REPORTING VERBS

The English language offers a multitude of words that a writer can use to describe what
something or someone says. These words are commonly called “reporting verbs.”

However, these verbs can have subtle shades of meaning and if you don’t use the right
one, you risk misusing them … undercutting or distorting their meaning and maybe even
confusing your reader.

It is also important to recognize how a particular verb is used in the context of the whole
sentence. Usually, we follow the reporting verb with a direct object (for example, state
the idea) or with a dependent clause (for example, state that dogs are intelligent animals).
Sometimes, a particular verb requires a preposition (for example, object to). Study the
examples I give below so you make sure you get this right.

For a task like the TOEFL integrated essay/speaking task or a short academic paper, you
don’t need to master a huge number of reporting verbs. Being able to confidently and
correctly use a smaller group will be all you need to communicate effectively. In addition,
you’ll also want to acquire a helpful number of nouns that are derived from these verbs.

In spoken English, we frequently use forms of say, talk about, or think. For example, my
son says cats are more intelligent than dogs. This book is talking about animal
intelligence. My daughter thinks dogs are more intelligent than cats. In writing, however,
you will want more variety and more precision.

♦ ♦ ♦ ♦

State has a very neutral and non-forceful meaning. We state facts. The author states that
cats are more intelligent than dogs. A statement is something someone says. The
university might issue a statement about a new policy. You might make a statement to
the police if you witness a crime.

I’m fond of the word posit, which has the same meaning as the phrasal verbs put forward
or set forth. This word implies that the person is stating something that they believe is
true. The author posits that we should regard cats and dogs as intelligent beings.

Discuss is also a neutral word, but is usually used when someone is talking about a
number of things, perhaps for a longer period of time. An author might discuss different
kinds of intelligence. You might discuss your homework assignment with a friend. Your
teacher might encourage a class discussion.

♦ ♦ ♦ ♦
Assert is a stronger word than state. The author asserts that neither cats nor dogs are
very intelligent. Someone accused of a crime might assert their innocence. You make an
assertion about something you strongly believe.

Other verbs that are very close in meaning to assert are maintain and affirm. The article
maintains that humans are more intelligent than animals. The professor affirms the idea
that there is more than one kind of intelligence.

♦ ♦ ♦ ♦

Argue is even more forceful than assert. The author argues that his cat is more intelligent
than many humans. In an argument, people are having a disagreement. So to argue
implies that there is a counter-argument even though it is not necessarily stated
explicitly.

Another verb that is very close in meaning to argue is contend. It also implies a more
argumentative stance. The author contends that it is impossible to measure intelligence
accurately. If you disagree frequently with a friend, you might try to avoid points of
contention … those issues that you argue about. If you are always fighting about the
same thing, we idiomatically call that issue a bone of contention (probably from the
image of two dogs fighting over the same bone).

Debate can be used if we are explicitly referring to two or more parties; thus, although it
is quite formal, it can be used where an author and speaker take contrasting positions.
The author and speaker debate whether life exists on Mars. The authenticity of the artifact
is debated by the author and the speaker. The author and speaker debate the significance
of the evidence provided by the animal researchers.

♦ ♦ ♦ ♦

Other useful reporting verbs with different shades of meaning include:

Claim. When you claim something, it may or may not be true. The author claims there is
life on Mars. He makes a claim about the existence of life on Mars. You generally don’t
make a claim about something that’s absolutely certain; you believe it’s true, but others
might not. In other words, you don’t claim that there are 24 hours in a day.

Believe. This verb also implies that you may not have facts to prove your belief. If the
author believes that dogs are more intelligent than cats, this suggests that others may
not believe this.

Suggest. Suggesting something is not very forceful. It implies there are alternate
possibilities. The evidence suggests that there may be water on Mars. You normally follow
suggest with a modal verb form. He suggests there might be several solutions to the
problem. She suggests that they could approach the issue from a different point of view.
You make or offer a suggestion.
Propose. This is very similar to suggest but it’s a bit more formal. The author proposes
that further research might be necessary to determine the validity of the analysis.

Recommend. This is similar to suggest and propose, but I think it’s stronger and implies
that a judgment has been made and a preference indicated. You could suggest or
propose several different solutions, for example, but you are likely to recommend one
particular solution.

Imply. This is even less forceful than suggest. You imply something without actually
saying it directly. You make an implication. Figuring out what an author implies is a
popular type of question on many reading tests. We sometimes say that you have to
“read between the lines” to determine what the author is implying.

Note, point out, or observe. These are useful, fairly neutral verbs that could be used to
describe an observation the author has made or a fact that they have noted. These verbs
wouldn’t be used to describe stating a position or making a claim. The author notes that
cats generally live longer than dogs. He points out that many cats live over 15 years. He
also observes that human beings become very attached to their pets. He makes an
observation.

Illustrate. You illustrate something with an example or illustration. The author illustrates
his idea that dogs are more intelligent than cats by telling a story about his German
Shepherd and his cat. You can also provide or offer an example or illustration.

Hypothesize/theorize. These verbs are especially helpful in the TOEFL iBT integrated
writing task, in which the reading often presents theories that the lecturer disputes.
What’s the difference between them? For scientists, a theory is well-tested and backed
by evidence (such as the theory of evolution), while a hypothesis is merely a possible
suggested explanation or outcome. The integrated writing task generally doesn’t make
this distinction, and theory and theorize are more frequently used even though
hypothesis and hypothesize would probably be more appropriate. This may be because
theory and theorize are more common and recognizable for test-takers; in addition,
hypothesize is harder to spell and the plural of hypothesis is tricky … it’s hypotheses, not
hypothesises. However, this is just my hypothesis 🙂

Speculate. If you want a variation on hypothesize/theorize that is less scientific, speculate

is a great word that basically means the same thing. Although the reading speculates
that cats may be trained to solve simply problems, the lecturer disagrees.

♦ ♦ ♦ ♦

Now that we’ve covered synonyms for saying things, how do we deal with someone’s
counterarguments? What if someone disagrees with the author?

I guess human beings are argumentative by nature, because there are lots and lots of
words to express these ideas! What you need to be careful about, when you’re writing, is
making sure you include a direct object (if needed) and the proper preposition (if
required).

Disagree is one of the few verbs that doesn’t need a direct object. You can simply
disagree. The author states that dogs are more intelligent than cats, but the professor
disagrees. He disagrees with that statement.

Object (notice that when pronouncing this verb, you put the stress on the second syllable,
ob-JECT) can also be used without a direct object (pronounced OB-ject). While the author
states that dogs are less intelligent than cats, the professor objects. He objects to this
idea. However, the author disagrees with this objection.

Verbs of disagreement that must have a direct object include contradict, dispute, oppose,
rebut, reject, and refute. They should not be followed immediately by a dependent clause
(for example, that cats are more intelligent). If you want to use a dependent clause, you
must have it modifying a noun (such as fact, statement, assertion, belief, or idea) that
serves as the direct object.

The professor contradicts the claim that cats are more intelligent.

The professor contradicts.

The professor contradicts that cats are more intelligent.

The lecturer disputes the author’s statement.

The writer opposes his assertion.

The author rebuts the idea that cats and dogs have equal intelligence.

The scientist rejects the belief that intelligence in animals can be measured accurately.

The text refutes the finding that cats are more affectionate than dogs.

Cast doubt on is a very popular phrase used for TOEFL integrated writing, but I am not a
big fan. Not only do I rarely see this used in print but it is also weaker than the preceding
verbs. Doubt is similar to question. When you doubt or question something, to me it
implies that you might change your mind! They are more likely to disagree with, refute,
rebut, contradict, or oppose an idea in the reading passage, rather than simply doubt it.
🙂

Criticize is another possible verb of disagreement. I think criticize connotes a more

personal and direct confrontation. You might criticize a decision or a policy.

♦ ♦ ♦ ♦

Finally, what if an author actually agrees with something?

As with disagree, agree doesn’t require a direct object. You can agree. Or you can agree
with something or someone. You can also concur, or concur with an author.

Corroborate means not only to agree, but usually to provide additional support. The
professor corroborates the point in the text by noting that many experiments have
proved that cats are very intelligent.

Concede, on the other hand, implies that you have given in after having previously held
a different viewpoint. It suggests a certain reluctance in accepting a statement or
position. The author concedes that cats are intelligent, but points out that more research
should be performed to ascertain their exact degree of intelligence.

♦ ♦ ♦ ♦

Believe it or not, there are many more reporting verbs in the English language. But I
believe these are enough words for most students and test-takers to accurately describe
what a particular author or lecturer is saying, as well as to compare and contrast different
points of view.

REPORTING VERBS – HOW TO USE THEM?

There are two basic models used with reporting verbs. Some reporting verbs follow one
model, some reporting verbs follow another, and some can follow both.

The first model is verb + noun (or noun phrase). For example:
The author affirms the existence of life on the sea floor.
The text discusses the possibility of life on Mars.
The lecturer proposes alternative theories to those stated in the text.

The second model is verb + that + clause (subject/verb)

The author observes that many animals have evolved to adapt to the extreme
environment.
The text states that no life could exist on Mars.
The lecturer suggests that other theories might better explain this phenomenon.

As a writer, you will need to know whether each reporting verb you use follows the first
model, the second model, or both.

First model only:

The author refutes the theory that life exists on Mars.
NEVER: The author refutes that life exists on Mars.

Second model only:

The lecturer concludes that several theories are equally valid.
NEVER: The lecturer concludes the equal validity of several theories.
Fortunately, most reporting verbs can follow both models:

First model: The researchers acknowledge the lack of convincing data yielded by
recent studies.

Second model: The researchers acknowledge that recent studies have yielded little
convincing data.
♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦

The second issue regards tense. For relatively simple tasks like the TOEFL integrated
essay, I would ALWAYS recommend using the simple present tense for your reporting
verbs. This is especially true if the reporting verb is followed by a clause describing
something that happened in the past.

For example, this is a relatively easy sentence to write with the reporting verbs in the
simple present tense. Note the verbs in the subsequent clauses.

The professor points out that the use of toxic chemicals in the
1960s damaged vegetation and caused many animal species to disappear.
She notes that many fertilizers were used without knowledge of their harmful
effects.
But if we put the reporting verbs in the simple past tense and want to stay consistent in
our use of tense in the subsequent clauses, we have to write:

The professor pointed out that the use of toxic chemicals in the 1960s had
damaged vegetation and had caused many animal species to disappear.
She noted that many fertilizers had been used without knowledge of their harmful
effects.

Or in another example:

Simple present: The professor states that the fire gave new opportunities for small
animals and actually strengthened the food chain.

Simple past: The professor stated that the fire had given new opportunities for small
animals and had actually strengthened the food chain.

Finally, if you are stating general facts and not referring to previous events or situations,
I suggest you keep everything in the simple present tense.

The professor rejects the belief that dogs are more intelligent than cats. She points
out that most research studies are deeply flawed. Pointing out that cats are more
independent and less willing to please than dogs, she believes that cats are equally
capable of performing tasks that researchers present to them.
TOEFL REPORTING VERBS: WHY DO I NEED TO USE THEM?

You should use TOEFL reporting verbs during TOEFL integrated speaking and writing
tasks. These important verbs will help you to keep a neutral tone. Furthermore, TOEFL
reporting verbs keep your writing framed from the author’s and speaker’s points of view
and not yours. Notice the difference in tone from paragraph A and B. Paragraph A uses
no reporting verbs. Nor does it acknowledge the author or speaker from the two sources.
Paragraph B uses reporting verbs, and it acknowledges the information from the reading
and listening passage.

Paragraph A: A large part of any language is learned when the children imitate the sounds
and words that they hear around them. To illustrate, there was a 2-year old who often
repeated words that her mother spoke to her. However, children often don’t and can’t
imitate what they hear in their language-rich environment. Instead, children learn a
language by constructing its rules as they go along. Therefore, most language is not
learned through imitation.

Paragraph B: The author in the reading passage contends that a large part of any
language is learned when the children imitate the sounds and words that they hear
around them. To illustrate, the author gives the example of a 2-year old who often
repeated words that her mother spoke to her. The speaker in the listening passage, in
contrast, casts doubt on the validity of the imitation theory. He believes that children
often don’t and can’t imitate what they hear in their language-rich environment.
According to him, children learn a language by constructing its rules as they go along.
Therefore, most language, according to the speaker, is not learned through imitation.

TOEFL REPORTING VERBS: REPORTING VERBS AND SENTENCE VARIETY

Generally, you should use a combination of simple, compound, complex, and compound-
complex sentences. In addition, you should use mostly longer and medium length
sentences, with a shorter sentence now and then. Similarly, you should place TOEFL
reporting verbs with their accompanying voice markers in various parts of the sentence.

Beginning: The author in the reading passage asserts that employees should be required
to read all documents in their entirety.

Middle: Most employees do not need to write a document all at once, argues the speaker
in the lecture, but they should be encouraged to write the essay in various stages: pre-
writing/outlining, drafting, peer collaboration, and editing.

End: Most developed countries have declining birth rates, explains the author in the
reading passage.
TOEFL REPORTING VERBS: REPORTING VERBS AND VERB TENSES

For most situations, you should use simple present tense reporting verbs as you explain
the main points of the reading and listening passages. If you switch from simple present
to simple past reporting verbs throughout your response, you will lose consistency.
Random shifts with your TOEFL reporting verbs will also create some problems with your
organization. These inconsistencies and organizational problems will result in your essay
scoring lower.

Paragraph with random TOEFL reporting verb shifts: The speaker in the listening passage
explains several steps in glacial formation. First of all, enough snow had to accumulate
on higher elevations, asserted the speaker. Then, the snow begins to pile up year after
year until it becomes really heavy. According to the speaker, as the snow gets deeper
and heavier, it pushes down on the lower layers causing them to compress. Eventually,
the snow, described the lecturer, turned into a very condensed state called fern, an
intermediate state between water and glacial ice. Finally, the compressed snow began
to move downhill due to gravitational forces.

Paragraph with only simple present reporting verbs: The author in the reading passage
defines a concept called Doublespeak, and the speaker in the listening passage presents
four examples to further illustrate the concept. According to the author, doublespeak
refers to any type of communication that prevents, limits, or conceals thought. In fact,
the author argues that the government and large corporations may even use double
speak to avoid responsibility when something goes wrong. In addition, the speaker in
the lecture gives four examples of doublespeak to further illustrate the concept:
euphemism, jargon, gobbledygook, and inflated language. Each type of doublespeak,
warns the speaker, can be used to hide information from the general public.

The paragraph which uses simple present tense verbs has more consistency. In addition,
the ideas in each sentence connect together well since every verb is in the simple present
tense.

SOURCES:

TOEFL Reporting Verbs for Integrated Tasks - Better TOEFL Scores Blog

Reporting verbs (eslbootcampglobal.com)