3 (MP3) and MPEG-4 (MP4)

o JPEG.

LOSSLESS FILE COMPRESSION

•With this technique, all the data from the original uncompressed file can be reconstructed. This
is important for files where any loss of data would be undesirable.

•Lossless file compression is designed so that none of the original detail from the file is lost.

•Run-length encoding (RLE) can be used for lossless compression of a number of different file
formats:

o it is a form of lossless/reversible file compression

o it reduces the size of a string of adjacent, identical data (e.g. repeated colours in an
image)
o a repeating string is encoded into two values:

•the first value represents the number of identical data items (e.g. characters) in the run

•the second value represents the code of the data item (such as ASCII code if it is a keyboard
character)

o RLE is only effective where there is a long run of repeated units/bits

COMMUNICATION AND INTERNET

TECHNOLOGIES
DATA TRANSMISSION
•Candidates should be able to:

o show understanding of what is meant by transmission of data

o distinguish between serial and parallel data transmission
o distinguish between simplex, duplex and half-duplex data transmission
o show understanding of the reasons for choosing serial or parallel data transmission
o show understanding of the need to check for errors
o explain how parity bits are used for error detection
o show understanding of the use of serial and parallel data transmission, in Universal Serial
Bus (USB) and Integrated
Circuit (IC)

TRANSMISSION OF DATA

•Data transmission is the transfer of data as a stream of bits over a communication channel
from one device to another.

•Data transmission can be either over a short distance or over longer distances.

•Three factors need to be considered when transmitting data (each factor has to be agreed by
both sender and receiver for this to work without error):

o the method of synchronisation between the two devices.

o the method of transmission (how many bits are sent at the same time)
o the direction of the data transmission (i.e. in one direction only or in both directions)

ASYNCHRONOUS AND SYNCHRONOUS DATA TRANSMISSION

•Asynchronous data transmission refers to data being transmitted in an agreed bit pattern.

o Data bits (1s and 0s) are grouped together and sent with control bits.
o This means that the receiver of the data knows when the data starts and when it ends.
o This prevents data getting mixed up; without control bits, it would be impossible to
separate groups of data as they arrived.

•Synchronous data transmission is a continuous stream of data (unlike asynchronous data

which is sent in discrete groups).

o The data is accompanied by timing signals generated by an internal clock. This ensures
that the sender and receiver are synchronised with each other.
o The receiver counts how many bits (1s and 0s) were sent and then reassembles them into
bytes of data.
o The timing must be very accurate here since there are no control bits sent in this type of
data transmission.
o However, it is a faster data transfer method than asynchronous and is used where
transmission speed is important.

SERIAL AND PARALLEL DATA TRANSMISSION

•Serial data transmission occurs when data is sent ONE BIT AT A TIME over a SINGLE
WIRE/CHANNEL. Bits are sent one after

the other as a single stream.

o Serial data transmission can be simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex.

o Serial data transmission works well over long distances.
o Data is transmitted at a slower rate than parallel data transmission.
o Because only one channel/wire is used, data will arrive at its destination fully
synchronised (i.e. in the correct order).
o A common use for serial data transmission is in USB technology.
•Parallel data transmission occurs when SEVERAL BITS OF DATA (usually one byte) are sent down
SEVERAL CHANNELS or

WIRES all at the same time. Each channel/wire transmits one bit:

o Parallel data transmission can be simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex.

o Parallel data transmission works well over short distances.
o Over longer distances, data can become skewed (the data can arrive unsynchronised) and
bits can arrive out of order.

The longer the wire, the worse this can become.

o It is a faster method of data transmission than serial.

o The internal circuits in a computer use parallel data transmission since the distance
travelled between components is very short and high-speed transmission is essential.

•Comparison of serial and parallel data transmission methods:

UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS (USB)

•The universal serial bus (USB) is an asynchronous form of serial data transmission.

•USB allows both half-duplex and full-duplex data transmission.

•The USB cable consists of a four-wired shielded cable, with two wires for power (red and black)
and two wires (white and green) for data transmission.

•When a device is plugged into a computer using one of the USB ports:

o the computer automatically detects that a device is present (this is due to a small change
in the voltage on the data signal wires in the USB cable)
o the device is automatically recognised, and the appropriate device driver software is
loaded up so that the computer and device can communicate effectively
 o if a new device is detected, the computer will look for the device driver that matches the
device; if this is not available, the user is prompted to download the appropriate driver
software (some systems do this automatically and the user will see a notice asking for
permission to connect to the device website).

•Benefits and drawbacks of USB systems:

SIMPLEX, HALF-DUPLEX AND DUPLEX DATA TRANSMISSION

•Simplex data transmission describes when data can be sent in ONE DIRECTION ONLY.

o Example: data being sent from a computer to a printer.

•Half-duplex data transmission describes when data can be sent in BOTH DIRECTIONS but NOT
AT THE SAME TIME.

o Example: a conversation between two people using walkie-talkies.

•Full-duplex data transmission describes when data can be sent in BOTH DIRECTIONS AT THE
SAME TIME

o Example: broadband connection on a phone line.

METHODS FOR ERROR CHECKING AND CORRECTION

•When data is transmitted, there is always a risk that it may be corrupted, lost or even gained.

•Errors can occur during data transmission due to:

o interference (all types of cable can suffer from electrical interference, which can cause
data to be corrupted or lost)
 o data skewing (occurs during parallel data transmission and can cause data corruption if
the bits arrive unsynchronised).

•Checking for errors is important because computers are unable to understand data the way
humans do. Computers can’t make the same assumptions as humans or fill in the gaps as a
human would.

•Faulty data transmission can lead to disaster if that data is used.

•Error checking methods include:

o parity checks
o automatic repeat request (ARQ)
o checksum
o echo check

PARITY CHECKING

•Parity checking is a method used to check if data has been transmitted correctly.

•This method is based on the number of 1-bits in a byte of data.

•The parity can be either called:

o EVEN (an even number of 1-bits in the byte) or

o ODD (an odd number of 1-bits in the byte).

•One of the bits in the byte (usually the left-most bit) is reserved for a parity bit. The parity bit is
set according to whether the parity being used is even or odd.

•Before data is transferred, an agreement is made between sender and receiver regarding which
type of parity is being used.

o This is an example of a transmission protocol.

•If even or odd parity is used and there are an odd or even number of bits an error is flagged.

•Parity checking fails to detect any errors if parity is maintained, even if the data was changed.

•If an error is flagged using parity checking, it is impossible to tell where the error occurred.

•This problem can be avoided by using parity blocks.

•Using parity checking blocks, a block of data is sent and a parity check is done in both
horizontal and vertical directions.

•This method can both identify that an error occurred and where it is located, thereby allowing
the error to be corrected automatically or request the data block to be re-transmitted.

AUTOMATIC REPEAT REQUEST (ARQ)

•An Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) is a method used to check if data has been transmitted
correctly.
•The ARQ process:

o ARQ uses positive and negative acknowledgements (messages sent to the receiver
indicating that data has/has not been received correctly) and timeout (the time interval
allowed to elapse before an acknowledgement is received).
o the receiving device receives an error detection code as part of the data transmission;
this is used to detect whether the received data contains any transmission errors.
o if no error is detected, a positive acknowledgement is sent back to the sending device.
o however, if an error is detected, the receiving device now sends a negative
acknowledgement to the sending device and requests re-transmission of the data.
o a time-out is used by the sending device by waiting a pre-determined amount of time.
o if no acknowledgement of any type has been received by the sending device within this
time limit, it automatically re-sends the data until a positive acknowledgement is received
or until a pre-determined number of re-transmissions has taken place

CHECKSUM

•A checksum is a method used to check if data has been transmitted correctly.

•Data is sent in blocks and an additional value, called the checksum, is sent at the end of the
block of data.

•The checksum process:

o when a block of data is about to be transmitted, the checksum is calculated from the
block of data
o the calculation is done using an agreed algorithm (this algorithm has been agreed by
sender and receiver)
o the checksum is then transmitted with the block of data
o at the receiving end, the checksum is recalculated by the computer using the block of
data
o the re-calculated checksum is then compared to the checksum sent with the data block
o if the two checksums are the same, then no transmission errors have occurred;
otherwise, a request is made to re-send the block of data

ECHO CHECK

•With echo check, when data is sent to another device, this data is sent back to the sender. The
sender’s computer compares the two sets of data to check if any errors occurred during the
transmission process.

•This method isn’t very reliable because if the two sets of data are different, it isn’t known
whether the error occurred when sending the data in the first place, or if the error occurred
when sending the data back for checking.

•However, if no errors occurred, then it is another way to check that the data was transmitted
correctly.
•The echo check process:

o a copy of the data is sent back to the sender

o the returned data is compared with the original data by the sender’s computer
o if there are no differences, then the data was sent without error
o if the two sets of data are different, then an error occurred at some stage during the data
transmission.

CHECK DIGITS

•A check digit is the final digit included in a code such as on barcodes.

•It is calculated from all the other digits in the code.

•Check digits are used for barcodes on products, such as International Standard Book Numbers
(ISBN) and Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN).

•Check digits are used to identify errors in data entry caused by mis-typing or mis-scanning a
barcode.

•They can usually detect the following types of error:

o an incorrect digit entered

o transposition errors where two numbers have changed order
o omitted or extra digits
o phonetic errors

SECURITY ASPECTS

•Candidates should be able to:

o show understanding of the security aspects of using the Internet and understand what
methods are available to help minimise the risks
o show understanding of the Internet risks associated with malware, including viruses,
spyware and hacking
o explain how anti-virus and other protection software helps to protect the user from
security risks

METHODS TO STAY SAFE ON THE INTERNET

•Don’t share personal information.

o Users shouldn’t share personal information such as passwords or real-life details such as
addresses or phone numbers.

•Be aware of the risks of malware and hacking.

o Users who are aware of malware and hacking and know how to avoid them are less likely
to fall victim.

•Use protective software.

 o Protective software will limit the damage that malware and hacking can cause or prevent
them entirely.

•Use strong passwords

INTERNET RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH MALWARE

VIRUSES

•Viruses are programs or program code that can self-replicate with the intention of deleting or
corrupting files, or cause the computer to malfunction.

•Possible effects of viruses:

o Can cause the computer to crash, stop functioning normally or become unresponsive
o Can delete files/data
o Can corrupt files/data
o Can use a user’s computer to carry out unwanted actions

•Methods to prevent viruses:

o Install anti-virus software

o Don’t use software from unknown sources
o Be careful when opening emails/attachments from unknown senders

•Backing up files won’t guard against viruses since the virus may have already attached itself to
the backed-up files; using the back-up may actually reinstall the virus

SPYWARE

•Spyware is software that gathers information by monitoring key presses on the user’s
keyboard; the information is then sent back to the person who sent the software

•Possible effects:

o Gives the originator access to all data entered using a keyboard on the user’s computer
o The software is able to install other spyware, read cookie data and also change a user’s
default web browser

•Methods to remove it or prevent damage:

o Use of anti-spyware software

o The user should always be alert and look out for clues that their keyboard activity is being
monitored
o Using a mouse to select characters from passwords (etc.) rather than typing them in
using a keyboard can help reduce the risk

HACKING

•Hacking is generally the act of gaining illegal access to a computer system.

•Possible effects of hacking:

 o Hacking can lead to identity theft or theft of personal information
o Data can be deleted, changed or corrupted

•Methods to prevent damage:

o Firewalls
o Use of strong passwords and user ids
o Use of anti-hacking software

PROTECTION SOFTWARE

•Software that can protect against the various internet risks includes:

o Anti-virus software

•scanning all new files and emails for malware

•scanning a user’s computer to find hidden malware

•deleting malware from a user's computer

•warning the user about possible dangers, such as risky websites.

o Internet filters

•Internet filters can prevent access to websites by blocking their IP addresses.

o Email filters

•Email filters filter out unwanted emails which can potentially contain viruses or attempts at
obtaining personal details.

o Firewalls

•A firewall is software designed to screen all data that comes from the Internet and only allows
data through if it satisfies a set of preprogramed rules.

•A firewall can prevent malware, hackers getting onto the computer system and it can block
unsuitable content.

INTERNET PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

•Candidates should be able to:

o show understanding of the role of the browser

o show understanding of the role of an Internet Service Provider (ISP)
o show understanding of what is meant by hypertext transfer protocol (http and https) and
HTML
o distinguish between HTML structure and presentation
o show understanding of the concepts of MAC address, Internet Protocol (IP) address,
Uniform Resource Locator (URL) and cookies

THE INTERNET AND WORLD WIDE WEB

•The internet is a worldwide system of computer networks and computers which share data
with one another.

•All computers attached to the internet can communicate with each other as long as they
adhere to communication protocols: rules which describe how to transmit data, especially
across a network.

INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER (ISP)

•Each internet user makes use of an internet service provider (ISP).

•ISPs are companies that provide the user with access to the internet. A monthly fee is usually
charged for this service.

INTERNET PROTOCOL (IP) ADDRESS AND MAC ADDRESS

•Each device on the internet is given a unique address known as the Internet Protocol (IP)
Address.

•This is a 32-bit number which is usually written in the form:

o 109.108.158.1

•A home computer is given an IP address when it connects to the internet.

•This is assigned by the ISP and is unique for that particular internet session.

•The only IP addresses that remain fairly unchanged are web servers.

•An IP address can be used instead of typing in the full URL For example:

o http://109.108.158.1 would take you straight to the device corresponding to this

address.

•A Media Access Control (MAC) Address is a unique number that identifies a device connected to
the internet.

o It takes the form: NN-NN-NN-DD-DD-DD, where NN-NN-NN is the manufacturer code and DD-
DD-DD is the device code.

•The difference between an IP address and a MAC address is that the IP address gives the
location of a device on the internet, whereas the MAC address identifies the device connected to
the internet.

HYPERTEXT MARK-UP LANGUAGE (HTML)

•Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML) is used when writing and developing web pages.

•HTML isn't a programming language but rather a mark-up language.

•A mark-up language is used in the processing, definition and presentation of text.

•HTML uses <tags> which are used to bracket a piece of code; for example, <td> starts a
standard cell in a table, and </td> ends it. Whatever is between the two tags has been defined.

HTML STRUCTURE AND PRESENTATION

•There is a difference between the structure of an HTML document and its presentation.

o Structure is the essential part of an HTML document; it includes the document’s

semantics (content) and its structure.
o Presentation is the style of the document; how the document will look (or sound if it
includes multimedia elements).

•These two features must be kept separate throughout the designing of a web page.

o At the end of the design process, the author should have an HTML document (containing
the structure and the actual content) and a separate .css (Cascading Style Sheet) file.
o The .css file will contain everything to control the actual presentation of the web page.

HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL (HTTP)

•Hypertext transfer protocol (http) is a set of rules that must be obeyed when transferring files
across the internet.

•When some form of security (e.g., SSL or TLS) is used, then http changes to https (often with a
padlock in the status bar as well). The ‘s’ stands for secure, and indicates a more secure way of
sending and receiving data across a network.

•It is slower to use https than http; https is usually only adopted where sensitive or private data
is being transferred.

WEB BROWSERS

•Web browsers are software that allow users to access and display web pages on their device
screens.

•Browsers interpret (translate) the HTML from websites and show the result of the translation;
videos, images/text, audio.

•Most browsers have the following features:

o they have a home page

o they can store a user’s favourite websites/web pages (referred to as bookmarks)
o they keep a history of websites visited by the user (user history)
o they allow the user to navigate forwards and backwards through websites/web pages
already opened
o many web pages can be open at the same time by using multiple tabs
o they make use of cookies
o they make use of hyperlinks that allow navigation between websites and web pages
o data is stored as a cache
o make use of JavaScript
 o they use an address bar

•Cookies are small files or code stored on a user’s computer.

o They are sent by a web server to a user’s browser and stored.

o Each cookie is effectively a small look-up table containing pairs of (key, data).
o Every time a user visits a website, it checks if it has set cookies on their browser before.
o If so, the browser reads the cookie which holds key information on the user’s
preferences.
o Cookies allow user tracking and maintain user preferences.
o Collected data can also be used to customise the web page for each individual user.

•Uniform resource locators (URLs) are text addresses used to access websites. A URL is typed
into a browser address bar using the format:
o protocol://website address/path/file name
o The protocol is usually either http or https.
o The website address is:

•domain host (www),

•domain name (website name),

•domain type (.com, .org, .net, .gov, for example),

•and sometimes country code (.uk, .de, .cy, for example).

o The path is the web page, but is often omitted and it then becomes the root directory of
the website.
o The file name is the item on the web page.

•The web browser translates the website address into an IP address which is part of the URL

•The HTML code is returned and is shown as a correctly formatted page on the computer
screen.
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
LOGIC GATES

•Candidates should be able to:

o use logic gates to create electronic circuits

o understand and define the functions of NOT, AND, OR, NAND, NOR and XOR (EOR) gates,
including the binary output produced from all the possible binary inputs (all gates, except
the NOT gate, will have 2 inputs only)
o draw truth tables and recognise a logic gate from its truth table
o recognise and use the following standard symbols used to represent logic gates:

o produce truth tables for given logic circuits, for example:

o produce a logic circuit to solve a given problem or to implement a given written logic
statement;
TRUTH TABLES

•Truth tables are used to trace the output from a logic gate or logic circuit.

•When constructing truth tables, all possible combinations of 1s and 0s which can be input are
considered.
•The number of possible combinations of inputs for a logic circuit or gate with number of inputs
is equal to:
The function of the six logic gates
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE AND THE FETCH-EXECUTE
CYCLE
•Candidates should be able to:

o show understanding of the basic Von Neumann model for a computer system and the
stored program concept (program instructions and data are stored in main memory and
instructions are fetched and executed one after another)
o describe the stages of the fetch-execute cycle, including the use of registers and buses

THE VON NEUMANN MODEL FOR COMPUTER SYSTEMS

STORED PROGRAM MODEL

•Early computers were fed data while they were running. They weren't able to store programs
which meant they weren't able to run without human intervention.

•John von Neumann developed the idea of a stored program computer, also called Von
Neumann computer architecture.

•In the stored program model, program instructions and data are stored as binary in main
memory and instructions are fetched and executed one after another.

•Data is stored temporarily in main memory and is moved between the processor, memory unit,
and input/output devices.

•This data is transferred between components using busses and stored in registers as it is
worked with.

THE PROCESSOR
•The processor is at the centre of the computer system.

o Input devices send data into the processor.

o Storage devices hold data that the processor can use.
o Output devices display data from the processor

•The processor has two main components:

o the central processing unit (CPU)

o main memory.

•Components within the processor share data using buses.

THE CPU

•The CPU has two main components:

o the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)

o the control unit.

The ALU

•All processing happens in the ALU.

•In the ALU the binary electrical signals that represent data are passed through logic circuits
which transform the data.

•The ALU does arithmetic processing and logical processing:

o Arithmetic processing means finding the numerical answer to mathematical problems.

o Logical processing means finding the true/false answer to logical deductions.

The Control Unit

•The control unit controls the other parts of the processor:

o Its signals tell the ALU to read data from main memory, process it, and write the results
back to main memory.
o It also tells peripherals to transfer data to and from the main memory.
o It has a timer called the system clock which sends timing signals that synchronises the
hardware components

•The system clock speed, measured in hertz, indicates the number of fetch- execute cycles per
second

MAIN MEMORY

•Main memory is AKA main store, primary memory/store, random access memory (RAM) or
immediate access store (IAS).

•Main memory consists of a large number of partitions.

o Each partition consists of an address and its contents.

 o The address uniquely identifies every location in the memory and the contents are in
binary.

•The instructions that tell the processor how to process data are numbers. So, they can also be
stored in main memory.

•The CPU can only work on data stored in main memory. Similarly, it can only follow instructions
stored in the main memory.

REGISTERS

•Registers are high-speed storage areas within the CPU.

•All data must be represented in a register, as binary, before it can be processed.

•A register holds only one binary number at a time.

•As the computer runs, the numbers in its registers constantly change.

•Some registers are just used as fast memory, to hold partial results during a calculation. These
are called general registers, or accumulators.

•Other registers have a special role in the fetch-execute cycle:

o The program counter (PC) holds the address of the next instruction to fetch.

•The PC increments while in use to point to the address of the next instruction to be fetched.

o The memory address register (MAR) holds an address to read from or write to.

•this register stores the address of the memory location currently being read from or written to

o The current instruction register (CIR) holds the instruction currently being executed.

•this register stores the current instruction being decoded and executed

o The memory data register (MDR) holds data just read from memory, or about to be
written to memory.

•this register stores data which has just been read from memory or data which is about to be
written to memory

BUSES

•The different registers and components in the processor are connected by short wire
connections called buses.

•There are three types:

o An address bus transmits addresses

o A data bus transmits data
o A control bus transmits control signals, telling the receiver to do something.
•The MAR and MDR are the CPU's link to the main memory's address bus and data bus. The bits
in each register correspond to wires on the bus.

•Buses move data around the computer and send out control signals to make sure everything is
properly synchronised.

THE FETCH-EXECUTE CYCLE

The Operation of The CPU

•All the time that the computer is switched on, the CPU repeats a set of actions called the fetch-
execute cycle.

1. The control unit fetches an instruction from main memory. The instructions are coded as
binary numbers.

2. The control unit decodes the instruction so it knows what action to carry out.
3. The ALU carries out the action, which is referred to as executing the instruction.

•The fetch-execute is carried out over and over again while the computer is working.

The Fetch-Execute Cycle

1. The Program Counter (PC) contains the address of the memory location of the next instruction
which has to be fetched

2. This address is then copied from the PC to the memory address register (MAR) using the
address bus

3. The instruction at the address contained in the MAR are then copied temporarily into the
memory data register (MDR)

4. The instruction in the MDR is then copied and placed into the Current Instruction Register
(CIR)

5. The value in the PC is then incremented by 1 so that it now points to the next instruction
which has to be fetched

6. The instruction is finally decoded and then executed by sending out signals (via the control
bus) to the appropriate components of the computer system (ALU or peripherals).
INPUT DEVICES
•Candidates should be able to:

o describe the principles of operation (how each device works) of these input devices:

•2D and 3D scanners, barcode readers, Quick Response (QR) code readers, digital cameras,
keyboards, mice, touch screens, interactive whiteboards, microphones

o describe how these principles are applied to real-life scenarios, for example: scanning of
passports at airports, barcode readers at supermarket checkouts, and touch screens on
mobile devices
o describe how a range of sensors can be used to input data into a computer system,
including light, temperature, magnetic field, gas, pressure, moisture, humidity, pH and
motion
o describe how these sensors are used in real-life scenarios, for example: street lights,
security devices, pollution control, games, and household and industrial applications

THE PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF INPUT DEVICES

Two-Dimensional Scanners

•These types of scanners are generally used to input hard-copy documents.

•The image is converted into an electronic form which can be stored in a computer.

•There are many types of document scanners:

o Flat-bed scanners which scan documents that are placed face-down on a glass panel.
o Roller scanners which have documents fed into them
o Hand-held scanners which are moved or rolled across a document

•The simplest scanner just records an image of a document.

•Process of scanning a document using a flat-bed scanner:

o The document is placed on a glass panel and the lid is closed

o A bright light illuminates the document
o A scan head moves across the document until the whole page is scanned and an image of
the document is produced and sent to a lens using a series of mirrors
o The lens focuses the document image
o The focused image then falls onto a charge couple device (CCD) which consists of a
numbers of integrated circuits

•The CCD is made up of thousands of light-sensitive elements (or pixels).

•Each element creates an electric charge when light falls on it.

•This means that the scanned image is converted to an electronic form.

 o Software produces a digital image from the electronic form of the scanned document

•Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software allows scanned text from documents to be
converted into editable text files.

•Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) software detects marks on documents such as surveys or
multiple-choice exams.

•If the original document was a photograph or image, then the scanned image forms an image
file such as JPEG.

Three-Dimensional Scanners

•3D scanners scan solid objects and produce a three-dimensional image.

•Since solid objects have x, y and z coordinates, so 3D scanners take images at several points
along these three coordinates.

•A digital image which represents the solid object is formed.

•There are numerous technologies used in 3D scanners — lasers, magnetic resonance, white
light, etc.

•3D scanners’ uses:

o Industrial: to scan an object to manipulate it using Computer Aided Design (CAD) or to

produce a model.
o Medical: to scan parts of a patient’s body to find damage or disease.
o Research and archaeology: to scan a location to learn more about it.
o Cultural and entertainment: to record works of art, or to make realistic video games.

Barcode Readers

•Barcodes store code numbers which can be used to reference items.

o A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of varying thickness.

o The numbers 0 to 9 are each represented by a unique series/pattern of lines.

•Process of scanning a barcode:

o The barcode is first read by a red LED (Light Emitting Diode).

o Light is reflected back off the barcode; the dark areas reflect little or no light which allows
the bars to be read.
o The reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells)

•Key parts of the face are compared, such as:

o distance between the eyes

o width of the nose
o shape of the cheek bones
o length of the jaw line
 o shape of the eyebrows

•When the image from the passport and the image taken by the camera are compared, these
key positions on the face determine whether or not the two images represent the same face.

Application Of 3d Scanning — Computed Tomographic (Ct) Scanners

•Computed Tomographic (CT) scanners are used to create a 3D image of a solid object.

•This is based on tomography technology which builds up an image of the solid object through a
series of very thin slices.

•Together these 2D slices make up a representation of the 3D solid object.

•Each slice is built up by use of X-rays, radio frequencies, gamma imaging, etc.

•Each slice is then stored as a digital image in the computer memory.

•The whole of the solid object is represented digitally in the computer memory.

•Depending on how the image is formed, the type of tomographic scanner can have different
names. For example:

X-rays CT scanners computerised tomography

radio frequencies MRI magnetic resonance imaging

gamma rays SPECT single photon emission computed tomography

Application Of Microphones

•Microphones can be used for voice recognition and speech recognition.

•Voice recognition systems are security systems which use the user’s voice as key. How voice
recognition works:

o A few words are spoken into a microphone and a digital wave pattern is produced.
o Software compares this wave pattern to wave patterns stored in memory to see if they
match.
o If they match, then the person has been correctly identified.
o Only certain words can be used since the system is designed to recognise only a few key
phrases.

•Speech recognition is technology which converts speech to text that can be manipulated. How
speech recognition works:

o The user speaks into a microphone and a digital wave pattern is produced.
o The speech recognition software takes the digital form of the sound and breaks it down
into phonemes.
o These phonemes are compared with words in a built-in dictionary and the most suitable
match is returned.
EPOS (ELECTRONIC POINT OF SALE) TERMINAL

•Barcode readers are most commonly found at the checkout in supermarkets. There are several
other input and output devices at the checkout:

•What happens after the barcode has been read:

o the barcode number is looked up in the stock database (the barcode is known as the key
field in the stock item record); this key field uniquely identifies each stock item
o when the barcode number is found, the stock item record is looked up
o the price and other stock item details are sent back to the checkout (or point of sale
terminal (POS))
o the number of stock items in the record is reduced by 1 each time the barcode is read
o this new value for amount of stock is written back to the stock item record
o the number of stock items is compared to the re-order level; if it is less than or equal to
this value, more stock items are automatically ordered
o once an order for more stock items is generated, a flag is added to the record to stop re-
ordering every time the stock item barcode is read
o when new stock items arrive, the stock levels are updated in the database.

ADVANTAGES TO THE MANAGEMENT OF USING BARCODES

•much easier and faster to change prices on stock items

•much better, more up-to-date sales information/sales trends

•no need to price every stock item on the shelves (this reduces time and cost to the
management)

•allows for automatic stock control

•possible to check customer buying habits more easily by linking barcodes to, for example,
customer loyalty cards.

ADVANTAGES TO THE CUSTOMERS OF USING BARCODES

•faster checkout queues (staff don’t need to remember/look up prices of items)

•errors in charging customers are reduced

•the customer is given an itemised bill

•cost savings can be passed on to the customer

•better track of ‘sell by dates’ so food should be fresher.

HOW SENSORS CAN BE USED TO INPUT DATA

•Sensors are devices which read or measure physical properties such as temperature, pressure,
acidity, etc.

•Real data is analogue — this means it is constantly changing and doesn't have a discrete value
which is finite and countable.

•Analogue data usually requires some form of interpretation.

o For example, measuring temperature on a mercury thermometer requires the user to

look at the mercury height to work out the temperature. So, the temperature can have an
infinite number of values depending on the precision of how the height of the mercury is
measured.

•However, computers cannot understand physical quantities and the data needs to be
converted into a digital format.

•This is achieved by an analogue to digital converter (ADC), a device that converts physical values
into discrete digital values.

•Common sensors and examples of applications that use them.

•When a computer is used to control devices, it is necessary to use a digital to analogue
converter (DAC) since these devices need analogue data to operate in many cases.

•Frequently, an actuator is used in these control applications.

o Actuators are technically output devices, but are an integral part of the control system.

•An actuator is an electromechanical device such as a relay, solenoid or motor.

HOW SENSORS ARE USED IN REAL-LIFE

•Sensors are used in both monitoring and control applications. There is a difference between
how these two methods work:

o Sensors send signals to the microprocessor/computer

o The signals are converted to digital (if necessary) using an ADC
o The computer/microprocessor analyses the data received by checking it against stored
values.
o If it is a monitoring system:

•If new data is outside the acceptable range, a warning message is sent to a screen or an alarm
is activated

•The microprocessor/computer has no effect on what is being monitored – it just ‘watches’ the
process
 o If it is a control system:

•If new data is outside the acceptable range, the computer/microprocessor sends signals to
control actuators.

•The output from the system affects the next set of inputs

•Examples of monitoring include:

o monitoring a patient in a hospital for vital signs such as heart rate, temperature, etc.
o monitoring of intruders in a burglar alarm system
o checking the temperature levels in a car engine
o monitoring pollution levels in a river.

•Examples of control include:

o turning street lights on at night and turning them off again during daylight
o regulating the temperature in a central heating/air conditioning system
o changing the traffic lights at a road junction
o operating anti-lock brakes on a car when necessary
o regulating the environment in a greenhouse.

MONITORING APPLICATIONS

BURGLAR ALARM SYSTEM

•A burglar alarm monitoring system carries out the following actions:

o The system is activated by keying in a password on a keypad.

o The infra-red sensor picks up the movement of an intruder in the building.
o The acoustic sensor picks up sounds such as footsteps or breaking glass
o The pressure sensor picks up the weight of an intruder coming through a door or
through a window.
o The sensor data is passed through an ADC if it is in an analogue form to produce digital
data.
o The computer/microprocessor will sample the digital data coming from these sensors at a
given frequency and is compared with the stored values by the computer / microprocessor.
o If any of the incoming data values are outside the acceptable range, then the computer
sends a signal to:

•a siren to sound the alarm,

•a light to start flashing.

o A DAC is used if the devices need analogue values to operate them.

o The alarm continues to sound/lights continue to flash until the system is reset with a
password.

MONITORING OF PATIENTS IN A HOSPITAL

•A number of sensors are attached to the patient; these measure vital signs such as:

o temperature
o heart rate
o breathing rate, etc.

•These sensors are all attached to a computer system.

•The sensors constantly send data back to the computer system.

•The computer samples the data at frequent intervals.

•The range of acceptable values for each parameter is keyed in to the computer.

•The computer compares the values from the sensors with those values keyed in.

•If anything is out of the acceptable range, a signal is sent by the computer to sound an alarm.

•If data from the sensors is within range, the values are shown in either graphical form on a
screen and/or a digital read out.

•Monitoring continues until the sensors are disconnected from the patient.

CONTROL APPLICATIONS

CONTROL OF STREET LIGHTING

•The lamp is fitted with a light sensor which constantly sends data to the microprocessor.

•The data value from the sensor changes according to whether it is sunny, cloudy, raining or it is
night time etc.

o The light sensor sends data to the ADC interface.

o This digitises the data and sends it to the microprocessor.
o The microprocessor samples the data every minute (or at some other frequency rate).
o If the data from the sensor is less than the value stored in memory:

•a signal is sent from the microprocessor to the street lamp

•the lamp is switched on.

o The lamp stays switched on for 30 minutes before the sensor readings are sampled again
(this prevents flickering).
o If the data from the sensor is greater than or equal to the value stored in memory:

•a signal is sent from the microprocessor to the street lamp

•the lamp is switched off.

o The lamp stays switched off for 30 minutes before sensor readings are sampled again
(this prevents flickering).

ANTI-LOCK BRAKING SYSTEMS (ON CARS)

•Anti-lock Braking Systems (ABS) on cars use magnetic field sensors to stop the wheels locking
up on the car if the brakes have been applied too sharply.

o When one of the car wheels rotates too slowly (it is locking up), a magnetic field sensor
sends data to a microprocessor.
o The microprocessor checks the rotation speed of the other three wheels.
o If they are different (i.e. rotating faster), the microprocessor sends a signal to the braking
system:

•the braking pressure to the affected wheel is reduced

•the wheel's rotational speed is then increased to match the other wheels.

o If one of the wheels is rotating too quickly, braking pressure is increased to that wheel
until it matches the other three.
INPUT DEVICES
•Candidates should be able to:

o describe the principles of operation of the following output devices: inkjet, laser and 3D
printers; 2D and 3D cutters;
speakers and headphones; actuators; flat-panel display screens, such as Liquid Crystal
Display (LCD) and Light-Emitting

Diodes (LED) display; LCD projectors and Digital Light Projectors (DLP)

o describe how these principles are applied to real-life scenarios, for example: printing
single items on demand or in large volumes; use of small screens on mobile devices

INKJET PRINTERS

•Inkjet printers are made up of:

o a print head consisting of nozzles which spray droplets of ink on to the paper to form
characters
o an ink cartridge or cartridges; either a group of cartridges for each colour (blue, yellow
and magenta) and a black cartridge or one single cartridge containing all three colours +
black (Note: some systems use six colours.)
o a stepper motor and belt which moves the print head assembly across the page from
side to side
o a paper feed which automatically feeds the printer with pages as they are required.

•The ink droplets are produced currently using two different technologies.

o Thermal bubble:

•Tiny resistors create localised heat which makes the ink vaporise.

•This causes the ink to form a bubble; as the bubble expands, ink is ejected from the print head
onto the paper.

•When the bubble collapses, a small vacuum is created which allows fresh ink to be drawn into
the print head.

•This continues until the printing cycle is completed.

o Piezoelectric:

•A crystal is located at the back of the ink reservoir for each nozzle.

•The crystal is given a tiny electric charge which makes it vibrate.

•This vibration forces ink to be ejected onto the paper; at the same time more ink is drawn in for
further printing.

•Stages of printing a document using an inkjet printer:

1 The data from the document is sent to a printer driver

2 The printer driver ensures that the data is in a format that the printer can understand

3 A check is made by the driver to ensure the printer is available to print

4 The data is then sent to the printer and it is stored in a temporary memory known as a printer
buffer

5 A sheet of paper is then fed into the main body of the printer; a sensor detects whether paper
is available in the paper feed tray — if there isn’t (or the paper is jammed) then an error
message is sent back to the computer

6 As the sheet of paper is fed through the printer, the print head moves from side-to-side across
the paper printing the text or image; the four ink colours are sprayed in exact amounts to
produce the final colour

7 At the end of each full pass of the print head, the paper is advanced to allow the next line to be
printed, until the whole page has been printed

8 If there is more data in the printer buffer, stage 5 to 7 is repeated until the buffer is empty

9 Once the printer buffer is empty, the printer sends an interrupt to the computer’s processor;
this is a request for more data to be sent to the printer; the whole process continues until the
whole of the document has been printed

LASER PRINTERS

•Laser printers use dry powder ink rather than liquid ink as well as static electricity to produce
text and images.

•Unlike inkjet printers, laser printers print the whole page in one go.

•Laser printers can carry out large print jobs very quickly and they don't run out of ink halfway
through.

•Stages of printing a document using a laser printer:

1 The data from the document is sent to a printer driver

2 The printer driver ensures that the data is in a format that the printer can understand

3 A check is made by the driver to ensure the printer is available to print

4 The data is then sent to the printer and it is stored in a temporary memory known as a printer
buffer

5 The printing drum is given a positive charge; as the drum rotates, a laser beam is scanned
across it removing the positive charge in certain areas leaving negatively charged areas which
match the text/images of the page to be printed
6 The drum is then coated with positively charged toner (powdered ink); since the toner is
positively charged, it only sticks to the negatively charged parts of the drum

7 A negatively charged sheet of paper is then rolled over the drum

8 The toner on the drum row sticks to the paper to produce an exact copy of the page sent to
the printer

9 To prevent the paper sticking to the drum, the electric charge on the paper is removed after
one rotation of the drum

10 The paper then goes through a fuser which is a set of heated rollers; the heat melts the ink,
fusing it to the paper

11 At the end, a discharge lamp removes all the electric charge from the drum making it ready to
print the next page

APPLICATIONS OF INKJET AND LASER PRINTERS

•The choice of whether to use an inkjet printer or laser printer depends on a few factors:

o How much money do you have to spend?

o How fast does the printer need to be?
o How much do you need to print?
o What quality must the output have?
o Will you be printing in black and white or colour?

•Applications where one printer is better than another:

o Inkjet printers are best for one-off photos or where only a few pages of good quality,
colour printing is required.

•The small ink cartridges or small paper trays would not be an issue with such applications.

•Inkjet printers themselves are relatively inexpensive but refilling the ink when it runs out can be
very expensive.

o Laser printers are preferable for applications that need high-volume printing (in colour or
monochrome)

•Laser printers produce high quality printouts and are very fast when making multiple copies of
a document.

•Laser printers have large toner cartridges and large paper trays.

3D PRINTERS

•3D printers produce solid objects which actually work.

•The solid object is built up layer by layer using materials such as powdered resin, powdered
metal, paper or ceramic
•3D printers are primarily used in computer-aided design (CAD) applications.

•Features of 3D printing:

o Various types of 3D printers exist; they range from the size of a microwave oven up to the
size of a small car.
o 3D printers use additive manufacturing (the object is built up layer by layer); this is in
contrast to the more traditional method of subtractive manufacturing (removal of
material to make the object) Similarly, CNC machining removes metal to form an object;
3D printing would produce the same item by building up the object from layers of
powdered metal.
o Direct 3D printing uses inkjet technology; a print head can move left to right as in a
normal printer. However, the print head can also move up and down to build up the
layers of an object.
o Binder 3D printing is similar to direct 3D printing. However, this method uses two passes
for each of the layers; the first pass sprays dry powder and then on the second pass a
binder (a type of glue) is sprayed to form a solid layer.

How To Create A Solid Object Using A 3D Printer

•There are a number of steps in the process of producing an object using these 3D printers.

o A design is made using computer-aided design (CAD) software

o The finalised drawing is imported into special software that prepares it in a format which
the 3D printer understands
o The 3D printer is set up to allow the solid object to be made
o The solid object is built up layer by layer

•This can take several hours, depending on the layers’ thickness, the material used and the size
of the final object

o The object is removed from the printer and is then prepared

•Some printers use a jelly-like support which needs to be washed away by immersion in water

•Some printers require the removal of excess plastic powder

•Some printers require the cutting away of unused material

•In many cases, the object has to be left to cure for a few hours

APPLICATIONS OF 3D PRINTING

•Uses of 3D printing are varied, but some examples include:

o prosthetic limbs made to exactly fit the recipient

o items to allow precision reconstructive surgery (e.g. facial reconstruction following an
accident)
o in aerospace, manufacturers are looking at making wings and other parts using 3D
technology; the bonus will be lightweight precision parts
 o in fashion and art - 3D printing allows new creative ideas to be developed
o making parts for items no longer in production

2D AND 3D CUTTERS

•Cutters are machines which use various methods to cut matter away from material to produce
an object or pattern.

•A three-dimensional (3D) laser cutter works in a similar way to a two-dimensional (2D) cutter.

o The main difference is that the 3D cutter can recognise an object in the x-y-z direction
rather than just x-y.

•3D laser cutters can cut the following materials:

o glass
o polymer
o crystal
o wood
o metal

•Very complex designs can be cut since the cutters are controlled by computers and very
sophisticated software.

•3D cutters can work with far more materials than 3D printers which makes them preferable in
many cases.

•However, 3D cutters use high temperatures and produce dust, shards or gas which makes
them dangerous to work with.

LOUDSPEAKERS/HEADPHONES

•Sound is produced from a computer by passing the digital data through a digital to analogue
converter (DAC) and then

through an amplifier; finally, the sound emerges from a speaker.

•Sound is produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the speaker housing at different
frequencies and amplitudes.

•The rate at which the DAC can translate the digital output into analogue voltages is known as
the sampling rate.

o If the DAC is a 16-bit device, then it can accept numbers between +32767 (216 - 1) and -32
768 (216); 00000 is ignored.
o The speed at which these values can be converted is the sampling rate.

LCD AND LED MONITORS

LED (LIGHT EMITTING DIODES) SCREENS

•An LED screen is made up of tiny light emitting diodes (LEDs).

•Each LED is either red, green or blue in colour.

•By varying the electric current sent to each LED, its brightness can be controlled, producing a
vast range of colours.

•LED screen tends to be used for large outdoor displays due to the brilliance of the colours
produced.

•LEDs use less power and emits less heat than an ordinary light bulb, but are much more
expensive.

LCD (LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY) SCREENS

•LCD screens are made up of tiny liquid crystal diodes; these are grouped together in threes or
fours which form pixels.

•LCDs don’t produce any light which means they have to be back-lit.

o This is done using light emitting diode (LED) technology.

o Use of LED backlighting gives a very good contrast and brightness range.

•Before the use of LEDs, LCD screens used cold cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) as the back-
light method.

•CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen which supply the light source.

•When LEDs are used, a matrix of tiny blue-white LEDs is used behind the LCD screen.

•LEDs have a number of advantages over CCFL technology:

o LEDs reach their maximum brightness almost immediately (there is no need to ‘warm up’)
o LEDs give a whiter light that sharpens the image and makes the colours more vivid; CCFL
had a slightly yellowish tint
o LEDs produce a brighter light that improves the colour definition
o Monitors using LED technology are much thinner than monitors using CCFL technology
o LEDs last indefinitely; this makes it more reliable and makes for a more consistent
product
o LEDs consume very little power which means they produce less heat as well as using less
energy

ORGANIC LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (OLED)

•Newer LED technology is making use of organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs).

o OLEDs use organic materials (made up of carbon compounds) to create semiconductors

that are very flexible.
o Organic films are sandwiched between two charged electrodes (one is a metallic cathode
and the other a glass anode).
o When an electric field is applied to the electrodes, they give off light.

•This means that no form of backlighting is required. This allows for very thin screens.
•It also means that there is no longer a need to use LCD technology, since OLED is a self-
contained system.

•OLED screens can be made very thin because of the lack of a backlight.

•Due to their thinness and flexibility, OLED screens can be made to bend to any shape.

•Advantages of using OLED compared with existing LEDs and LCDs include:

o the plastic layers of an OLED are thinner, lighter and more flexible than the crystal
structures used in LEDs or LCDs
o OLED layers can be made from plastic rather than the glass used in LED and LCD screens
o OLEDs give a brighter light than LEDs
o OLEDs do not require backlighting like LCD screens — OLEDs generate their own light
o since OLEDs require no backlighting, they use much less power than LCD screens (perfect
for mobile devices)
o since OLEDs are essentially plastics, they can be made into large, thin sheets
o OLEDs have a very large field of view which makes them ideal for use in television sets
and for advertising screens

LIGHT PROJECTORS

•There are two common types of light projector:

o digital light projectors (DLP)

o LCD projectors.

•Projectors are used to project computer output onto larger screens or interactive whiteboards.

•They are often used in presentations and in multimedia applications.

DIGITAL LIGHT PROJECTORS (DLP)

•A digital light projector (DLP) basically works by shining a light onto a grid of thousands of tiny

mirrors that can move.

•How (grey scale) digital light projectors (DLP) work:

o Light is shone onto a grid of micro mirrors.

o The number of micro mirrors and how they are arranged determines the resolution of
the digital image.
o When the micro mirrors tilt towards the light source, they are ON.
o When the micro mirrors tilt away from the light source, they are OFF.
o This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen.
o The micro mirrors can switch on or off several thousand times a second creating various
grey shades. This creates a grey scale image.

•If digital light projectors need to output colour images:

o A bright white light source passes through a colour filter on its way to the DLP chip wh.
 o The white light is split into the primary colours.
o The ON and OFF states of each micro mirror are linked with colours from the filter to
produce the coloured image.

LCD PROJECTORS

•LCD projectors basically work by firing a high-intensity beam of light through an LCD display
and then onto a screen.

•How this works in principle is described below.

o A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb or LED inside the projector body.
o This beam of light is sent to a group of chromatic coated mirrors; these reflect the light
back at different wavelengths.
o When the white light hits these mirrors, the reflected light has wavelengths
corresponding to red, green and blue.
o These three light components pass through three LCD screens.
o When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens, a red, green and blue version of
the grey image emerges.
o These images are then combined using a special prism to produce a full colour image
o Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto a screen.

ACTUATORS

•An actuator is an electromechanical device that is responsible for moving and controlling a
mechanism or system.

o Examples include relays, solenoids and motors.

•Actuators are an integral part of control processes where they work in conjunction with
sensors.

•When the computer is used to control actuators, it is often necessary to use a digital to
analogue converter (DAC) since these devices need analogue data to operate in many cases.

o For example, many actuators require an electric current rather than a simple digital signal
direct from the computer.

However, digital actuators don’t require a DAC; in digital actuators, part of the device is
connected to a computer which opens and closes a circuit.
MEMORY, STORAGE DEVICES AND
MEDIA
•Candidates should be able to:

o show understanding of the difference between: primary, secondary and off-line storage
and provide examples of each, such as:

•primary: Read Only Memory (ROM) and Random Access Memory (RAM)

•secondary: hard disk drive (HDD) and Solid State Drive (SSD)

•off-line: Digital Versatile Disc (DVD), Compact Disc (CD), Blu-ray disc, USB flash memory and
removable HDD

o describe the principles of operation of a range of types of storage device and media
including magnetic, optical and solid state
o describe how these principles are applied to currently available storage solutions, such as
SSDs, HDDs, USB flash memory, DVDs, CDs and Blu-ray discs
o calculate the storage requirement of a file

PRIMARY, SECONDARY AND OFF-LINE STORAGE

•Memory and storage devices can be split up into three groups:

o primary memory
o secondary storage
o off-line storage.
PRIMARY MEMORY:
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)

•The features of Random Access Memory (RAM) are:

o it is volatile/temporary memory (the contents of the memory are lost when the power to
the RAM is turned off)
o it is used to store:

•data,

•files, or

•part of the operating system that are currently in use

o it can be written to or read from and the contents of the memory can be changed.

•In general, the larger the size of RAM the faster the computer will operate.

o In reality, RAM never runs out of memory; it continues to operate but just gets slower and
slower.
o As RAM becomes full, the processor has to continually access the storage to overwrite old
data on RAM with new data.
o By increasing RAM size, the number of times this operation is carried out is reduced,
making the computer run faster.

•RAM is much faster to write to or read from than other types of memory; but its main drawback
is its volatility.

•Buffers often use RAM since they need to be a fast memory and the data only needs to be held
temporarily. Buffers allow the processor to do other tasks while slower peripheral devices send
data to and receive data from the computer.

•There are two types of RAM technology:

o dynamic ram (DRAM)

o static RAM (SRAM).

DYNAMIC RAM (DRAM)

•Each Dynamic RAM (DRAM) chip consists of a number of transistors and capacitors. The
function of each part is:

o capacitor — this holds the bits of information (0 or 1)

o transistor — this acts like a switch; it allows the chip control circuitry to read the capacitor
or change its value

•This type of RAM needs to be constantly refreshed.

 o The capacitor needs to be recharged every 15 microseconds otherwise it will lose its
value.
o If it isn’t refreshed, the capacitor's charge will leak away very quickly, leaving every
capacitor with value 0.

•DRAMs have a number of advantages over SRAMs:

o they are much less expensive to manufacture than SRAM

o they consume less power than SRAM
o they have a higher storage capacity than SRAM.

STATIC RAM (SRAM)

•Unlike DRAM, SRAM doesn't need to be refreshed because it makes use of 'flip flops' to hold
each bit of memory.

•SRAM is much faster than DRAM when it comes to data access (SRAM is 25 nanoseconds and
DRAM is 60 nanoseconds).

•Where absolute speed is essential, SRAM is preferred DRAM.

o For example, the processor's memory cache is the high-speed portion of the memory; it
is effective because most programs access the same data or instructions many times.
o By keeping as much of this information as possible in SRAM, the computer avoids having
to access the slower DRAM.

READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

•The main features of Read Only Memory (ROM):

o they are non-volatile/permanent memories (the contents of the memory remain even
when the power is turned off)
o they are often used to store the start-up instructions when the computer is first switched
on (for example, ROM might store the basic input/output system (BIOS))
o the data or contents of a ROM chip can only be read; they cannot be changed.

SECONDARY: HARD DISK DRIVE (HDD) AND SOLID-STATE DRIVE (SSD)

HARD DISK DRIVES (HDD)

•Hard Disk Drives (HDD) store data in a digital format on the magnetic surfaces of disks (or
platters).

•How HDDs work:

o Data is stored on the surface of magnetic disks in tracks (rings going around the centre)
and sectors (slices of the disks).

•Normally, each disk has two surfaces which can be used to store the data.
 o When data has to read or written, the disks spin and read-write heads pass over the
sector where the data is.
o The disks have to spin because the read-write heads can only move in a straight line from
the centre outwards.
o Read-write heads are then able to access any parts of the platter surfaces as they spin.

•HDDs have slow data access when compared to RAM or SSD because of the physical distance
read-write heads must travel.

•Many applications require the read-write heads to constantly seek for t blocks of data resulting
in many head movements.

•The effects of latency then become very significant.

o Latency is the time it takes for a specific block of data on a data track to rotate around to
the read-write head.

•Users will sometimes notice the effect of latency when they see messages such as ‘please wait’
or ‘not responding’.

SOLID-STATE DRIVES (SSD)

•Solid-State Drives (SSD) store data as 0s and 1s in transistors within chips in the SSD.

•How SSDs work:

o SSD devices store data by controlling the movement of electrons within NAND or NOR
chips.
o The data is stored as 0s and 1s in millions of tiny transistors within the chips.

•SSDs are a non-volatile rewritable memory.

•Benefits of SSDs over HDDs:

o they are more reliable (no moving parts to go wrong)

o they are considerably lighter
o they don't have to 'get up to speed' before they work properly
o they have a lower power consumption they run much cooler than HDDs
o because they have no moving parts, they are very thin
o data access is faster than HDD.

•The main drawbacks of SSDs are that they have a shorter lifespan than HDDs and are more
expensive.

•All solid-state memories need to be treated with some care.

o If they are removed from a device before being made safe, data on the memory card or
stick can be corrupted. In extreme cases, the memory card or stick become totally
unusable.
OFF-LINE: DIGITAL VERSATILE DISC (DVD), COMPACT DISC (CD), BLU-RAY DISC, USB FLASH
MEMORY AND REMOVABLE HDD

•Off-line storage includes:

o CD/DVD/DVD-RAM (optical storage systems)

o Blu-ray disks (optical storage systems)
o USB flash memory/memory sticks/SD-XD cards (solid state storage systems)
o removable/external hard disk drives (magnetic storage systems).

CD/DVD DISKS

•CDs and DVDs are optical storage devices.

•How CDs and DVDs work:

o A red laser is used to read and write the data to and from the surface of either type of
disk.
o Both use a thin layer of metal alloy or light-sensitive organic dye to store the data.
o Both use a single, spiral track which runs from the centre of the disk to the edge.
o Data is stored in pits and lands on the spiral track.

•CDs and DVDs can be designated ‘R’ (write once only) or ‘RW’ (can be written to or read from
many times).

•Difference between DVDs and CDs:

o DVD uses dual-layering, which increases the storage capacity by layering two separate
recording layers.

•DVDs can have a single layer though.

o DVDs have a larger storage capacity than CDs because the pit size and track width are
both smaller.
o DVDs use lasers with a shorter wavelength than CDs’. The shorter the wavelength, the
greater the storage capacity.

DVD-RAM

•DVD-RAM uses a very different technology to CDs and DVDs. They have the following features:

o Instead of a single, spiral track, they use a number of concentric tracks

o Use of concentric tracks allows simultaneous read and write operations to take place.
o They allow numerous read and write operations (up to 100000 times) and have great
longevity (over 30 years) which makes them ideal for archiving.

BLU-RAY DISCS

•Blu-ray discs are also a form of an optical storage device.

•Differences between DVD and Blu-ray:

 o A blue laser, rather than red, is used to carry out read and write operations;
o The wavelength of blue light is only 405 nanometres (compared to 650 nm for red light)
o Using blue laser light means that the pits and lands can be much smaller.
o Blu-ray can store up to five times more data than normal DVD
o Single-layer Blu-ray discs use a 1.2 mm thick polycarbonate disk;
o Dual layer Blu-ray and normal DVDs both use a sandwich of two 0.6 mm thick disks
o Blu-ray disks automatically come with a secure encryption system that prevents piracy
and copyright infringement
o The data transfer rate for a DVD is 10 Mbps and for a Blu-ray disc it is 36 Mbps.

•All these optical storage media are used as back-up systems.

•This also means that CDs and DVDs can be used to transfer files between computers.
Manufacturers often supply their software using CDs and DVDs.

o The most common use of DVD and Blu-ray is the supply of movies or games.

USB FLASH MEMORIES

•Memory sticks/flash memories use solid-state technology.

•They usually connect to a computer through the USB port.

•They are small, lightweight devices, which makes them suitable for transferring files between
computers.

•They can also be used as small back up devices.

•Use cases:

o Complex or expensive software often uses memory sticks as a dongle.

•The dongle contains additional files which are needed to run the software.

•Without this dongle, the software won't work properly.

•It therefore prevents illegal or unauthorised use of the software, and also prevents copying of
the software.

o Digital cameras use a slightly different form of solid-state memory, known as XD or SD

cards.

•The technology is essentially the same as memory sticks.

•These memory cards allow photos to be transferred from camera to computer via the USB
port.

o Many printers and computers also have card slots allowing the device to read the
memory card directly.

•Each memory card is made up of NAND chips.

REMOVABLE HARD DISK DRIVES

•Removable hard disk drives are essentially HDD but can be connected to the computer using
one of the USB ports.

•In this way, they can be used as a back-up device or as another way of transferring files
between computers.

THE PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF MAGNETIC, OPTICAL AND SOLID-STATE STORAGE DEVICES

MAGNETIC STORAGE DEVICES

•Some materials such as iron oxide are easy to magnetise by bringing a magnet near them.

•The magnetised spot of material is itself a magnet, with a north pole and a south pole.

•The direction the magnetised spot faces can represent one bit of binary data: one direction
means 1 and the other means 0.

•A magnetic storage device converts data from the computer into spots of magnetism.

•The storage device does this using an electric current in a coil of wire.

•Current flowing in one direction writes a 1 and in the other it writes a 0.

•The spot stays magnetised after the electric current is taken away.

•That means the data remains even after electricity is switched off.

•If a file is deleted, the spots can be remagnetised, so they can be used for new files.

OPTICAL STORAGE DEVICES

•On an optical disc, the binary data is represented by microscopic pits or marks made in a
pattern on a thin reflective layer.

•To read the data, an optical drive spins the disc and focuses a laser's light onto its surface.

•When the light hits a pit or mark, its reflection from the disc is dimmer than from the unmarked
background.

•A light sensor on the drive detects this.

•The difference in light represents the 1s and 0s of digital data.

SOLID-STATE STORAGE DEVICE

•The physics behind solid-state storage:

o All atoms are composed of electrons in motion around a nucleus.

o Electrons are very small particles.
o An electric current is a flow of electrons.
o A material that doesn't let electrons flow is called an insulator.

•Flash memory (or solid-state storage) works by trapping electrons.

•A "flash" of electricity forces electrons through an insulator.

•When the electricity is removed, the electrons are stuck there.

•The memory device can detect the stuck electrons, so they represent data: a location with stuck
electrons represents a 0 bit, and if it has none, it represents a 1.

•Once the electrons have been put in place, they stay there even when the computer is switched
off.

•A flash of electricity in the reverse direction will drain any trapped electrons and erase the data.

•This means flash memory is readable, writable and erasable storage.

•This type of storage is called solid state because the storage happens inside the solid structure
of matter.

•It is called flash because of the flash of electricity that sets the electrons in place.

OPERATING SYSTEMS
•Candidates should be able to:

o describe the purpose of an operating system

•Candidates will be required to understand the purpose and function of an operating system
and why it is needed.

•Candidates will not be required to understand how operating systems work.

o show understanding of the need for interrupts

OPERATING SYSTEMS

•In modern computers, most of the system software that the CPU needs is collected together
into one big software file called the operating system (OS).

•When the computer is turned on, the first action of the CPU is to load the operating system into
RAM.

•The operating system stays in RAM all the time the computer is switched on.
•It operates in the background managing the computer’s basic functions and also providing a
user-friendly experience.

BOOTING UP

•When you switch a computer on, the first action is to load the operating system from storage
into RAM from ROM.

•The first instructions that the computer needs are stored in read-only memory (ROM).

•ROM is non-volatile so these instructions are retained when the computer is unpowered.

•These start-up instructions are called the BIOS, which stands for "basic input/output system".

•The BIOS instructions get copied to main memory and executed.

•They start to control the computer's peripherals, and look in secondary storage for the
operating system.

•Once the OS has been loaded into RAM, the computer can start to work.

•The OS stays in RAM carrying out important functions until the computer is switched off.

FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM

•Operating systems can perform a wide range of functions but the core functionality includes:

o Controlling the hardware

•The operating system lets the CPU communicate with and control hardware.

•The OS also allows the CPU to send data to and from peripherals which lets the user work with
the computer.

o Providing a user interface

•The interface is what you experience when you use the computer as well as how you can
interact with it.

•The interface turns the digital data inside the computer into a form you can see and
understand.

•Most computers have a graphical user interface (GUI) with icons and other graphical items.

o Loading and running applications

o Handling errors

•It is the job of the operating system to cope with problems and breakages.

•It will typically identify the error, interrupt the current application, and display an error message
on the screen.

INTERRUPTS
•An interrupt is a signal sent from a device or software to the processor which causes the
processor to temporarily stop what it is doing.

•Once the interrupt signal is received, the processor either carries on with what it was doing or
stops to service the interrupt.

•Whenever an interrupt is serviced, the status of the current task being run is saved.

•This is done using an interrupt handler and once the interrupt has been serviced, the status of
the interrupted task is reinstated and it continues from the point prior to the interrupt being
sent.

•There are several reasons to interrupt a program:

o Hardware interrupts:

•When you use an item of hardware, such as clicking a mouse button, this can interrupt what
the computer is doing.

•Your action can change the instructions the computer is using.

•A signal from the hardware interrupts the software sequence and swaps to a new set of
instructions.

•An error signal from hardware is another type of interrupt.

o Software interrupts:

•These usually deal with problems, for example an interrupt saying that a web page is taking too
long to load.

o Another use of interrupts is to let the CPU swap between different programs. This allows
the computer to ‘multi-task’.

•The operating system is constantly scanning the signals received from hardware and software.
If an interrupt is received, the CPU interrupts the current program

BUFFERS

•Buffers are used in computers as a temporary memory area.

•Buffers are essential in modern computers because hardware devices operate at much slower
speeds than the processor.

o If it wasn't for buffers, processors would spend the majority of their time idle, waiting for
the hardware device to complete its operation.

•Buffers are filled from the processor or memory unit and whilst these are emptied to the
hardware device, the processor carries on with other tasks.
HIGH- AND LOW-LEVEL LANGUAGES AND THEIR
TRANSLATORS
•Candidates should be able to:

o show understanding of the need for both high-level and low-level languages
o show understanding of the need for compilers when translating programs written in a
high-level language
o show understanding of the use of interpreters with high-level language programs
o show understanding of the need for assemblers when translating programs written in
assembly language

WHAT IS A PROGRAM?

•A computer program is a list of instructions that enable a computer to perform a specific task.

•Computer programs can be written in high-level languages or low-level languages, depending

on:

o the task to be performed

o the computer to be used.

HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGES

•A high-level language is a programming language that is independent of computer hardware, a

program written in one needs to be translated into machine code before it is executed.

•Advantages of high-level languages:

o independent of the type of computer being used

o easier to read, write and understand programs
o quicker to write programs
o programs are easier and quicker to debug
o easier to maintain programs in use
o programming techniques learnt in one language can be transferred to working in another

•Disadvantages of high-level languages:

o programs can be larger

o programs can take longer to execute
o programs may not be able make use of special hardware

LOW-LEVEL LANGUAGES

•A low-level language is a programming language that is dependent on computer hardware.

•Advantages of low-level languages:

o can make use of special hardware

o includes special machine-dependent instructions
 o can write code that doesn’t take up much space in primary memory
o can write code that performs a task very quickly

•Disadvantages of low-level languages:

o it takes a longer time to write and debug programs

o programs are more difficult to understand

•Low-level languages can refer to:

o machine code, the binary instructions that a computer understands

o assembly languages that need to be translated into machine code.

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGES

•An assembly language is a low-level programming language but programs written in assembly
languages need to be translated into machine code before they are executed.

•Programmers use assembly languages in order to:

o make use of special hardware

o make use of special machine-dependent instructions
o write code that doesn’t take up much space in primary memory
o write code that performs a task very quickly.

MACHINE CODE

•Machine code refers to the binary instructions that a computer understands. This means that
programs written in machine code can be loaded and executed without translation

•Programmers don’t usually write in machine code as it is difficult to understand and it can be
complicated to manage data manipulation and storage.

TRANSLATORS

•A program must be translated into binary before a computer can use it; this is done by a utility
program called a translator.

•Types of translators are: compilers, interpreters, and assemblers.

ERRORS IN PROGRAMS

•As programs are written by humans, they may contain errors. There are two major types of
error:

o A syntax error is where a program statement doesn't obey the rules of the programming
language. A program cannot be translated if it contains syntax errors.
o A logic error is where the program doesn't do what the programmer wanted it to do.
Logic errors are found when a program is run. These can be found by tracing what the
program does and using test data with expected results
SECURITY
DATA VALUE AND SECURITY THREATS
•Candidates should be able to:

o show understanding of the need to keep data safe from accidental damage, including
corruption and human errors
o show understanding of the need to keep data safe from malicious actions, including
unauthorised viewing, deleting, copying and corruption

THE VALUE OF DATA

•Data means facts and figures.

•All data is valuable to some extent, but data is particularly valuable to businesses for two
reasons:

o The business will have had to invest time and money into collecting and processing data.
o Data can be used to create value for a business: data is a business asset.

•Like any business asset, data must be protected from loss or damage.

WHAT IS DATA SECURITY?

•Data security means protecting data from loss, corruption or unauthorised access.

LOSS

•Data loss means the data no longer exists in storage.

o For example, portable storage such as a USB flash drive could be mislaid, or a file could
be deleted by mistake.

•Data loss can severely affect businesses.

o For example, a business may have compiled a list of its customers' bank details. If this
data is lost, the business will not be able to get money from its customers.

CORRUPTION

•Data corruption means the data has been damaged or changed. Changes mean the data is no
longer accurate, or has the wrong format.

o For example, if customer bank details are altered, money might be taken from the wrong
bank account.

•Damage to storage media can corrupt data.

•If data corruption is severe, the data will no longer make sense and the computer will no longer
be able to read it.
UNAUTHORISED ACCESS

•Some people have permission to see or alter data. Typically, they work for the organisation that
owns the data.

•When people who don’t have permission look at data, copy it or make changes this is called
unauthorised access.

•Unauthorised access is dangerous because it threatens privacy and data integrity.

o Privacy means data is only seen or copied by people who have permission.

•If data privacy isn’t secured then both personal privacy and business profits can be threatened.

•It can be hard to tell that privacy has been breached because data is not changed.

o Integrity means the data is protected from unauthorised changes.

•This is called hacking.

SECURITY THREATS

•Security threats are issues that can threaten data security and privacy.

Non-Malicious Threats

•Internal threats to data security are issues within a company that can cause problems.

Hardware Faults

•Faults in storage devices and storage media can result in data loss. Reasons for hardware fault
can be:

o Bad manufacturing quality

o Natural disaster
o Interrupted power supply

•Safeguards against hardware fault:

o Use of data back-ups

o Use of UPS to prevent power loss causing hardware malfunction
o Saving data on a regular basis
o Use of parallel systems as back-up hardware
o Handling equipment carefully

SOFTWARE FAULTS

•Software is the instructions that control the computer. If software incorrectly carries out some
operation on data, it may

become corrupted or be deleted.

•Safeguards against software fault:

 o Use of data back-ups.
o Save data on a regular basis in case the software freezes or crashes
o Thoroughly testing software before it is used
o Buying software from a trustworthy company or a programmer

HUMAN ERROR

•The human users of a computer system can make mistakes.

o They might enter incorrect data or make mistakes when they are using software
o They might work in a way that risks damaging hardware
o People may be careless with equipment
o They may be careless with storage media and misplace it

•Safeguards against human error:

o Training staff to use computers properly

o Clear guidelines about safe and sensible working practices
o Providing help and support for trainees and learners
o Well-designed software that is clear and easy to use will help to reduce human error.

MALPRACTICE AND MALICIOUS THREATS

MALPRACTICE

•Malpractice means not doing your work properly, usually by mistake.

•Malpractice can be a threat to data security. For example:

o leaving the computer logged on when you go out of the room, so that someone else can
access your files.
o telling someone else your password, so that the computer system is no longer secure.
o downloading software from the Internet or opening a damaging email, which can put
malware onto the computer.
o using work computers for personal business, which wastes work time and increases the
risk of malware.

•To prevent malpractice:

o Employees should be trained and supervised.

o Company policies should layout the best employee practices.

•In general, malpractice is not criminal activity but rather carelessness.

CRIME

•Computer crimes are illegal, malicious acts which can cause a lot of damage. For example:

o taking a copy of music, games, movies, etc., without permission, sometimes called piracy
o hacking - hackers find out passwords or bypass security systems
o creating and distributing malware
o identity theft, which is stealing someone else's personal details, and pretending to be that
person, typically to take money out of the person's bank account
o deliberately damaging or stealing computer hardware and storage media
METHODS OF DATA PROTECTION
•Candidates should be able to:

o show understanding of how data are kept safe when stored and transmitted, including:

•use of passwords, both entered at a keyboard and biometric

•use of firewalls, both software and hardware, including proxy servers

•use of security protocols such as Secure Socket Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer Security (TLS)

•use of symmetric encryption (plain text, cypher text and use of a key) showing understanding
that increasing the length of a key increases the strength of the encryption

SECURITY PROTECTION

PROOF OF IDENTITY

•Proof of identity is important for data security because it:

o controls access to data

o prevents identity theft.

•The main methods used for proof of identity are passwords and biometrics.

PASSWORDS

• A password is a string of characters which only the user knows that they use to verify their
identity.

• In order to ensure that passwords are as strong as possible:

o Passwords should be complex and long.

• This is important because it prevents unauthorized users from using software to brute-force
guess the password.

o Passwords should be unique from others the user uses.

• If a user’s password for one account is leaked, then the security of the user’s other accounts
won’t be threatened.

o Passwords should be changed frequently.

o Passwords should be kept private.

BIOMETRIC CHECK

•Biometric checks confirm a user's identity by comparing a scan of a unique physical

characteristic to a recorded scan.

•Examples of physical features used for biometrics include:

o a finger print, thumb print or palm print

 o the pattern of your iris (the coloured portion of your eye)
o features of your face such as the distance between your eyes.

•Checking physical features needs special equipment and software. For example:

o a palm reader
o an iris scanner
o a facial recognition system.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

FIREWALLS

•A firewall can be either software or hardware that sits between a computer/internal network
and an external network and

filters data that enters or exits the internal network (referred to as traffic).

•Types of firewalls:

o Hardware firewalls are hardware interfaces located between an internal network and its
internet connection. Often referred to as gateways.
o Software firewalls can be software installed on a computer; in some cases, part of the
operating system.

•Tasks carried out by a firewall include:

o examining the traffic between the user's computer (or internal network) and a public
network (e.g. the internet)
o checking whether incoming or outgoing data meets a given set of criteria

•if the data fails the criteria, the firewall will block the traffic and give the user (or network
manager) a warning that there may be a security issue

o logging all incoming and outgoing traffic to allow later interrogation by the user (or
network manager)
o preventing access to certain undesirable sites according to criteria; the firewall can keep a
list of IP addresses
o helping to prevent viruses or hackers entering the user's computer (or internal network)
o warning a user if software on their system tries to access an external data source
•However, there are circumstances where the firewall can't prevent potential harmful traffic:

o it cannot prevent individuals, on internal networks, using their own modems to bypass
the firewall
o employee misconduct or carelessness cannot be controlled by firewalls (e.g., control of
passwords or use of accounts)
o users on stand-alone computers can chose to disable the firewall, leaving it open to
harmful ‘traffic’ from the internet.

•All of these issues require management control or personal control to ensure that the firewall is
allowed to do its job.

PROXY SERVER

•Proxy servers act as an intermediary between the user and a web server:

o Web browser sends request to the proxy server.

o Proxy server forwards the web browser’s request to the web server.
o Web server sends back response to proxy server.
o Proxy server filters the response and before sending it to the web browser.

•Functions of proxy servers include:

o allowing the internet traffic to be filtered; they can block access to a website if necessary
o by using the feature known as a cache, they can speed up access to information from a
website:

•when the website is first visited, the pages visited are stored on the proxy server

•when the user next visits the website, it now goes through the proxy server cache instead,
which is much faster

o keeping the user's IP address secret, improving security

o acting as a firewall.

SECURITY PROTOCOLS

•A protocol a set of rules used by computers to communicate with each other across a network.

Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)

•Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) is a type of protocol which allows data to be sent and received
securely over the internet.

•When a user logs onto a website, SSL encrypts the data - only the user's computer and the web
server can decrypt it.

•A user will know if SSL is being applied when they see https in the URL or a padlock in the
browser’s status bar.
•The process of accessing a secured website and transferring data (all together referred to as
the handshake protocol):

1. The user’s web browser sends a message so that it can connect with the required website
which is secured by SSL.

2. The web browser then requests that the web server identifies itself.

3. The web server responds by sending a copy of its SSL certificate to the user’s web browser.

4. If the browser can authenticate the certificate, it sends a message to the web server to allow
communication to begin.

5. Once this message is received, the server acknowledges the browser and the SSL-encrypted
two-way data transfer

begins.

Transport Layer Security (TLS)

•Transport Layer Security (TLS) is similar to SSL but is a more recent security system.

•TLS is a form of protocol that ensures the security and privacy of data between devices and
users when communicating over the internet.

•TLS is designed to provide encryption, authentication and data integrity in a more effective way
than SSL.

•TLS is designed to prevent a third-party hacking into communication over the internet between
a website and client (user).

•TLS is formed of two layers:

o record protocol: this part of the communication can be used with or without encryption
(it contains the data being transferred over the internet).
o handshake protocol: this permits the website and the client (user) to:

•authenticate each other

•make use of encryption algorithms

•establish a secure session where data can be transmitted.

•Differences between SSL and TLS:

o It is possible to extend TLS by adding new authentication methods.

o TLS can make use of session caching which improves the overall performance compared
to SSL.

•When opening a TLS session, it requires a lot of computer time (due to the complex encryption
keys being used).
•The use of session caching can avoid the need to utilise so much computer time for each
connection.

•TLS can either establish a new session or attempt to resume an existing session; resuming
sessions boosts system performance.

o TLS separates the handshaking process from the record protocol (layer) which holds all
the data.

ENCRYPTION

•Encryption is used primarily to protect data in case it has been hacked.

•Encryption won't prevent hacking but it will make the data meaningless unless the recipient can
decrypt it.

•There are two terms used to refer to data in the context of encryption:

o Before encryption, a message is referred to as plain text.

o After encryption, a message is referred to as cypher text.

•There are two stages to encryption:

o Encryption: when plain text is turned into cypher text.

o Decryption: when cypher text is turned back into plain text.

•In order to encrypt a message, an encryption algorithm and encryption key is used.

o An encryption key can be a string of text characters or a number.

o The key tells the computer how to encrypt plain text and how to decrypt the cypher text.
o Encryption and decryption are done using a mathematical formula.
o A long and complex key gives stronger protection.

•There are two types of encryption:

o Symmetric
o Asymmetric or public key.

SYMMETRIC ENCRYPTION

•In symmetric encryption the encryption key is kept secret; only the sender and receiver know it.

•The sender uses it to encrypt a message and the receiver uses the same key to decrypt it.

•The drawback of symmetric encryption is that the key has to be sent over the internet before
encryption can begin.

•This reduces security because a third-party could potentially intercept the key.

ASYMMETRIC ENCRYPTION

•In asymmetric encryption there are two keys: a public key and a private key. The two are
mathematically linked.
•A message encrypted with one key can only be decrypted with the other key.

•Features of the two keys:

o Public key

•This key is shared with any computer that needs to send a message.

•Any computer can download the public key: it is not a secret.

•Computers that want to send messages can use the public key to encrypt the messages before
sending them.

o Private key

•This key is kept secret on a user’s computer.

•The user’s computer can use it to decrypt the messages that are sent to it.

•The private key is never transmitted.

•The process of using asymmetric encryption on a message sent from A to B:

1. User A applies a symmetric key to encrypt the message

2. The symmetric key is then encrypted using the public key known to both A and B

3. User A sends the message over the internet

4. User B decrypts the symmetric key by applying their own private key

5. The decoded symmetric key is now used to decrypt the message sent by user A

•The computer generates the keys automatically, stores them securely, and takes care of
encryption and decryption.

•Asymmetric encryption is safer than symmetric encryption, but slower

SECURITY ATTACKS
•Candidates should be able to:

oshow understanding of the need to keep online systems safe from attacks including denial of
service attacks, phishing, pharming

DENIAL-OF-SERVICE ATTACK (DOS)

•A Denial-of-Service Attack (DoS) is an attempt at preventing users from using part of a network,
mainly internet servers.

•DoS attacks are usually temporary but may be a very damaging act or a big breach of security.

•They don’t just affect networks; DoS attacks can be targeted at individuals. Attackers may be
able to prevent users from:
 o oaccessing their emails
o oaccessing websites/web pages
o oaccessing online services (such as banking).

•One method of a DoS attack is to flood a network with useless traffic.

o oWhen a user’s browser tries to access a webpage, the browser sends a request to the
internet server which contains it.
o oThe server can only handle a finite number of requests.
o oSo, if it becomes overloaded by an attacker sending requests, it will be unable to service
a user's legitimate request.

•An individual user or a website can guard against these attacks to some degree by:

o ousing an up-to-date malware/virus checker

o osetting up a firewall to restrict traffic to and from the internet server or user's computer
o oapplying email filters to manage or filter out unwanted traffic or spam emails.

•Signs that a user can look out for to see if they are a victim of one of these attacks include:

o oslow network performance (opening files or accessing certain websites)

o ounavailability or inability to access particular websites
o olarge amounts of spam mail reaching the user's email account.

•A Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) uses multiple machines or automated software to flood a
network with useless traffic from different IP addresses.

•This is worse than a normal DoS attack because it is difficult prevent.

IDENTITY THEFT

•Identity theft is when a criminal has someone’s personal details and uses that information to
impersonate them online.

o oPersonal details can be details such as bank account information, passwords and
personal ID.

•Identity theft can enable criminals to steal a lot of money and commit fraud.

•Criminals can obtain personal details in many ways, but two important examples are phishing
and pharming.

PHISHING

•Phishing is the act of sending out legitimate-looking emails which trick recipients into clicking
on a link in the email or attachment, which then sends the user to a fake website where they will
be tricked into giving up personal data.

•Methods to prevent phishing:

o oSet up email filters which filter phishing emails

 o oThe user should always be cautious when opening emails/attachments
o oContact the company which

PHARMING

•Pharming is the act of installing malicious code on a user’s hard drive or a web server which
then redirects the user to a fake

website without their knowledge where they will be tricked into giving up personal data.

•Methods to prevent pharming:

o Some anti-spyware software can identify and remove pharming code from the hard drive
o The user should always be alert and look out for clues that they are being redirected to
another website
o The user should look out for clues that show a secure website, such as https or a padlock
sign next to a website URL.

1.4.4 APPLYING KNOWLEDGE

•Candidates should be able to:

odescribe how the knowledge from 1.4.1, 1.4.2 and 1.4.3 can be applied to real-life scenarios
including, for example, online banking, shopping

ETHICS
•Candidates should be able to:

o oshow understanding of computer ethics, including copyright issues and plagiarism

o odistinguish between free software, freeware and shareware
o oshow understanding of the ethical issues raised by the spread of electronic
communication and computer systems, including hacking, cracking and production of
malware

COMPUTER ETHICS

•Computer ethics is a set of principles set out to regulate the use of computers.

•Three factors are considered when discussing computer ethics:

o intellectual property rights — for example, copying of software without the owner’s
permission i.e., plagiarism and copyright infringement.
o privacy issues — for example, hacking or any illegal access to another person's personal
data
o effect of computers on society — this covers factors such as job losses, social impacts
and so on.

•Copyright is a type of intellectual property right which grants a creator the exclusive right to
reproduce and modify their work and authorise others to do the same.
•Plagiarism is when a person takes another person's idea/work and claims it as their own and
doesn’t acknowledge the original author.

FREE SOFTWARE, FREEWARE AND SHAREWARE

•Apart from the commercial software which is sold in shops for a profit, there is another group
of software:

o free software
o freeware
o shareware.

FREE SOFTWARE

•Free software is software which gives users the freedom to run, copy, change or adapt it.

•The creators of free software permit users to:

o run the software for any legal purpose they wish

o access and modify the source code
o freely distribute the software (in either original or modified form)

•Users of free software are allowed to do all of this because free software isn’t protected by
copyright restrictions.

•However, there are still rules that need to be obeyed. The user:

o cannot add source code from another piece of software unless it is also free software
o cannot produce software which copies existing software subject to copyright laws
o cannot adapt the software in such a way that it infringes copyright laws protecting other
software
o may not use the source code to produce software which breaks any other laws

FREEWARE

•Freeware is software a user can download from the internet free of charge.

o Once downloaded, there are no fees associated with using the software.

•Freeware is subject to copyright laws and users are often requested to tick a box to say they
understand and agree to the terms and conditions governing the use of the software.

•This means that a user is not allowed to access or modify the source code in any way.

SHAREWARE

•Shareware is software which users are allowed to try out free of charge for a trial period.

o At the end of the trial period, the author of the software will request that you pay a fee if
you like it.
 o Once paid, a user is registered with the software’s originator and free updates and help
are then provided.
o Often the trial version of the software lacks features found in the full version, which only
become available when the fee is paid.

•Shareware is protected by copyright laws and users aren’t allowed to use the source code in
any of their own software.

•Permission also needs to be obtained before this software is distributed.