Play-based Learning,

Category 3 Workshop

Hilton, New York, United States

26 - 27 June 2018

Language of delivery: English

Facilitator/s: Lisa Rhoads and Simon Clark

www.ibo.org/programmes/pd
Intellectual property disclaimer

This workbook is intended for use by a participant at an IB-approved

workshop. It contains several types of material: material that was created
and published by the IB, material that was prepared by the workshop
leader and third-party copyright material.

Following the workshop, participants who wish to provide information or

non-commercial in-school training to teachers in their school may use the
IB-copyright material (including student work) and material identified as
the work of the workshop leader unless this is specifically prohibited.
The IB is committed to fostering academic honesty and respecting others’
intellectual property. To this end, the organization must comply with
international copyright laws and therefore has obtained permission to
reproduce and/or translate any materials used in this publication for which
a third party owns the intellectual property. Acknowledgments are included
where appropriate. Workshop participants may not use any of the material
in this workbook that is identified as being the intellectual property of a
third party for any purpose unless expressly stated and must therefore
seek permission from the copyright holder before making use of such
material.

Permission must be sought from the IB by emailing copyright@ibo.org for

any use of IB material which is different from that described above or
those uses permitted under the rules and policy for use of IB intellectual
property (http://www.ibo.org/copyright/intellectualproperty.cfm).
Permission granted to any supplier or publisher to exhibit at an IB-
approved workshop does not imply endorsement by the IB.
Mission statement

The International Baccalaureate aims to develop inquiring, knowledgeable

and caring young people who help to create a better and more peaceful
world through intercultural understanding and respect.

To this end the organization works with schools, governments and

international organizations to develop challenging programmes of
international education and rigorous assessment.

These programmes encourage students across the world to become active,

compassionate and lifelong learners who understand that other people,
with their differences, can also be right.
 Workbook Contents
GLOBAL SESSION GUIDELINES - Play-based learning..........................................................6
PBL - Sao Paulo 2018.............................................................................................................12
What is an IB education?.........................................................................................................39
Revisiting Play - Acts of inquiry................................................................................................53
Malaguzzi, L. March/April 1994. "Your Image of the Child: Where Teaching Begins."
Child Care Information Exchange. Vol 96. Pp 52-56...............................................................62
Nimmo, J. 2008. Young Children's Access to Real Life: an examination of the growi
ng boundaries between children in child care and adults in the community. Contemp
orary Issues in Early Childhood. Vol 9, number 1. Pp 3-13.....................................................67
International Baccalaureate
Global session guidelines

Play-based learning

Version 1: September 2014

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IB Educators,
Thank you in advance for sharing your knowledge and experience with other IB educators by
leading / facilitating an IB workshop. The quality of IB professional development stems from its
peer to peer model, which encourages educators to develop new insights into pedagogy and
their own practices through concept-based, action-oriented inquiry. In taking on the role of a
workshop leader or online facilitator, you are contributing to a worldwide professional learning
community of internationally minded teachers, school leaders and administrators. Your
leadership grounds research- based IB professional development in the reality of teaching
practice.

The session guidelines and workshop materials for each Primary Years Programme (PYP)
category 3 workshop will guide you in the delivery of a differentiated workshop that meets
globally consistent standards while being cognizant of the local needs of the participants in your
workshop.

The session guidelines outline the key conceptual understandings that underpin the workshop.
The sample workshop planner gives the workshop leader the flexibility to choose learning
engagements that develop these understandings in the context of their particular workshop
cohort and the IB standards and practices. Workshop folders on the workshop resource center
(WRC) contain the session guidelines, copyright-protected materials and sample planner(s).
Workshop materials and resources that accompany the global session guidelines have been
carefully selected to support the development of the key conceptual understandings and to
foster inquiry-based learning engagements. IB publications are complemented by third party
materials. Please refer to relevant IB publications listed in the session guidelines for your
workshop. In addition, as we move into the review stage of the PYP, many new IB research
reports will appear on the OCC. These are the documents we are using to inform our thinking
about curriculum for PYP students. You may find it useful to refer participants to these if they
want to know more about the PYP review.
If you wish to include additional third-party materials not already on the WRC they must be
approved by me and then go through the copyright clearance process, which can take a few
months. Be sure that any additional resources you request are necessary for participants to
bring the conceptual understandings into their practice, Planner exemplars are invaluable for
future workshop leaders. Please consider sharing your planner and slides with me so that we
can review them for inclusion in the workshop folder on the WRC.
Remember to remain current with the most recent PYP coordinators notes. They contain the up-
to-date official information on significant changes to the PYP programme. Help us to reassure
PYP practitioners that the PYP review is about making a great programme even better by
incorporating feedback from practitioners and data from research.
The purpose of professional development is to improve student learning. The IB quality
assurance surveys evaluate workshop satisfaction to determine the extent to which workshops
meet educators’ basic needs while supporting them to apply new knowledge and skills in their
schools. Please review the following links to the quality assurance framework tools that are
used to evaluate workshops.
Participant survey
Workshop leader self report

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 Workshop session observation protocols
Workshop field representative report

Participant surveys continue to indicate that participants are interested in finding out about PD
opportunities. Please spend a few minutes during the last session of the workshop to discuss
other workshops, both face to face and online, and the significance of the regional conferences.
The IB Workshops and Resources catalogue includes a wide range of professional
development experiences, including these new category 3 workshops:
• Wellbeing and student leadership
• Flipping classrooms
• Digital citizenship
• Transdisciplinary learning
• Bilingual and multilingual teaching and learning

Many PYP workshop leaders use wikis and blogs successfully. Not only is this more
environmentally friendly, but it also models the effective use of technology that we expect to see
in PYP classrooms. Wherever possible, participants should download IB documents and other
resources listed in the session guidelines to their computers. Please liaise with your regional
office to determine the most equitable and efficient way to deliver workshop materials as this will
vary from place to place and will be determined by the ICT resources available in workshop
venues.
Your feedback is always appreciated. Please send your comments, concerns or suggestions to
Sue Richards at pyp.pd@ibo.org.
A significant way to bring learning from professional development into the classroom is through
action research. Teachers who are at the forefront of student learning don’t simply seek to
replicate best practice; they also experiment with next practice. The IB journal of teaching
practice written by, reviewed by and published for teachers is a great place to find practical
research supported by rigorous analysis and reflection. The new journal contains research
submitted by teachers around the world. As leaders in international education, I encourage you
to consider publishing in it yourselves or encouraging your colleagues to do so.
Once again thank you for your contribution to the IB mission. It is this peer to peer commitment
to international education that underpins the excellence of our programmes.

Sue Richards, Head of Global Professional Development (PYP)

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Play-based learning–Category 3 workshop session guidelines
OVERALL PURPOSE OF WORKSHOP

From birth, play is the way children inquire and learn about the world around them. This
workshop looks at the importance of time, space, materials and relationships in inquiry.
Participants will explore their own political and cultural images of the child and the impact that
has on the learning environment. The workshop will look at theoretical as well as practical
considerations and the research into children’s physical, social and emotional development.

RECOMMENDED AUDIENCE

PYP teachers and coordinators with a particular interest in the early years and lower primary.
Teachers in candidate and authorized schools and non-IB teachers.

This workshop is for administrators, coordinators and teachers who

• Have attended a category 1 workshop
• Have an in-depth understanding of the philosophy and curriculum framework of the
programme

Note: Participants in category 3 workshops may be from outside IB schools.

CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDINGS

1. Respectful and careful consideration of time, space, materials and relationships infuse
all understandings of early childhood learning
2. Learning happens in a social context
3. Each one of us has an inner child that directs us as we begin to relate to the child
4. Political and cultural images of children have significant implications for society and
schools; the images may recognize certain qualities in children or negate them
5. Inquiry has many different interpretations; exploring these helps learners construct
meaning and develop enduring understandings
6. From birth, play is one of the most important ways children inquire about the world
around them; research tells us that play is a vital force for physical, social and emotional
development; children who go through play-based curriculums perform as well as or
even better than those who are denied play; they are more likely to become well-
rounded, healthy individuals
7. Environments support inquiry: the way we structure space and the environment indicates
what we believe about children, the quality of the interactions and relationships we have
with children and how we ourselves learn
8. Theoretical perspectives influence early childhood practice
9. The interplay between learning and teaching forms a collaborative and reciprocal
process; inquiry moves beyond constructivism to transform teacher and learner and
blurs the distinction between who teaches and who learns
10. Educators can help children see learning as a process with distinct components that
they can practice; scaffolding children’s learning starts with exploring children’s theories
through careful and respectful listening; children’s theories are expressed and scaffolded
through the 100 languages

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 11. As well as reflection on and consolidation of our existing practices, we have an ongoing
responsibility to plan actions to take into the future
12. The needs of 3-5 year old may be addressed through other IB workshops and PD
opportunities.

IB DOCUMENTS AND RELEVANT SCHOOL RESOURCES

Currently, the compilation and production of resource books and other workshop materials
differs in each region, and as the IB streamlines arrangements across the three regions, it is
likely that this will change. In the meantime, please follow regional office/events guidelines for
the compilation of resource books and requests for materials for use in workshops
Participants are asked to bring the following materials electronically or in print
depending on their learning preference. The IB documents, available on the OCC, must
be the most current version.
• Samples of a programme of inquiry (POI) and unit planners for the early years
• Any professional resources you might want to share
• Any documentation you have used to assess children’s understandings

IB publications
• What is an IB Education (2012)
• Making the PYP happen: A curriculum framework for international primary education
• IB programme standards and practices
• PYP Language and Mathematics scope and sequence documents
• Developing a transdisciplinary programme of inquiry (2012)
• IB learner profile booklet
• Sample units of inquiry, available on the OCC at:
http://67.207.142.65/exist/rest/app/sui.xql?doc=p_0_pypxx_mon_1112_1_e&part=1&cha
pter=1

WHAT LEADERS WILL SUPPLY

WSL may want to use additional materials to supplement the IB documents, eg:

• Samples of student work

• Power point presentations
• Video footage
• Graphic organizers
• Resources to support the understandings of the workshop
• Film or video from the OCC or video available from open sources (e.g. TED talks)

Please do not share leader or developer Power Points with participants. They may contain
material which is not copyrighted or quotes which are not accurately referenced.

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Please note: The PYP workshops do not require supplementary material. IB documents and
the copyright references are sufficient. Worksheets should be avoided as they do not model
constructivist practices. In some instances, workshop leaders may provide a small number of
photocopies, but these should be minimal, not require copyright permission and used to provoke
thinking or build understanding.

COPYRIGHTED MATERIALS AVAILABLE FOR USE

Additional material for which the IB has been granted copyright permission is available in the
appropriate workshop folder on the WRC. Please do not use any other resources that require
prior copyright permission. The permission to use materials is now linked to specific workshops.
Please only use the resources that are included in the specific workshop folder.

Malaguzzi, L. March/April 1994. "Your image of the child: Where teaching begins." Childcare
information exchange. Vol 96. Pp 52-56.
Nimmo, J. 1998. "The Child in community: Constraints from the early childhood lore." In
Edwards, C, Gandini, L and Forman, G, (eds),The Hundred Languages of Children. (Second
Edition). Greenwich, Connecticut, USA. Ablex Publishing Corporation. Pp 295-312.
Nimmo, J. 2008. “Young children’s access to real life: An examination of the growing boundaries
between children in child care and adults in the community.” Contemporary issues in early
childhood. Vol 9, number 1. Pp 3-13.

Sharing PYP practice: http://blogs.ibo.org/sharingpyp/ (This is a resource to which participants

may contribute and to which all practitioners should refer frequently for updates).

VARYING TIME FRAMES FOR REGIONAL WORKSHOPS

The number and length of sessions may vary across regions and workshop types. Workshop
leaders should adapt their planners accordingly.

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with other people and with the world in which we live. We thoughtfully consider the world and our own ideas and
experience. We work to understand our strengths and weaknesses
in order to support our learning and personal development.

The IB learner profile represents 10 attributes valued by IB World Schools. We believe these attributes, and others like
them, can help individuals and groups become responsible members of local, national and global communities3

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Enduring understandings for Play Based Learning PYP
Enduring Understanding Self-evaluation

Respectful and careful consideration of  I´ve got it!

time, space, materials and relationships  I´m almost there
1 infuse all understandings of early childhood
 I need more information
learning I´m still lost

 I´ve got it!
I´m almost there
2 Learning happens in a social context 
I need more information

I´m still lost

 I´ve got it!
Each one of us has an inner child that
 I´m almost there
3 directs us as we begin to relate to the child
 I need more information
 I´m still lost
Political and cultural images of children  I´ve got it!
have significant implications for society and  I´m almost there
4 schools; the images may recognize certain I need more information
qualities in children or negate them

I´m still lost

 I´ve got it!
Inquiry has many different interpretations;
exploring these helps learners construct  I´m almost there
5 meaning and develop enduring  I need more information
understandings I´m still lost


From birth, play is one of the most important

ways children inquire about the world 
around them; research tells us that play is a I´ve got it!
vital force for physical, social and emotional

I´m almost there
6 development; children who go through play- 
based curriculums perform as well as or I need more information
even better than those who are denied play;  I´m still lost
they are more likely to become well rounded,
healthy individuals

Environments support inquiry: the way we 

structure space and the environment I´ve got it!

indicates what we believe about children, I´m almost there
7 the quality of the interactions and 
relationships we have with children and how
I need more information
we ourselves learn  I´m still lost

 I´ve got it!

 I´m almost there
Theoretical perspectives influence early
8 I need more information
childhood practice 
 I´m still lost

 I´ve got it!

The interplay between learning and
teaching forms a collaborative and I´m almost there

reciprocal process; inquiry moves beyond I need more information
9 constructivism to transform teacher and 
 I´m still lost
learner and blurs the distinction between
who teaches and who learns

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  I´ve got it!
Educators can help children see learning as
a process with distinct components that  I´m almost there
they can practice; scaffolding children’s I need more information

10 learning starts with exploring children’s I´m still lost
theories through careful and respectful 
listening; children’s theories are expressed
and scaffolded through the 100 languages

 I´ve got it!

As well as reflection on and consolidation
of our existing practices, we have an  I´m almost there
ongoing responsibility to plan actions to I need more information
11 
take into the future I´m still lost


 I´ve got it!

The needs of 3-5 year-olds may be I´m almost there
12 addressed through other IB workshops and 
PD opportunities. I need more information

I´m still lost

In this workshop....
I would like to be able to

Because_

I will know I have been successful when

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 WORKSHOP TOOLBOX
Effective classroom strategies

Grouping strategies

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Headlines
If you were to write a headline for this topic or issue right now that captured the most
important aspect to remember, what would that headline be?

Session Headlines Why did you write this headline? Explain.

1.-

2.-

3.-

4.-

5.-

6.-

7.-

8.-

9.-

10.-

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 Key findings from research on the impact of
the IB Primary Years Programme
The International Baccalaureate (IB) Global Research Department collaborates with universities and independent research organizations
worldwide to produce rigorous studies examining the impact and outcomes of the IB’s four programmes: the Primary Years Programme (PYP),
the Middle Years Programme (MYP), the Diploma Programme (DP) and the Career-related Certificate (IBCC). Areas of inquiry include, but are
not limited to: standards alignment, programme implementation, student performance and the learner profile. In addition, many
researchers—completely independently of the IB—produce quality studies on the effects of IB programmes. The findings below come from
a sampling of both independent and IB- commissioned research relating to the PYP.

A global study investigated the performance of 23,575 PYP and A case study examining a full continuum school in Colombia
MYP students at international schools on the 2007-2009 identified the following elements as critical to the successful PYP
International Schools’ Assessments (ISA), relative to non-IB to MYP transition: strong planning for teacher collaboration,
students (n=14,317). The ISA assesses four domains: math, reading, greater knowledge of the programmes and professional
narrative writing and expository writing. On the whole, the results development. These elements “helped students understand and
indicate that IB students outperformed their non-IB peers on the cope with the differences between both programs as well as
ISA across all four domains in a majority of grade levels (Tan, Bibby, identify interdisciplinary links among subjects and thus be able to
2010). move from a transdisciplinary to an interdisciplinary approach
more effectively” (Cowie de Arroyo 2011: 59).
The impact of the PYP and MYP in Texas, USA, was examined
by comparing the performance of 43 IB schools
Exp. Writing
Assessment Area

Nar. Writing
Grade 5 on standardized state reading and math exams to a
matched non‐IB comparison group, and conducting
Grade 4
interviews and classroom observations at 8 case study
Reading
schools. The study concluded that IB schools scored as well as
non‐IB counterparts on standardized assessments, while also
Grade 3
providing students with the opportunity to develop critical thinking
Math skills and an intercultural perspective. Case study schools were
very positive about the programmes, and favourable
instructional practices, activities and student
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Effect Size

Figure 1. Effect size of difference in performance between IB and of resources; existence of a media centre; family and community involvement;
non-IB students by grade. Bars to the right of the vertical zero axis support by school leadership and the IB coordinator. Challenges included:
limited resources; integration of state standards; the transdisciplinary nature;
indicate higher scores by the IB cohort. On 10 of 12 measures the IB district and state expectations (Hall, Elder, Thompson, Pollack 2009).
students had higher mean scores.
Phase II of the previous global ISA study included the primary
years (grades 5 and 6) “Student Learning and Wellbeing
Questionnaire”, focusing on student values and attitudes,
perceptions of school life, and social and emotional well-being. A
comparison of IB and non-IB students shows that PYP students
had a moderately higher proportion of agreement across all four
dimensions (Tan, Bibby 2012).
Investigating the PYP authorization and implementation
process, a study in Georgia, USA, combined an online survey
of 561 administrators and teachers at 16 schools with in-depth
case studies at 3 schools. Successful strategies
for implementation were found to include: whole school
immersion; collaborative planning; continuous training; availability
To read summaries or the complete reports of research projects
conducted or commissioned by the IB Research Department, please visit
http://www.ibo.org/research, or contact research@ibo.org.
©International Baccalaureate Organization 2013
International Baccalaureate® | Baccalauréat International® | Bachillerato Internacional®

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behaviours were observed more frequently than in
similar classrooms. Despite some challenges with
implementation, the majority of teachers and
administrator cited the positive impact of the
following as significant advantages: IB professional
development; higher level thinking skills and
a broader view of the world among students; the
emphasis on global learning and cultural
awareness; increased teacher collaboration and
student motivation; the focus on all students;
authentic assessment (Sillisano et al 2010).
In a study of teacher’s views of the PYP in
Turkey, 14 preschool teachers at 4 schools were
asked in semi- structured interviews about the
strengths and weaknesses of the PYP and their
views regarding implementation
and improvement. Respondents stated that the
biggest strengths of the programme are:
children are educated as world citizens with
international awareness; the research and
inquiry base; the focus on the child; purposeful
use of measurement and assessment studies;
teachers have
flexibility in practice; the allowance for individual
creativity (Guler, Yaltirik 2011).

To read summaries or the complete reports of research projects

conducted or commissioned by the IB Research Department, please visit
http://www.ibo.org/research, or contact research@ibo.org.
©International Baccalaureate Organization 2013
International Baccalaureate® | Baccalauréat International® | Bachillerato Internacional®

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 Key findings from research on the impact of the IB Primary Years Programme

Teachers at a case study school in Europe identified A dissertation examined the role of professional development
personal, professional and environmental factors (PD) in implementing the PYP as a school improvement model
which contributed to success in adopting the inquiry- at two US elementary schools. The study used interviews, focus
based teaching approach of the PYP. The important groups, survey data and observations to explore the extent to
personal factors were: valuing children’s contribution to the which the schools’ PD activities supported adult learning needs,
inquiry process and providing a clear structure/ were targeted to impact classroom practice and encouraged the
framework, embracing the idea that “we are all learners”, belief of development of professional learning communities (PLCs).
self-efficacy, open-mindedness, flexibility and positive attitude. Findings indicated the PD did meet the teachers’ adult learning
Professional factors included: training and professional needs and PLCs were formed (Langston 2012).
development (PD). The environmental factors were:
Using a case study of a Hong Kong international school
encouragement of reflection and discussion, time and flexibility
undergoing the transition from a national-based
for planning, PD opportunities, support of whole school
curriculum to the PYP, a dissertation examined the extent to
community (including parents) and facilitation of the
which teachers learned and implemented the inquiry approach.
administrators/coordinator (Veikoso Twigg 2010).
Findings indicated that all teachers learned about the PYP and
A dissertation examining the impact of the PYP on English inquiry, how to better create curriculums and how to apply best
language arts test scores of third, fourth and fifth graders at a practices, but to different extents. Data indicated that teachers
South Carolina, USA school found that after controlling for had varying levels of understanding of the PYP and inquiry, and
gender, ethnicity and an indicator of income level, students had some perceptions exist of not implementing the approach well
statistically significant higher scores than their peers at 16 district enough or not practicing critical reflection as much as they
schools that did not offer the PYP (Jordan 2009). should. Knowledge of, engagement in and attitude towards the
PYP and inquiry were found to be salient factors that affected
Surveying teachers in a US school district on their views of the
teacher learning (Mok Mcleod 2009).
effects of IB professional development, a dissertation
produced a number of key findings: teachers reported
that implementation of the PYP positively impacted their
philosophy, influenced their views on international
education and of what a students’ education will look like in future
years and impacted teacher efficacy. In particular, the survey found
positive mean, median and mode scores for the PYP’s impact on
teachers’ philosophy of education (Getchell 2010).
Dissertation research in a US school measuring student
self-assessment of global citizen attributes indicated that
girls (n=30) improved their life skills ratings for all six subtests
assessed: cooperating with others, trustworthy and honest,
positive attitude, respects individual differences, respects the
rights of others and uses kind words, actions. Results also
indicated that boys (n=30) improved their life skills ratings for four
of the six subtests: trustworthy and honest, positive attitude,
respects individual differences and uses kind words, actions.
Both sets of results were shown to be statistically significant
(Mellinger 2008).

This sheet aims to provide a brief sampling of findings produced through recent independent studies as well as research conducted
or commissioned by the IB. It does not attempt to represent all research on the PYP available in the field. As with all research,
findings must be placed within the particular contexts in which the studies took place.

Egitim Ve Bilim. Vol 36, number 160. P 266.

Cowie de Arroyo, C. 2011. “From PYP to MYP: Supporting Transitions Across the IB Continuum”. Voces y Silencios: Revista
Hall, J, Elder, T, Thompson, J and Pollack, S. 2009. The Primary Years Programme field study. Athens, Georgia, USA. University of Georgia, College of
Latinoamericana de Educación. Vol 2, number 1. Pp 39–61.
Education, Education Policy and Evaluation Center.
Getchell, LA. 2010. Effects of international baccalaureate primary years programme on teacher philosophy, perceptions of efficacy,
Jordan, F. 2011. The Impact of the Primary Years Program of the International Baccalaureate Organization on the English Language Arts State Test
and outlook on education. University of Denver. Retrieved from http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?Ver=1&Exp=01-17-
Scores of Third, Fourth, and Fifth Grade Students in South Carolina. Doctoral dissertation. Orangeburg, South Carolina, USA. South Carolina State
2018&FMT=7&DID=2025664301&RQT=309&attempt=1&cfc=1.
University.
Güler T, and Yaltirik, I. 2011. “A review of Primary Years Program in early childhood education according to teachers’ views”.
Langston, SF. 2012. A qualitative instrumental case study investigating the interrelatedness of adult learning theory, targeted professional

To read summaries or the complete reports of research projects

conducted or commissioned by the IB Research Department, please visit
http://www.ibo.org/research, or contact research@ibo.org.
©International Baccalaureate Organization 2013
International Baccalaureate® | Baccalauréat International® | Bachillerato Internacional®

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development, and the creation of professional learning communities during the implementation of an elementary school
improvement model. University of Missouri–Columbia). Mok Mcleod, HW. 2009. Teacher Learning in a Context of Comprehensive School Change: A Case Study of an International School in
Melliger, SR. 2008. The impact of an international baccalaureate primary years curriculum on intermediate grade girls’ and boys’ Hong Kong during Implementation of the International Baccalaureate Primary Years Programme (doctoral dissertation). Hong
perceptions of their learned global citizenship attributes. Omaha, Nebraska, USA. University of Nebraska at Omaha. Kong. University of Hong Kong.
Sillisano, JR et al. 2010. Evaluation of International Baccalaureate Programmes in Texas schools. College Station, Texas. State of
Texas Education Research Center.
Tan, L and Bibby, Y. 2010. IB PYP and MYP student performance on the International Schools’ Assessment (ISA). Melbourne,
Australia. Australian Council for Educational Research.
Tan, L and Bibby, Y. 2012. Performance Comparison between IB School Students and Non-IB School Students on the International
Schools’ Assessment (ISA) and on the Social and Emotional Wellbeing Questionnaire. Melbourne, Australia. Australian Council
for Educational Research.
Veikoso Twigg, V. 2010. “Teachers’ practices, values and beliefs for successful inquiry-based teaching in the International
Baccalaureate Primary Years Programme”. Journal of Research in International Education. Vol 9. Pp 40–65 (doi:10.1177/14752
40909356947).

To read summaries or the complete reports of research projects

conducted or commissioned by the IB Research Department, please visit
http://www.ibo.org/research, or contact research@ibo.org.
©International Baccalaureate Organization 2013
International Baccalaureate® | Baccalauréat International® | Bachillerato Internacional®

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 Thinking skills Self-management skills

Acquisition of knowledge Gaining Gross motor skills Exhibiting skills in which

specific facts, ideas, vocabulary; remembering groups of large muscles are used and the
in a similar form. factor of strength is primary.

Comprehension Grasping meaning from

PYP
APPROACHES Fine motor skills Exhibiting skills in which
precision in delicate muscle systems is
material learned; communicating and
interpreting learning. Transdisciplinary
TO LEARNING required.

Application Making use of previously Skills Spatial awareness Displaying a sensitivity to

the position of objects in relation to oneself or
acquired knowledge in practical or new ways.
each other.
Analysis Taking knowledge or ideas apart; Organization Planning and carrying out
separating into component parts; seeing activities effectively.
relationships; finding unique characteristics.
Time management Using time effectively
Synthesis Combining parts to create wholes; and appropriately.
creating, designing, developing and innovating.
Safety Engaging in personal behaviour that
Evaluation Making judgments or decisions avoids placing oneself or others in danger or
based on chosen criteria; standards and at risk.
conditions. Communication skills
Healthy lifestyle Making informed choices to
Dialectical thought Thinking about two or Listening Listening to directions; listening achieve a balance in nutrition, rest, relaxation
more different points of view at the same time; to others; listening to information. and exercise; practising appropriate hygiene
understanding those points of view; being able and self-care.
to construct an argument for each point of Speaking Speaking clearly; giving oral
view based on knowledge of the other(s); reports to small and large groups; expressing Codes of behaviour Knowing and applying
realizing that other people can also take one’s ideas clearly and logically; stating opinions. appropriate rules or operating procedures of
own point of view. groups of people.
Reading Reading a variety of sources for
Metacognition Analysing one’s own and information and pleasure; comprehending Informed choices Selecting an appropriate
others’ thought processes; thinking about how what has been read; making inferences and course of action or behaviour based on fact or
one thinks and how one learns. drawing conclusions. opinion.

Writing Recording information and Research skills

Social skills observations; taking notes and paraphrasing;
writing summaries; writing reports; keeping a Formulating questions Identifying
journal or record. something one wants or needs to know and
Accepting responsibility Taking on and
asking compelling and relevant questions that
completing tasks in an appropriate manner;
Viewing Interpreting and analysing visuals can be researched.
being willing to assume a share of the
responsibility. and multimedia; understanding the ways in
which images and language interact to convey Observing Using all the senses to notice
ideas, values and beliefs; making informed relevant details.
Respecting others Listening sensitively to
choices about personal viewing experiences.
others; making decisions based on fairness and Planning Developing a course of action;
equality; recognizing that others’ beliefs, writing an outline; devising ways of finding
viewpoints, religions and ideas may differ from Presenting Constructing visuals and
multimedia for a range of purposes and out necessary information.
one’s own; stating one’s opinion without
hurting others. audiences; communicating information and
ideas through a variety of visual media; using Collecting data Gathering information from
appropriate technology for effective a variety of first- and second-hand sources
Cooperating Working cooperatively in a presentation and representation. such as maps, surveys, direct observation,
group; being courteous to others; sharing books, films, people, museums and ICT.
materials; taking turns.
Non-verbal communication
Recording data Describing and recording
Resolving conflict Listening carefully to Recognizing the meaning of visual and observations by drawing, note taking, making
others; compromising; reacting reasonably to kinesthetic communication; recognizing and charts, tallying, writing statements.
the situation; accepting responsibility creating signs; interpreting and utilizing
appropriately; being fair. symbols. Organizing data Sorting and categorizing
information; arranging into understandable
Group decision-making Listening to forms such as narrative descriptions, tables,
others; discussing ideas; asking questions; timelines, graphs and diagrams.
working towards and obtaining consensus.
Interpreting data Drawing conclusions from
Adopting a variety of group roles relationships and patterns that emerge from
organized data.
Understanding what behaviour is appropriate
in a given situation and acting accordingly;
being a leader in some circumstances, a
Presenting research findings Effectively
communicating what has been learned;
follower in others.
choosing appropriate media.

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INQUIRY and PLAY

What does Inquiry mean to What does play mean to you?

you?

Are play and inquiry different or How do you support play or

/and similar? inquiry in your
school/classroom?

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 REFLECT CHOOSE
Students actively Students choose
participate in their own meaningful, positive
learning by evaluating actions that extend to
and reflecting on the
success of their fellow students, the staff
action. or the world community.

ACT
Students exercise their own
initiative and demonstrate
commitment to the attitudes
by impacting a part of the
world in a positive way.

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Curtis, Deb & Carter, Margie. (2000). Introduction. The Art of Awareness. Redleaf Press. ix-xvii.

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Reproduced with permission. Further redistribution prohibited.
Curtis, Deb & Carter, Margie. (2000). Introduction. The Art of Awareness. Redleaf Press. ix-xvii.

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Reproduced with permission. Further redistribution prohibited.
Curtis, Deb & Carter, Margie. (2000). Introduction. The Art of Awareness. Redleaf Press. ix-xvii.

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Reproduced with permission. Further redistribution prohibited.
Curtis, Deb & Carter, Margie. (2000). Introduction. The Art of Awareness. Redleaf Press. ix-xvii.

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Reproduced with permission. Further redistribution prohibited.
Curtis, Deb & Carter, Margie. (2000). Introduction. The Art of Awareness. Redleaf Press. ix-xvii.

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Reproduced with permission. Further redistribution prohibited.
Curtis, Deb & Carter, Margie. (2000). Introduction. The Art of Awareness. Redleaf Press. ix-xvii.

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Reproduced with permission. Further redistribution prohibited.
Curtis, Deb & Carter, Margie. (2000). Introduction. The Art of Awareness. Redleaf Press. ix-xvii.

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Reproduced with permission. Further redistribution prohibited.
 Villavicencio, J. March/April 2000. “Inquiry into Kindergarten.” Connect. Pp 3-5.

Inquiry in Kindergarten
by Joanna Villavicencio

from the March/April 2000 issue (vol. 13, Issue 4) of Connect,

a publication of Synergy Learning

When the shades are pulled up in my kindergarten classroom, sunlight beams in

through the windows. Early in the school year I give mirrors to the children so they
can explore the light that shines in. They enthusiastically manipulate their mirrors,
experimenting and discussing their captured sunlight, spontaneously sharing and
copying each other's discoveries. At "debriefing" sessions, they build their science
vocabulary by talking about the path of light. They are delighted to use terms like
"reflection," "projection," and "screen" as I paraphrase their statements and model
the new words for them. Soon the language of light is part of their everyday talk.

For my kindergartners, this exploration serves as a way to begin investigating

interesting light and color phenomena. It also begins the process of asking and
answering their own questions, which is at the heart of the inquiry experience.

Since being part of the Exploratorium's Teacher Learning Group over the past four
years, I've used the study of light and color not only to build an understanding of
science content for my students, but also so they can practice using materials and
learn the process skills of inquiry (observing, questioning, interpreting, etc.). As the
children mature in their ability to communicate, they also build their vocabulary and
knowledge of light and color and learn how to design their own investigations.

Tools of Inquiry

Once the children are comfortable using their mirrors, I give them new tools to use,
such as prisms. Prisms allow the children to explore what happens when light is
bent. It's a magical event when we learn how to make rainbows!

Working with the Round Light Source

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 Villavicencio, J. March/April 2000. “Inquiry into Kindergarten.” Connect. Pp 3-5.

As they investigate, both in the classroom and out, each student learns how to
observe and record information about light and color in their personal science
notebooks. Children start to compare observations found outside the classroom
with the investigations they do in class. They begin to see many ways to do
research, and their observations become part of the repertoire of resources that we
draw upon for further science explorations.

In our classroom, inquiry is also facilitated by a useful tool called the "Round Light
Source" (RLS), a powerful lamp covered with a cylindrical box. The box has four
rectangular windows where light beams shine through. Masks with narrow light slits
or colored gels: red, green and blue, can be attached to the windows, enabling the
children to experiment with either white or colored light. For instance, they can use
mirrors to project colors onto a screen, or mix the lights to make new colors. I use
the RLS as a learning station in my classroom, just the same as a sandbox and
blocks.

These activities allow my students to use their skills in manipulating sophisticated

materials and in sharing new ways of communicating and investigating. Three or
four children typically sit together to investigate. As they learn to mix colored light,
there are happy shouts: "Look! I made yellow!" "Hey, that turned green!" "Where'd
the red go?" followed by looking at each other's work and finding out how this
magic was accomplished.

Inquiry path

As the children explore light and color with these tools, I guide them to follow a
structure that helps organize their investigation. Built into the structure is the
expectation that each child is accountable for his or her own question, materials,
recording, and work time. I have divided the structure of the work into these five
parts:

1. Form a question
2. Make a plan
3. Do the investigation
4. Record and report
5. Reflect, revisit, and plan again

Each child states his or her interest in the form of a question. I carefully model
questions and write them down for all to see (Fig. 1).

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 Villavicencio, J. March/April 2000. “Inquiry into Kindergarten.” Connect. Pp 3-5.

Fig. 1

A selection of the Kindergartners' inquiry ideas and plans:

Xandria asked: "If I mix yellow and orange and pink, can I make gray?"
Veronica and Jacy asked: "Will blue and green light make yellow?"
Austin, Geron and Jerrick asked: "Can we make yellow? Can we put it on a
screen? Can we put yellow on the table?"
All the students above planned to use the round light source, color gels, mirrors
and screens.
Kevin asked: "What colors are in the rainbow? I plan to use the RLS with white
light and a prism."
LaVelle asked: "Can I put the rainbow from the CD to the screen? I plan to use
the light from the window [sunlight], a CD and a screen."

This question, and the materials used to investigate it, become the plan for the
activity that follows. Children work individually or in small groups. I work with them
by observing, questioning, supporting their efforts, and redirecting their
investigations. I actively reflect their activities back to them in my own words,
which helps when they report their work to others later on. I also help them
manage their time. When the investigations are finished, each member of the class
reports to the others. As the children tell what they observed, I write the
observations on a chart. Sometimes the children write and draw their own reports.

In the beginning, the children have a hard time articulating their discoveries, so I
help them "find" the right words to explain what they discovered. This is a crucial
step, since it sets a tone that allows each child to "own" the experience while
communicating it accurately. Each person profits by comparing the experience
being reported with his or her own. Since this is a group activity, I'm careful to
validate each child's individual contribution - an easy task with 4- and 5-year-old
children!

As their experiences build throughout the year, the children in my kindergarten

class constantly report and reflect on color and light interactions all over the school,
as well as at home. It's exciting to see evidence that the children understand the
concepts of light and color. When a student makes a rainbow by maneuvering some
"found" object in the path of a light beam, the satisfied look on that child's face tells
you that a concept has been understood because he or she has actually predicted
what was going to happen. Often, the children who have the hardest time engaging
in regular classroom work will shine in inquiry.

We are now ready to revisit and plan further investigations. I ask students if they
want to repeat their experiments or if they would rather try something else.
Children approach revisiting in different ways: some try what another person did;
others repeat or vary their first plan in some way. Thus the cycle of inquiry, plan,
work, record, and reflect is repeated.

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 Villavicencio, J. March/April 2000. “Inquiry into Kindergarten.” Connect. Pp 3-5.

Concepts

As my kindergartners learn how to question, plan, and communicate, they also

learn about the concepts of light and color. At the same time, their experiences are
supported by many other classroom activities. For example, the children are taught
to use watercolor paints and to predict what new colors they can make by mixing
them. In one of our more cooperative projects, we mix food coloring and water in a
clear pan on top of the overhead projector. As the colored pigments combine, they
are projected on the wall and ceiling, making larger-than-life color mixtures that
the children can observe.

Whenever possible, I use a still or video camera to record investigations. I've had
the best results with a digital camera, which has allowed me a variety of ways to
print out images. One powerful way of sharing is to print out the children's work on
overhead transparencies. In this mode, the entire class can share investigations
together. Seeing pictures of themselves is highly motivating and helps the children
stay focused as they describe what they did or what will happen next. It's also easy
to write and rewrite statements right on the transparency, thus modeling the
writing process. Children can even have their own copies on paper. It's very
powerful for children to have their work "published," as well as publicly
acknowledged.

As a teacher I have learned much from my interaction with the Institute for Inquiry
Learning Group and from my own four-year exploration into children's inquiry
learning. The different phenomena of light and color are fundamentally interesting
and connect children to the real world using sophisticated tools, language, and
ideas. I have seen how language develops during the inquiry process. As children
share what they see, they find words to express and refine their thinking. As my
students have taught me over and over again, kindergartners can indeed do
inquiry.

Two views of the Round Light Source set up on a table

with screens and mirrors.

Joanna Villavicencio is currently on leave from her position as a kindergarten

teacher in the San Francisco Unified School District.

(c) Joanna Villavicencio. This article first appeared in Connect, March-April, 2000, www.synergylearning.org

Reprinted with permission. Further reproduction prohibited.

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Personal Action Plan

Use the following questions as a guide to help you devise a personal action plan using your
knowledge and experiences from this workshop:

 What main issues of this workshop are you going to stress when you get back to your school Why
and how?
 What are the main changes you are going to propose to your head/principal/coordinator? Why
and how?
 What are the main changes you are going to put into practice inside your classroom? Why
and how?
 What are you going to change in your planning? Why
and how?
 What are you going to do to create a community of learners in your school? Why
and how

WHAT? WHY? HOW?

(Action) (Justification) (Resources, time,
frame, resources)

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 F E AT UR E

Why play-based learning?

‘… for the EYLF to be implemented
DEFI NI NG ‘PL AY’
properly, all early childhood educators
While there is no one definition of play, there are a number
need to know what play is, why it is of agreed characteristics that describe play. Play can be
important, how to implement and assess described as:
a play-based program and their role in it.’ ▪ pleasurable—play is an enjoyable and pleasurable activity.
Play sometimes includes frustrations, challenges and fears;
QUEST I ONI NG PRACTICE however enjoyment is a key feature
The Early Years Learning Framework (EYLF) is built on the ▪ symbolic—play is often pretend, it has a ‘what if?’ quality. The
understanding that the principles of early childhood pedagogy play has meaning to the player that is often not evident to the
(DEEWR, 2009, pp. 12–13) guide the practice of early childhood educator
educators. Research tells us that an educator’s pedagogy is one of
the most important aspects when assessing the quality of children’s ▪ active—play requires action, either physical, verbal or mental
learning. So early childhood educators need to carefully consider and engagement with materials, people, ideas or the environment
question their pedagogy and corresponding practices. ▪ voluntary—play is freely chosen. However, players can also
In implementing the EYLF, educators should discuss and describe their be invited or prompted to play
understandings of the practice principles. One of the practices most ▪ process oriented—play is a means unto itself and players may
commonly used in the early childhood sector is ‘learning through not have an end or goal in sight
play’. Play-based learning is described in the EYLF as ‘a context for
▪ self motivating—play is considered its own reward to the
learning through which children organise and make sense of their
player (Shipley, 2008).
social worlds, as they actively engage with people, objects and
representations’ (EYLF, 2009, p. 46). But what is play? Play is hard to Once you have decided what play means to you, you should
define as there are a number of theories and types of play. Can you next ask yourself, why play-based learning? What is it about play
describe play? that makes it so important? Play has a long and detailed research
history that dates back to the work of Locke and Rosseau.
Research and evidence all point to the role of play in children’s
development and learning across cultures (Shipley, 2008). Many
believe that it is impossible to disentangle children’s play, learning
and development.

BRAIN DEVEL OPMENT

While research on brain development is in its infancy, it is
believed that play shapes the structural design of the brain. We
know that secure attachments and stimulation are significant
aspects of brain development; play provides active exploration
that assists in building and strengthening brain pathways. Play
creates a brain that has increased ‘flexibility and improved
potential for learning later in life’ (Lester & Russell, 2008, p. 9).
Young children’s play allows them to explore, identify, negotiate,
take risks and create meaning. The intellectual and cognitive benefits
of playing have been well documented. Children who engage in
quality play experiences are more likely to have well-developed
memory skills, language development, and are able to regulate their
behaviour, leading to enhanced school adjustment and academic
learning (Bodrova & Leong, 2005).

4 Every Child Volume 16, Number 3 2010

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 F E AT UR E

FOST ERI NG PL AY- BASED PROGRAMS ▪ the intellectual environment—there are times to leave children to
play freely and times for intentional conversation, a well-placed
Physically active play allows children to test and develop all types
question or query that will extend children’s learning. Shared
of motor skills. It promotes significant health and wellbeing benefits.
sustained conversations (Siraj-Blatchford, 2008) are the hallmark of
Centres that were found to have a high-quality, play-based learning
effective early childhood educators
program incorporated:
▪ the temporal environment—the way that educators decide to use
▪ a daily schedule that included active indoor and outdoor
the time available in the program. Children need large blocks of
physical play
time to develop play themes and ideas.
▪ integration of music, movement and creative expression
Early childhood educators need to be articulate, to be able to
▪ adult–child interactions that modelled moderate to high levels justify clearly, provide evidence for and proclaim the benefits of
of physical activity (meaning that educators were at times as play-based learning. The EYLF (2009) is based on sound, proven
physically engaged in active play as the children) (Steglin, 2005). early childhood pedagogy and practice principles. However,
for the EYLF to be implemented properly, all early childhood
Play does not happen in a vacuum; it is usually undertaken within
educators need to know what play is, why it is important, how to
a physical and social space (Lester & Russell, 2008). One of the
implement and assess a play-based program and their role in it.
greatest benefits of playing is to assist with the development of
social competence. Children can build relationships, learn to resolve
Lennie Barblett
conflicts, negotiate and regulate their behaviours. In play, children
Senior Lecturer
usually have increased feelings of success and optimism as they act
Faculty of Education and the Arts
as their own agents and make their own choices. Playing is a known
Edith Cowan University
stress release; it is often linked to child wellbeing.
References
The dispositions for learning, such as curiosity, openness,
Bodrova, E. & Leong, D. J. (2005). Uniquely preschool: What research tells us about
optimism, resilience, concentration, and creativity (SACSA, the ways young children learn. Educational Leadership, 63(1), 44–47.
2009), are developed in play. Playing is linked to the
Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR). (2009).
development of resilience and the beginnings of empathy as Belonging, being & becoming: The Early Years Learning Framework for Australia.
children begin to understand other points of view. However, not Canberra: DEEWR.
all play is kind or inclusive, so educators have to act accordingly Lester, S. & Russell, S. (2008). Play for a change. Play policy and practice: A review of
to ensure that play is not harmful. contemporary perspectives. Play England. Retrieved 21.6.2010 from www.worldleisure.
org/pdfs/Copy%20of%20book_rev_play_for_change.pdf.

WHAT EDUCAT ORS CAN DO South Australian Curriculum Standards and Accountability Framework (2009)
Learners and Learning in the Early Years. Retrieved 15.6.2010 from www.sacsa.
How can quality play-based learning take place effectively? Early sa.edu.au/content/doc_fsrc.asp?ID=%7BDCB8452E-3D30-40E7-9C3C-
childhood educators should know the children and families in their 570AE5168C17%7D&sec=%7B25AAFB50-4954-457F-9426-FDB72E5202EF%7D
centre; they assess, document children’s learning and know their Shipley, D. (2008). Empowering children. Play based curriculum for lifelong learning.
interests. Then, together with families, they plan carefully how to use (Fourth edn). USA: Nelson Education.

play-based activities as one tool to promote the learning that will Siraj-Blatchford, I. (2008). Understanding the relationship between curriculum,
pedagogy and progression in learning in early childhood. Hong Kong Journal of Early
achieve the EYLF outcomes.
Childhood, 7 (2), 6–13.
Planning the environment to assist children to achieve outcomes is Steglin, D. A. (2005). Making the case for play policy: Research-based reasons to
important in providing quality play experiences. The environment can support play-based environments. Young Children, 60(2), 76–86.
be intentionally planned in four main ways:
▪ the physical environment—the physical layout of space, furniture and
resources. Consider how you will construct and present activities
and materials so they are arranged in provoking and inviting ways
to encourage exploration, learning and inquiry
▪ the social and emotional environment—children need secure, warm
and trusting relationships so they are confidently supported in their
explorations and risk taking. Assist children to make connections
with others, develop friendships and regulate their behaviours.
Together, children and adults set the emotional and social tone of
the environment

www.earlychildhoodaustralia.org.au 5

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What is an IB education?

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 What is an IB education?

Published August 2013

Updated June 2015 and May 2017

Published on behalf of the International Baccalaureate Organization, a not-for-profit

educational foundation of 15 Route des Morillons, 1218 Le Grand-Saconnex, Geneva,
Switzerland by the
International Baccalaureate Organization (UK) Ltd
Peterson House, Malthouse Avenue, Cardiff Gate
Cardiff, Wales CF23 8GL
United Kingdom
Website: www.ibo.org

© International Baccalaureate Organization 2017

The International Baccalaureate Organization (known as the IB) offers four high-quality
and challenging educational programmes for a worldwide community of schools, aiming
to create a better, more peaceful world. This publication is one of a range of materials
produced to support these programmes.

The IB may use a variety of sources in its work and checks information to verify accuracy
and authenticity, particularly when using community-based knowledge sources such as
Wikipedia. The IB respects the principles of intellectual property and makes strenuous
efforts to identify and obtain permission before publication from rights holders of all
copyright material used. The IB is grateful for permissions received for material used
in this publication and will be pleased to correct any errors or omissions at the earliest
opportunity.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission
of the IB, or as expressly permitted by law or by the IB’s own rules and policy. See
http://www.ibo.org/copyright.

IB merchandise and publications can be purchased through the IB store at

http://store.ibo.org.

Email: sales@ibo.org

International Baccalaureate, Baccalauréat International and Bachillerato Internacional

are registered trademarks of the International Baccalaureate Organization.

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 IB mission statement
The International Baccalaureate aims to develop inquiring, knowledgeable and caring young people who
help to create a better and more peaceful world through intercultural understanding and respect.

To this end the organization works with schools, governments and international organizations to develop
challenging programmes of international education and rigorous assessment.

These programmes encourage students across the world to become active, compassionate and lifelong
learners who understand that other people, with their differences, can also be right.

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42/78
Contents

What is an IB education? 1
About international-mindedness 2
The IB learner profile 3
Broad, balanced, conceptual and connected  5
Approaches to teaching and learning 6
Additional reading 8

What is an IB education?
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What is an IB education?

Imagine a worldwide community of schools, educators and students with a shared vision and mission to
empower young people with the skills, values and knowledge to create a better and more peaceful world.
This is the International Baccalaureate (IB).

In 1968 the first programme offered by the IB, the Diploma Programme, was established. It sought to provide
a challenging yet balanced education that would facilitate geographic and cultural mobility by providing an
internationally recognized university entrance qualification that would also serve the deeper purpose of
promoting intercultural understanding and respect.

With the introduction of the Middle Years Programme in 1994 and the Primary Years Programme in 1997,
the IB identified a continuum of international education for students aged 3 to 19. The introduction of the IB
Career-related Programme in 2012 enriched this continuum by providing a choice of international education
pathways for 16 to 19 year old students.

Each of the IB programmes reflects a central desire to provide an education that enables students to
make sense of the complexities of the world around them, as well as equipping them with the skills and
dispositions needed for taking responsible action for the future. They provide an education that crosses
disciplinary, cultural, national and geographical boundaries, and that champions critical engagement,
stimulating ideas and effective relationships.

These aspirations are summed up in our ambitious mission:

The International Baccalaureate aims to develop inquiring, knowledgeable

and caring young people who help to create a better and more peaceful world
through intercultural understanding and respect.

To this end the organization works with schools, governments and international
organizations to develop challenging programmes of international education
and rigorous assessment.

These programmes encourage students across the world to become active,

compassionate and lifelong learners who understand that other people, with
their differences, can also be right.

Written primarily for educators, What is an IB education? outlines our educational philosophy. It also explains
how this philosophy shapes the four IB programmes, which can be implemented independently or in
combination: the Primary Years Programme (ages 3–12), Middle Years Programme (ages 11–16), Diploma
Programme (ages 16–19) and Career-related Programme (ages 16–19).

What is an IB education? 1
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About international-mindedness

The aim of all IB programmes is to develop internationally minded people who recognize their common
humanity and shared guardianship of the planet. Central to this aim is international-mindedness.

International-mindedness is a multi-faceted and complex concept that captures a way of thinking, being and
acting that is characterized by an openness to the world and a recognition of our deep interconnectedness
to others.

To be open to the world, we need to understand it. IB programmes therefore provide students with
opportunities for sustained inquiry into a range of local and global issues and ideas. This willingness to
see beyond immediate situations and boundaries is essential as globalization and emerging technologies
continue to blur traditional distinctions between the local, national and international.

An IB education fosters international-mindedness by helping students reflect on their own perspective,

culture and identities, and then on those of others. By learning to appreciate different beliefs, values and
experiences, and to think and collaborate across cultures and disciplines, IB learners gain the understanding
necessary to make progress toward a more peaceful and sustainable world.

An IB education further enhances the development of international-mindedness through multilingualism.

All IB programmes require the students to study, or study in, more than one language because we believe
that communicating in more than one language provides excellent opportunities to develop intercultural
understanding and respect. It helps the students to appreciate that his or her own language, culture and
worldview is just one of many.

International-mindedness is also encouraged through a focus on global engagement and meaningful

service with the community. These elements challenge the student to critically consider power and
privilege, and to recognize that he or she holds this planet and its resources in trust for future generations.
They also highlight the focus on action in all IB programmes: a focus on moving beyond awareness and
understanding to engagement, action and bringing about meaningful change.

The components of an IB education described in this document work together to support the IB’s
overarching aim of developing international-mindedness.

2 What is an IB education?
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The IB learner profile

The IB learner profile places the student at the centre of an IB education.

The 10 attributes reflect the holistic nature of an IB education. They highlight the importance of nurturing
dispositions such as curiosity and compassion as well as developing knowledge and skills. They also
highlight that along with cognitive development, IB programmes are concerned with students’ social,
emotional and physical well-being, and with ensuring that students learn to respect themselves, others, and
the world around them.

IB educators help students to develop these attributes over the course of their IB education, and to
demonstrate them in increasingly robust and sophisticated ways as they mature. The development of these
attributes is the foundation of developing internationally minded students who can help to build a better
world.

Attribute Descriptor

Inquirers We nurture our curiosity, developing skills for inquiry and research. We know
how to learn independently and with others. We learn with enthusiasm and
sustain our love of learning throughout life.

Knowledgeable We develop and use conceptual understanding, exploring knowledge across

a range of disciplines. We engage with issues and ideas that have local and
global significance.

Thinkers We use critical and creative thinking skills to analyse and take responsible
action on complex problems. We exercise initiative in making reasoned,
ethical decisions.

Communicators We express ourselves confidently and creatively in more than one language
and in many ways. We collaborate effectively, listening carefully to the
perspectives of other individuals and groups.

Principled We act with integrity and honesty, with a strong sense of fairness and justice,
and with respect for the dignity and rights of people everywhere. We take
responsibility for our actions and their consequences.

Open-minded We critically appreciate our own cultures and personal histories, as well as
the values and traditions of others. We seek and evaluate a range of points of
view, and we are willing to grow from the experience.

Caring We show empathy, compassion and respect. We have a commitment to

service, and we act to make a positive difference in the lives of others and in
the world around us.

Risk takers We approach uncertainty with forethought and determination; we work

independently and cooperatively to explore new ideas and innovative
strategies. We are resourceful and resilient in the face of challenges and
change.

What is an IB education? 3
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The IB learner profile

Attribute Descriptor

Balanced We understand the importance of balancing different aspects of our lives—

intellectual, physical, and emotional— to achieve well-being for ourselves and
others. We recognize our interdependence with other people and with the
world in which we live.

Reflective We thoughtfully consider the world and our own ideas and experience. We
work to understand our strengths and weaknesses in order to support our
learning and personal development.

4 What is an IB education?
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Broad, balanced, conceptual and connected

Each of the four IB programmes provides a detailed and developmentally appropriate curriculum or
curriculum framework that is broad, balanced, conceptual and connected.

IB programmes offer students access to a broad and balanced range of academic studies and learning
experiences. They promote conceptual learning, focusing on powerful organizing ideas that are relevant
across subject areas, and that help to integrate learning and add coherence to the curriculum.

The programmes emphasize the importance of making connections, exploring the relationships between
academic disciplines, and learning about the world in ways that reach beyond the scope of individual
subjects. They also focus on offering students authentic opportunities to connect their learning to the world
around them.

The four programmes are all underpinned by a shared focus on international-mindedness and developing
the attributes of the IB learner profile. Yet each programme also has its own identity and developmentally
appropriate elements. For example:

• In the Primary Years Programme, learning aims to transcend traditional boundaries between subject
areas. Students explore six transdisciplinary themes of global significance: who we are, where we are
in place and time, how we express ourselves, how the world works, how we organize ourselves, and
sharing the planet.
• In the Middle Years Programme, students explore six global contexts that are developed from and
extend the Primary Years Programme transdisciplinary themes: identities and relationships, personal
and cultural expression, orientation in space and time, scientific and technical innovation, fairness and
development, and globalization and sustainability.
• In the Diploma Programme, the curriculum consists of six subject groups and the three elements of the
Diploma Programme core. As one of these core elements, the theory of knowledge course encourages
students to become more aware of their own perspective and assumptions through an exploration of
the fundamental question of how we know what we know.
• In the Career-related Programme, students combine the study of Diploma Programme courses with
career-related studies and the four elements of the Career-related Programme core. As one of these
core elements, the personal and professional skills course focuses on preparing students to effectively
navigate a range of personal and professional situations that they may encounter in the workplace.
All four IB programmes also require the completion of a culminating project (the Primary Years Programme
exhibition, Middle Years Programme personal project or community project, Diploma Programme extended
essay and Career-related Programme reflective project). These projects provide an opportunity for students
to showcase their knowledge, understanding and skills.

Meaningful assessment supports curricular goals. In IB programmes assessment is therefore ongoing, varied
and integral to the curriculum. IB schools use a range of strategies and tools to assess student learning.
Emphasis is placed on the importance of analysing assessment data to inform teaching and learning, and on
recognizing that students benefit by learning how to assess their own work and the work of others.

The Middle Years Programme, Diploma Programme and Career-related Programme also offer a range of
IB-validated assessments. These assessments balance validity and reliability, offering assessment tasks that,
for example, require students to demonstrate higher order thinking rather than simple factual recall. These
rigorous assessments help to maintain the IB’s hard earned reputation for high standards and challenging
programmes.

What is an IB education? 5
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Approaches to teaching and learning

Grounded in contemporary educational research, the IB’s six approaches to teaching and five approaches
to learning guide and focus educators and students in IB World Schools. They play a crucial role in ensuring
that the aspirations of an IB education become a reality in the classroom.

The approaches are centred on a cycle of inquiry, action and reflection—an interplay of asking, doing
and thinking—that informs the daily activities of teachers and learners. They also place a great deal of
emphasis on relationships. This reflects the IB’s belief that educational outcomes are profoundly shaped by
the relationships between teachers and students, and celebrates the many ways that people work together
to construct meaning and make sense of the world.

Approaches to teaching
The same six approaches underpin teaching in all IB programmes. The approaches are deliberately broad,
designed to give teachers the flexibility to choose specific strategies to employ that best reflect their own
particular contexts and the needs of their students.

In all IB programmes, teaching is:

• Based on inquiry. A strong emphasis is placed on students finding their own information and
constructing their own understandings.
• Focused on conceptual understanding. Concepts are explored in order to both deepen disciplinary
understanding and to help students make connections and transfer learning to new contexts.
• Developed in local and global contexts. Teaching uses real-life contexts and examples, and
students are encouraged to process new information by connecting it to their own experiences and to
the world around them.
• Focused on effective teamwork and collaboration. This includes promoting teamwork and
collaboration between students, but also refers to the collaborative relationship between teachers
and students.
• Designed to remove barriers to learning. Teaching is inclusive and values diversity. It affirms
students’ identities, and aims to create learning opportunities that enable every student to develop
and pursue appropriate personal goals.
• Informed by assessment. Assessment plays a crucial role in supporting, as well as measuring,
learning. This approach also recognizes the crucial role of providing students with effective feedback.

6 What is an IB education?
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 Approaches to teaching and learning

Approaches to learning
Our focus on approaches to learning is grounded in the belief that learning how to learn is fundamental to
a student’s education.

The five categories of interrelated skills aim to empower IB students of all ages to become self-regulated
learners who know how to ask good questions, set effective goals, pursue their aspirations and have the
determination to achieve them. These skills also help to support students’ sense of agency, encouraging
them to see their learning as an active and dynamic process.

The same five categories of skills span all IB programmes, with the skills then emphasized in developmentally
appropriate ways within each programme. The five categories are:

• thinking skills, including areas such as critical thinking, creative thinking and ethical thinking
• research skills, including skills such as comparing, contrasting, validating and prioritizing information
• communication skills, including skills such as written and oral communication, effective listening, and
formulating arguments
• social skills, including areas such as forming and maintaining positive relationships, listening skills, and
conflict resolution
• self-management skills, including both organisational skills, such as managing time and tasks, and
affective skills, such as managing state of mind and motivation.
The development of these skills plays a crucial role in supporting the IB’s mission to develop active,
compassionate and lifelong learners. Although these skills areas are presented as distinct categories, there
are close links and areas of overlap between them, and these categories should be seen as interrelated.

Conclusion
An IB education is designed to develop inquiring, knowledgeable and caring young people who will help to
create a better and more peaceful world. Today, as new global challenges emerge under an unprecedented
pace of change, an IB education is more relevant and necessary than ever.

The IB and its programmes are unique in many ways. We are a not-for-profit organization, meaning that
there are no shareholders and any surplus income is invested in our work. We are independent of political
and commercial interests, and IB programmes are offered in a hugely diverse range of schools around the
world; both state and private, national and international, large and small.

One of the most special features of the IB is that it gathers together a worldwide community of educators
who share a common belief that education can help to build a better world. Each of our IB programmes
and curricula undergoes regular review to ensure that we are delivering the best possible education for IB
students. This curriculum review process involves educators from many different cultures and backgrounds
and ensures that practising teachers play a critical role in the development of each programme. It also
means that our vision is constantly sharpened by research, both our own and that of other respected
academic bodies.

The IB has always championed a stance of critical engagement with challenging ideas, and of combining our
commitment to enduring fundamental principles with our drive for innovation and improvement. For this
reason, What is an IB education? is intended not only to inform but also to stimulate further conversations
and discussion.

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Additional reading

What is an IB education? was informed by multiple perspectives and readings, which included the following
English language titles:

Audet, RH and Jordan, LJ (eds). 2005. Integrating inquiry across the curriculum. Thousand Oaks, California,
USA. Corwin Press.

Bates, R (ed). 2010. Schooling internationally: globalisation, internationalisation and the future for international
schools. London, UK. Routledge.

Boix Mansilla, V and Jackson, A. 2011. Educating for global competence: Preparing our youth to engage the
world. New York, USA. Council of Chief State School Officers and Asia Society Partnership for Global Learning.

Boyer, EL. 1995. The Basic School: A community for learning. Stanford, California, USA. The Carnegie Foundation
for the Advancement of Teaching.

Brooks, JG and Brooks, MG. 1999. In search of understanding: The case for constructivist classrooms. Alexandria,
Virginia, USA. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Bruner, J. 1996. Culture of education. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. Harvard University Press.

Bruner, J, Goodnow, J and Austin, G. 1986. A study of thinking. New York, USA. Transaction Publishers.

Claxton, G. 2008. What’s the point of school?: Rediscovering the heart of education. Oxford, UK. OneWorld
Publications.

Claxton, G et al. 2011. The Learning Powered School: Pioneering 21st Century Education. Bristol, UK. TLO Ltd.

Collins, HT, Czarra, FR and Smith, AF. 1995. Guidelines for global and international studies education: Challenges,
culture, connections. New York, USA. American Forum for Global Education.

Costa, A. and Kallick, B. 2009. Habits of Mind across the Curriculum: Practical and Creative Strategies for Teachers.
Alexandria, Virginia. USA. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Cummins, J. 2000. Language, power and pedagogy. Clevedon, UK. Multilingual Matters.

Delors, J et al. 1999. Learning: the treasure within. Report to UNESCO of the International Commission on
Education for the Twenty-first Century. Paris, France. UNESCO.

Dewey, J. 1909. Moral principles in education. In LA Hickman and TA Alexander (eds). The Essential Dewey
volume 2. 1998. Bloomington, Indiana, USA. Indiana University Press.

Dewey, J. 1916. Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of education. New York, USA.
Macmillan.

Dewey, J. 1933. How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process.
Boston, Massachusetts, USA. Heath.

Doll, WE and Gough, N. 2002. Curriculum visions. New York, USA. Peter Lang.

Dweck, C. 2006. Mindset. New York, US. Random House.

English, F. (ed). 2004. Sage handbook of educational leadership. Thousand Oaks, California, USA. Sage
Publications.

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 Additional reading

Erickson, HL. 2008. Stirring the head, heart and soul. Heatherton, Victoria, Australia. Hawker Brownlow.

Fairclough, N (ed). 1992. Critical language awareness. London, UK. Longman.

Gardner, H. 2011. Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York, USA. Basic Books.

Gee, JP. 1990. Social linguistics and literacies: Ideology in discourses. New York, USA. The Falmer Press.

Grainger, T (ed). 2004. The RoutledgeFalmer Reader in Language and Literacy. London, UK. Routledge.

Grant, CA and Portera, A. 2011. Intercultural and multicultural education: Enhancing global connectedness. New
York, USA. Routledge.

Hanvey, R. 2004. An attainable global perspective. New York, USA. American Forum for Global Education.

Hicks, D and Holden, C. 2007. Teaching the global dimension: Key principles and effective practice. Oxford, UK.
Routledge.

Kincheloe, JL. 2004. Critical pedagogy: A primer. New York, USA. Peter Lang.

Laverty, M. 2010. “Learning our concepts”. Journal of philosophy of education. Vol 43.1. Pp 27–49.

Lucas, B, Claxton, G. and Spencer, E. 2013. Expansive Education: Teaching Learners for the Real World.
Maidenhead, UK. McGraw-Hill.

McWilliam, E. 8–10 January 2007. “Unlearning how to teach”. Paper presented at Creativity or Conformity?
Building Cultures of Creativity in Higher Education. Cardiff, UK.

Murdoch, K and Hornsby, D. 1997. Planning curriculum connections: Whole-school planning for integrated
curriculum. Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Eleanor Curtain Publishing.

Perkins, D. 2009. Making Learning Whole. San Francisco, California, USA. Jossey-Bass

Perkins, D. 2014. Future Wise: Educating Our Children for a Changing World. San Francisco, California, USA.
Jossey-Bass.

Piaget, J. 1970. Structuralism. New York, USA. Basic Books.

Pike, G and Selby, D. 1989. Global teacher, global learner (second edition). London, UK. Hodder & Stoughton.

Schön, D. 1983. The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. London, UK. Temple Smith.

Steinberg, S and Kincheloe, J (eds). 1998. Students as researchers: Creating classrooms that matter. London, UK.
Falmer.

Stiggins, RJ. 2001. Student-involved classroom assessment (third edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA.
Merrill/Prentice-Hall.

Tough, P. 2013. How Children Succeed: Grit, Curiosity and the Hidden Power of Character. London, UK. Random
House.

Vygotsky, LS. 1986. Thought and language (revised and translated by Alex Kozulin). Cambridge, Massachusetts,
USA. MIT Press.

Walker, G (ed). 2011. The Changing Face of International Education: Challenges for the IB. Cardiff, UK.
International Baccalaureate Organization.

Wiggins, G and McTighe, J. 2005. Understanding by design. New Jersey, USA. Pearson.

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 Youngquist, J and Pataray-Ching, J. March 2004. “Revisiting ‘play’: Analyzing and articulating acts of inquiry.” Early Childhood
Education Journal. Vol 31, number 3. Pp 171-178.

Early Childhood Education Journal, Vol. 31, No. 3, Spring 2004 ( 2004)

Revisiting “Play”: Analyzing and Articulating

Acts of Inquiry

Joan Youngquist1,3 and Jann Pataray-Ching2

The early childhood profession needs to establish a different discourse to describe what has been
referred to as “play” in early childhood. The authors draw from literature on inquiry theory to
provide a theoretical lens for discussion and offer a model for inquiry through the Project Approach
for the early childhood setting. The authors posit that early childhood educators need to clarify and
extend the definition of play by distinguishing between play that occurs outside of the classroom as
opposed to play that occurs as part of classroom curriculum. Further, educators need to develop
the language for analyzing acts of inquiry and articulating these processes to parents and the
public. An examination of the inquiry process of one preschool learner offers one way to begin
articulating classroom inquiry and demonstrates how each instance of inquiry is a complex, reflec-
tive, and semiotic act.

KEY WORDS: play; inquiry curriculum; transmediation; sign systems; Project Approach.

INTRODUCTION turn to literature on play and inquiry theory to provide

a theoretical lens for our discussion. And to define play
Play, often interpreted as recreational activity, is
that is associated with academic learning, we describe
widely accepted outside the school setting. The concept
each instance as an act of “inquiry.” Inquiry, we believe,
of “play” in early childhood education is highly valued
is a term that connotes critical and reflective thought and
because it contributes to the young child’s cognitive, so-
promotes the attainment of the intellectual capacity of
cial, and psychological development (Johnson, Christie, &
every learner.
Yawkey, 1999; Saracho & Spodek, 1998; Spodek, 1993).
We argue further that early childhood educators
However, using the same terminology as part of the
need to develop the language for analyzing acts of in-
early childhood curriculum subjects the profession to
quiry and articulating these processes to parents and the
criticisms because the context of schooling imposes the
public, so they may understand the complexities of and
need for a rigorous, educational curriculum, the applica-
rigor in young children’s inquiries as well as the impli-
tion of which is seen as going beyond mere recreational
cations for schooling and lifelong learning. We identify
activity.
and analyze the process of one preschooler’s inquiry on
We contend that the profession needs to establish a
the topic of “space.” Through this analysis, we offer one
different discourse for play that occurs in the early child-
way to begin articulating classroom inquiry, illustrating
hood classroom to be interpreted especially by nonedu-
how each instance of inquiry is a complex, reflective,
cators as educational, meaningful, theoretically driven,
and semiotic act.
and curricularly worthwhile in the academic setting. We

1
PLAY AND CURRICULUM-AS-INQUIRY
Skagit/Islands Head Start, Mt. Vernon, WA.
2
California State Polytechnic University, Pomona. Definitions of Play
3
Correspondence should be directed to Joan Youngquist, S/I Head
Start, Skagit Valley College, 2405 E College Way, Mt. Vernon, WA Since the 1930s, multiple definitions of play have
98273; e-mail: youngquist@skagit.ctc.edu. emerged, influenced by theoretical approaches and fo-

171
1082-3301/04/0300-0171/0  2004 Human Sciences Press, Inc.

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Youngquist, J and Pataray-Ching, J. March 2004. “Revisiting ‘play’: Analyzing and articulating acts of inquiry.” Early Childhood
Education Journal. Vol 31, number 3. Pp 171-178.

172 Youngquist and Pataray-Ching

cuses of research spanning across a broad spectrum cational settings. We agree with Sponseller (1982) that
(Saracho & Spodek, 1998; Sponseller, 1982). Research- play must be intrinsically motivated and personally and
ers assert that play assumes several forms. One perspec- socially meaningful to the learner. We also agree with
tive describes play as an enjoyable, self-amusing activ- Lillard (1998) that every act of play contributes to theo-
ity, such as two children sitting in a sandbox pretending ries the learner is constructing, whether the activity in-
to make pies. Another perspective describes play as an volves children pretending to participate in a tea party
activity, with an educational focus such as a child in a using plastic child-sized tea cups and saucers or of chil-
preschool environment investigating sharks as part of dren in a preschool setting wanting to know more about
project work. trains that pass through their local community.
Sponseller (1982) posits that genuine play resides However, play theory runs into criticism when its
within the child, controlled by the child’s acts, driven by principles are placed within an educational context. Be-
the child’s motivations, and based on the child’s sense cause the layperson’s perspective of play tends to be de-
of reality. Once these factors are located externally, fined as noneducational, using the same term in educa-
Sponseller argues, these acts are no longer considered tional settings becomes problematic, subjecting the field
play. Lillard (1998) argues further that children develop to criticism. Thus, for the purposes of distinguishing be-
theories about their world through different play activi- tween forms of play in this discussion, we refer to play
ties contributing to their theories of mind. It is with these that exists outside school settings as “play” and within
numerous experiences of play that children develop the the educational curriculum as “inquiry” to help layper-
foundation for other forms of development connected to sons understand the rigors of children’s play within an
academic learning, such as emergent literacy into fic- educational context. One such context in which inquiry
tional story writing (Roskos & Neuman, 1998). has been incorporated as part of its curriculum is the
Project Approach.
Curriculum-as-Inquiry
Curriculum-as-Inquiry in Project Work
Parallel discussions on play have also occurred in
literacy and curriculum theory literature for school-aged The Project Approach, well documented in the re-
children. In their Curriculum-as-Inquiry model, Short search literature, is an outgrowth of the work of the early
and Harste (1996) posit that every instance of inquiry is childhood program in Reggio Emilia, Italy, and one of
rooted in the learner’s personal and social knowing, which many progressive pedagogies in early childhood educa-
is explored through knowledge-system (science, social tion that has incorporated play as part of its curriculum
science, mathematics) and multiple-sign-system (visual (Edwards, Gandini, & Forman, 1998; Edwards & Sprin-
art, music, dance, drama) perspectives. Learners proceed gate, 1993; Helm & Katz, 2001; Katz & Chard, 2000).
through a series of inquiry events in which they gain Project Approach teachers recognize the importance of
broader perspectives of their questions and share their young children’s play during project work and provide
knowledge with others. These systems are often ex- the space and time children need to play. Through center
pressed by children in their play. activity, children may engage in construction and inves-
While Short and Harste (1996) outline an inquiry tigation activities and dramatic play (Helm & Katz, 2001;
process, they and other inquiry researchers argue that Katz & Chard, 2000). They may express themselves
inquiry is more than a procedure or instructional tech- through words, drawings, paintings, collages, sculptures,
nique. Rather, it is a theoretical stance that guides the shadow play, and other creative endeavors (Edwards &
way teachers view curriculum and learning (Berghoff, Springate, 1993).
Egawa, Harste, & Hoonan, 2000; Pataray-Ching & Rob- We learned that by referring to play in the early
erson, 2001; Short and Harste, 1996). Inquiry as theory childhood curriculum as acts of inquiry, we were able to
is a way in which one views the world: rich with possi- see children’s potentials through more multifaceted
bilities and an endless sea of questions. Inquiry requires ways-through their multiple ways of knowing and the
us to think critically as well as to broaden one’s think- multidisciplinary perspectives in which they approached
ing, to understand perspectives and experiences different their inquiries that would have been otherwise over-
than our own, to advance our world’s thinking, to con- looked. Acts of inquiry, rather than acts of play, connote
tribute new ideas, and to bring love and beauty to our acts of involved learning that are educational, rigorous,
world. and connected to schooling and a lifelong pursuit of
In this light, we view all definitions of play as knowing. By applying principles of inquiry theory to
forms of inquiry that occur both within and beyond edu- curriculum in the early childhood classroom, educators

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 Youngquist, J and Pataray-Ching, J. March 2004. “Revisiting ‘play’: Analyzing and articulating acts of inquiry.” Early Childhood
Education Journal. Vol 31, number 3. Pp 171-178.

Acts of Inquiry 173

are better positioned to establish an environment of in- such as, “How many moons does each planet have?”
quiry in project work (Pataray-Ching & Roberson, 2002), making charts of his findings. And Max, the “actor”
to guide children’s inquiries, and more importantly, ar- wants to know, “What is an astronaut?” He proceeds to
ticulate to parents and policymakers the critical educa- engage in dramatic play to act like an astronaut. And
tional implications of an inquiry curriculum in the early while the children all investigate space in interesting
childhood classroom. ways, we find Marcus to be particularly engaged in the
Equally essential to establishing an inquiry ap- investigation topic.
proach in project work is to examine the learning that
takes place through inquiry, so that we may articulate the Profile of Marcus and His Inquiry on Space
complexities of inquiry and justify its importance in the
Marcus is 4-1/2 years old. He has well-developed
early childhood classroom. We begin by examining the
spatial abilities as expressed through his constructions at
inquiry process of one 4-year-old in Joan’s early child-
the block area and use of patterns and symmetry. He has
hood program during a project investigation on “space.”
difficulty concentrating and can be easily distracted. His
We analyze the complex thinking processes involved
language skills are normal, although he often uses sound
through inquiry as Marcus engages in project work. We
effects to express his ideas, for example, “This is a
contend that in order to educate parents and our society
rocket that whoosh zings to that place there.”
about good curriculum in early childhood programs, ed-
During the investigation of space, Marcus enthusi-
ucators must have the tools to articulate what makes the
astically participates in nearly every activity. Through
learning process complex when young children engage
these activities, a process that Short and Harste (1996)
in inquiry.
describe as “wandering and wondering,” Marcus poses
an inquiry question, “How can we make a rocket?” To
this end he explores his question relating to space, look-
INVESTIGATING SPACE ing at and pointing out pictures of rockets in books, ask-
ing to view video images, and then expressing this
What does inquiry within a multiple ways of know-
knowledge by transmediating within various sign sys-
ing framework look like in project work? This is the
tems.
question we grappled with while implementing this cur-
riculum. As we have read, discussed, and thought about
Multiple Sign Systems and Transmediation
inquiry and theories of sign systems and transmediation,
we have also had the opportunity to put these theories Sign systems stem from theories in semiotics (Peirce,
into practice in Joan’s preschool program. 1985). They are human-invented tools that we use to
Through Joan’s work with Carolyn Edwards, who reinterpret meaning, to express felt meaning, and to con-
has helped to bring to the United States the work of the struct new meaning. They may take the form of music,
early childhood program in Reggio Emilia, Italy (Ed- visual art, dance, language, mathematics, gesture, and
wards & Springate, 1993; Edwards et al., 1998), Joan is drama, which we use to mediate our world (Eisner,
familiar with the Project Approach, making it the main 1994; Harste, 1994). Sign systems also support explora-
focus of her preschool curriculum. Some of the projects tion of diverse perspectives when children approach a
the children in Joan’s preschool explore are trains, sharks, topic from the perspective of different disciplines
bugs, health, and safety-all questions that emerge out (Kirby & Kuykendall, 1991). Children can inquire as an
of the children’s inquiries. During an exploration of artist leading to the creation of new possibilities. They
space, we apply the theories of multiple ways of know- might inquire as an anthropologist who makes connec-
ing to examine the complex thinking processes involved tions and perceives relationships. A naturalist might
in “play” as children engage in project work. see details that make sense of relationships. In every
This analysis focuses on one child, Marcus; how- discipline, the inquirer is open to possibilities, relating
ever, we want to emphasize that the other children also smaller details to larger contexts of understanding. Ber-
explore the concept of space through multiple perspec- ghoff et al. (2000) maintain that the simultaneous use of
tives. For example, Mallory, an “anthropologist,” won- sign systems supports the “semiotic process” learners
ders, “How do astronauts live?” She decides to dictate a engage in when they move from one sign system to an-
story about life in space. Dustin, the “artist,” asks, other and back again. Through this semiotic process,
“What might aliens look like?” He uses a variety of me- learners transfer, or transmediate, the content and ex-
dia to create renditions of aliens. Amos, our “naturalist” pression in one sign system to another (Harste, 1994;
is most interested in researching questions about space Suhor 1992).

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Youngquist, J and Pataray-Ching, J. March 2004. “Revisiting ‘play’: Analyzing and articulating acts of inquiry.” Early Childhood
Education Journal. Vol 31, number 3. Pp 171-178.

174 Youngquist and Pataray-Ching

Harste (1994) contends that transmediation is “a Eisner (1994) describes three modes for treating
highly literate process” and the “key process” of literacy sign systems, or what he refers to as forms of representa-
(p. 1226). He contends that “real growth” occurs when tion. He purports that the conventional mode comprises
learners, unable to articulate themselves in one sign sys- the cultural conventions that a given society agrees on
tem, may clarify meaning in another (pp. 1226–1227). as a standard interpretation of knowing. The mimetic
The more complex the meaning being made or ex- mode “extract[s] the salient features of some aspect of
pressed, the more likely that multiple sign systems will the world and represent[s] them as an image within
be used to communicate those meanings (Short & some medium” (p. 49). The expressive mode represents
Burke, 1991). the “deep structure” of an object or event or “its expres-
sive character” (p. 52).
Constructing Meaning Through Drama Eisner’s modes of representational forms are evi-
dent in Marcus’s ongoing inquiry. About a week after
Marcus’s interest in rockets is stimulated initially
viewing the video, a few children choose to watch it
by viewing the blast-off scene from the movie Apollo
again. As a result of this second viewing, Marcus moves
13. He is fascinated by the rocket, the launch tower, and
to a different medium to explore his observations and
the fiery blast off. “How do they get the fire out?” he
knowledge, transmediating his exploration of rockets
asks. During the video, Marcus does not sit still and
from the sign system of drama to a new sign system.
simply watch; he engages in dramatic play imitating ac-
But inherent in this transmediation is Marcus’s gradual
tions he observes on the video: he lies down in his
shift from the surface, mimetic mode to a deeper, ex-
“rocket ship” and “takes off” or “floats around” (Fig.
pressive mode of representation. This shift to deeper
1). After watching the first video clip, Marcus spends
levels of understanding is significant because it teaches
nearly the entire day in role-play. He creates “space
us that young children’s engagement in project work is
ships” in the drama corner by pushing furniture together
more than “play” or an amusing activity for self- or
to make an enclosed space. At one point the astronauts
shared entertainment. It is an involved thinking process
are in danger of crocodile attack! Over the next few days
through which children’s inquiries drive their learning to
Marcus continues to explore his interest in space with
more complex and multifaceted ways of knowing.
dramatic play. While looking at a book, Marcus thinks
like a “director,” suggesting props that enhance his dra-
Transmediating Meaning Through Construction
matic play: “We need a backpack like this. And we need
and Architectural Design
tools like this. We can use the shovel and hoe from out-
side. We can clean them off. And we need all these Over the next few days, Marcus makes several at-
things. And food. And a flag! We can make one.” tempts to construct a rocket and lift-off tower. He uses
“little people” toy figures as astronauts, switching his dra-
matic play to building rocket structures with blocks (Fig.

Fig. 1. Marcus Inquires Through Drama After Viewing Apollo 13 Fig. 2. Marcus Constructs a Rocket and Lift-Off Tower with Blocks

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 Youngquist, J and Pataray-Ching, J. March 2004. “Revisiting ‘play’: Analyzing and articulating acts of inquiry.” Early Childhood
Education Journal. Vol 31, number 3. Pp 171-178.

Acts of Inquiry 175

2). He uses the sign system of drawing while simultane-

ously building with blocks, drawing simple rockets on pa-
per with fuselage and fire coming out from the bottom.
He continues to explore space books, with particular inter-
est in pictures of rockets and space shuttles. With Joan’s
assistance, he reads the class’s questions from the question
board and provides his own answers.
During this time a box of junk construction materi-
als is set out and children are invited to use them to create
rockets. Surprisingly, Marcus shows little interest in this
activity until he observes Jack building a rocket with the
junk materials. Marcus builds his “junk” rocket based
on the same model that he uses in his block construc-
tions and drawings, thereby representing his conceptual
understanding of rockets in a different way (Fig. 3).

Refining Conceptual Understandings

After the construction of his junk rocket, Marcus’s
drawings begin to take on a new complexity. He records Fig. 4. Marcus’s Drawing Showing Increasing Detail with Launch
many more details in his drawings (Fig. 4). He draws Tower and Fuselage Decal
the tower structure and decals on the rocket itself. He
takes considerable time, thinking through, and concen-
thinking about rockets, trying to “know” rockets and un-
trating on a large rendition of his rocket on the dry erase
derstand their relationship to the launch tower. He trans-
board. He remains focused throughout this activity and
fers his understanding from one medium (blocks) to an-
requests that Joan photograph his drawing. (This is the
other (junk construction) to another (drawing) and back
way Joan helps the children preserve their work.) Mar-
again. He also continues to engage in role-play with
cus continues to build and draw, indicating he is still
other children.
He reviews the video a third time and observes the
space capsule’s re-entry to Earth. He makes two more
observations: (a) the space capsule is where the astro-
nauts operate the rocket, and (b) the booster rockets are
the source of the fire that shoot out from the rocket.
With these newly formed discoveries, Marcus separates
these items in his drawings, adding “fire” to the bottom
of the fuselage, indicating its takeoff. He explains,
“They blast off and then this part comes off and falls in
the water.” This demonstration teaches us that beyond
understanding the rocket’s form, Marcus is thinking
about rocket function as it relates to the problem of lift
off and landing.
One day, Marcus’s Playschool class visits the Mor-
rill Hall Natural History Museum located nearby on a
university campus, and on display is a model of a space
shuttle. From this moment, Marcus begins researching
and drawing shuttle plans. He scours books for pictures
of space shuttles. He identifies three main structures: the
fuel tank, booster rockets, and shuttle. After completing
initial work on his model, Marcus again transfers his
understanding to a more complex drawing, which he de-
Fig. 3. Marcus’s Rocket Made from Junk Materials from the Construc- signs with Dustin, stimulating much collaborative dis-
tion Box cussion. Dustin works on the astronaut and alien, while

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Youngquist, J and Pataray-Ching, J. March 2004. “Revisiting ‘play’: Analyzing and articulating acts of inquiry.” Early Childhood
Education Journal. Vol 31, number 3. Pp 171-178.

176 Youngquist and Pataray-Ching

Marcus draws the shuttle structures. Over the next few system at a time. However, as he engages in his inquiry
days Marcus shifts back and forth between drawing and over a period of time, he appears to move with greater
modifying his model. He asks the teacher to cut open ease among sign systems.
bay doors “for the satellite,” adds parachutes to the
booster rockets, and paints the structures.
Reflection on Marcus’s Inquiry
After finding a blueprint of a space station, Mar-
cus’s inventor perspective identifies a problem, “how to Marcus’s series of inquiries within the Playschool’s
build a space station,” in which he uses the blueprint project work on space is involved, reflective, creative,
to build a new model. In collaboration with Amos, the intellectual, and semiotic. His initial inquiry question
“naturalist” who brings to the effort attention to detail, emerges from his observation of a space shuttle. Through
the two boys draw their half of the plan, then tape their this observation and a burning desire to know, Marcus’s
individual plans together to create one complete plan inquiry proceeds through a series of complex processes
(Fig. 5). As they work they ask questions and discuss requiring his critical thinking, self-driven research, anal-
further related topics about space, learning about solar ysis, and synthesis. He embodies what it is like to be
cells and living spaces. an astronaut through dramatic play, but then pushes his
Their discussions lead them into using paper and thinking further by constructing the world of astronauts
foil to make solar cells. They connect the PVC pipes, using props and supplies. He steps outside his dramatic
tape on the solar cells, and use geocubes for other struc- play to analyze space environments further, creating
tures, such as a stairway. When the structure is complete new ways to represent his understanding in deeper, more
Joan hangs it from the ceiling. But when Marcus revisits expressive modes.
the book and notices an illustration with a meteor hitting His ability to step outside of his creative world en-
the space station, he constructs an escape rocket for as- ables him to transmediate his understanding of rockets
tronauts to use should such a catastrophe occur to his from drama to architectural design. He continually re-
space station. It is interesting to note that his earliest flects on what he knows, inquiring further and refining
inquiries in rockets involved a preference of one sign his understanding. Moreover, he makes observations, re-
searches through books, adds more details, and opens
himself to new lines of inquiry as he wonders about how
to build a space shuttle and space station. His use of
different sign systems gives his investigation of how to
build space ships depth and meaning.
Helm and Katz (2001) describe the role of repre-
sentational drawing in helping children make sense of
their world during project investigations. However, we
have learned that meaning-making is not just a function
of drawing, but of all sign systems. Time is a factor,
allowing children to both construct knowledge and ex-
plore this knowledge via different sign systems. Collab-
oration between children who inquire through different
sign systems broadens their learning. The children in
Joan’s preschool also teach us that rather than detracting
from language and literacy skills, their movement through
multiple sign systems improves these skills quite natu-
rally. Marcus’s ability to use language to describe rocket
structure and function as well as describe signs and la-
bels he creates are examples of his improving language
and literacy skills as he investigates rockets.
Certainly Marcus’s drawings are a way through
which we interpret his growing understanding, but this
understanding does not come through nor is expressed
Fig. 5. Marcus (on right) and Amos Make Their Blueprint of the Shut- by drawing alone. Without drama, block construction,
tle and Space Station junk construction, and language it is doubtful Marcus

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 Youngquist, J and Pataray-Ching, J. March 2004. “Revisiting ‘play’: Analyzing and articulating acts of inquiry.” Early Childhood
Education Journal. Vol 31, number 3. Pp 171-178.

Acts of Inquiry 177

would have been as successful as he is in developing mediations before he can feel comfortable moving for-
his knowledge about spacecraft. This process has helped ward.
us to realize the importance of multiple sign systems for We present the inquiry cycle to early childhood ed-
exploring, expressing, and assessing learning. ucators to serve as a framework for what is possible in
their programs or classrooms. The inquiry cycle helps
educators recognize that what might at first appear as
A MODEL FOR INQUIRY IN THE EARLY
idle play, is really part of young children’s inquiries
CHILDHOOD CLASSROOM
through multiple-sign and knowledge systems. The pro-
Based on Marcus’s inquiry process, the observa- cess of children’s inquiries involves much critical, re-
tions of other children in Joan’s Playschool, and drawing flective, and analytical thought-all essential to their de-
on the work of the curriculum-as-inquiry model put velopment and growth. We also hope that the inquiry
forth by Short and Harste (1996), we can construct a cycle can be used to assist educators in identifying evi-
model (Fig. 6) for inquiry tailored for the early child- dence of learning and articulating to parents the com-
hood classroom. The inquiry cycle for the early child- plex thinking processes involved in the young child’s
hood classroom, although linear in appearance, repre- inquiry process.
sents cycles within cycles. That is, some children may
move linearly through the inquiry cycle, while others
CONCLUSION
may take detours and circle back several times within
the cycle before progressing forward. Such is the case The inquiry early childhood classroom is an exten-
with Marcus, whose inquiries involve a series of sign sion of the life inquiries that children have had since
and knowledge system explorations, analyses, and trans- birth. Inquiry teachers understand that children’s life in-

Fig. 6. Inquiry Model for the Early Childhood Classroom Adapted from Short and Harste, with Burke’s, 1996 Curriculum-as-Inquiry Model

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Youngquist, J and Pataray-Ching, J. March 2004. “Revisiting ‘play’: Analyzing and articulating acts of inquiry.” Early Childhood
Education Journal. Vol 31, number 3. Pp 171-178.

178 Youngquist and Pataray-Ching

quiries, often termed “play,” may be spontaneous and Helm, J. H., & Katz, L. G. (2001). Young investigators: The project
approach in the early years. New York: Teachers College Press.
driven by children’s need to understand their world. Johnson, J., Christie, J., & Yawkey, T. (1999). Play and early child-
These inquiries are key in their lifelong development hood development (2nd ed.). New York: Addison Wesley
and, therefore, must be nurtured and cultivated. Further, Longman.
Katz, L. G., & Chard, S. C. (2000). Engaging children’s minds: The
it is important that early childhood educators discern be- project approach (2nd ed.). Stamford, CT: JAI Press, Inc./Ablex
tween “play” and acts of inquiry to broaden their lens Publishing Group.
for approaching student learning in richer and meaning- Kirby, D., & Kuykendall, C. (1991). Mind matters: Teaching for think-
ing. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook Publishers.
ful ways. Thus, as teachers create inquiry curricula around Lillard, A. S. (1998). Playing with a theory of mind. In O. N. Sara-
students’ interests and strengths, they also help children cho & B. Spodek (Eds.), Multiple perspectives on play in early
broaden the ways in which they think, question, and ex- childhood education (pp. 11–33). Ithaca: State University of New
York Press.
plore through transmediations across multiple sign sys- Pataray-Ching, J., & Roberson, M. (2002). Misconceptions about
tems. We are convinced that when educators critically a curriculum-as-inquiry framework. Language Arts, 79, 498–
identify and analyze acts of inquiry in the early child- 505.
Peirce, C. S. (1985). Logic as semiotic: The theory of signs. In R.
hood classroom, they are better positioned to articulate E. Innis (Ed.), Semiotics: An introductory anthology (pp. 1–23).
these instances to parents, policymakers, the community, Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
and critics of our children’s intellectual and creative po- Roskos, K., & Neuman, S. B. (1998). Play as an opportunity for liter-
acy. In O. Saracho & B. Spodek (Eds.), Multiple perspectives on
tentials and possibilities. play in early childhood education (pp. 100–115). Ithaca: State
University of New York Press.
Saracho, O., & Spodek, B. (Eds.). (1998). Multiple perspectives on
REFERENCES play in early childhood education. Ithaca: State University of
New York Press.
Berghoff, B., Egawa, K., Harste, J., & Hoonan, B. (2000). Beyond Short, K. G., & Burke, C. (1991). Creating curriculum: Teachers and
reading and writing: Inquiry, curriculum, and multiple ways of students as a community of learners. Portsmouth, NH: Heine-
knowing. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. mann.
Edwards, C., Gandini, L., & Forman, G. (Eds.). (1998). The hundred Short, K. G., & Harste, J. C. (with Burke, C. L.) (1996). Creating
languages of children: The Reggio Emilia approach—Advanced classrooms for authors and inquirers (2nd ed.). Portsmouth, NH:
reflections (2nd ed.). Greenwich, CT: Ablex. Heinemann.
Edwards, C., & Springate, K. (1993). Inviting children into project Spodek, B. (Ed.). (1993). Handbook of research on the education of
work. Dimensions of Early Childhood, 22(1), 9–12, 40. young children. New York: Macmillan.
Eisner, E. (1994). Cognition and curriculum reconsidered (2nd ed.). Sponseller, D. (1982). Play and early education. In B. Spodek (Ed.),
New York: Teachers College Press. Handbook of research in early childhood education (pp. 215–
Harste, J.C. (1994). Literacy as curricular conversations about knowl- 241). New York: Macmillan.
edge, inquiry and morality. In M. R. Ruddell & R. B. Ruddell Suhor, C. (1992). Semiotics and the English language arts. Language
(Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (4th ed., pp. Arts, 69(3), 228–230.
1220–1242). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

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Youngquist, J and Pataray-Ching, J. March 2004. “Revisiting ‘play’: Analyzing and articulating acts of inquiry.” Early Childhood
Education Journal. Vol 31, number 3. Pp 171-178.

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Malaguzzi, L. March/April 1994. "Your Image of the Child: Where Teaching Begins." Child Care Information Exchange. Vol 96. Pp 52-56.

Your Image of the Child:

Where Teaching Begins
by Loris Malaguzzi

These comments are translated and adapted from a seminar the children, such as: “When are these children really
presented by Professor Loris Malaguzzi in Reggio Emilia, going to begin socializing?” And at the same time
Italy, June 1993. the children will pose questions to the adults: “When
are the adults really going to begin socializing?” This
There are hundreds of different images of the child. is a dialogue that needs to be continual between the
Each one of you has inside yourself an image of the adults and the children. The adults ask questions
child that directs you as you begin to relate to a child. from the world of adults to the children. The
This theory within you pushes you to behave in children will ask questions to the adults. The expec-
certain ways; it orients you as you talk to the child, tations that the children have of the adults and the
listen to the child, observe the child. It is very adults have of the children are important. We must
difficult for you to act contrary to this internal image. spend some time talking about these expectations.
For example, if your image is that boys and girls are
very different from one another, you will behave The family — mothers, fathers, aunts, uncles, grand-
differently in your interactions with each of them. parents — is also involved in this questioning. Daily
they need to ask: “What is this child doing in the
The environment you construct around you and the school?”
children also reflects this image you have about the
child. There’s a difference between the environment It’s very probable that once a day, maybe twice or
that you are able to build based on a preconceived three times or many times a day, the children are
image of the child and the environment that you can asking themselves: “What is my mother doing?”
build that is based on the child you see in front of you “What is my father doing?” “What is my brother or
— the relationship you build with the child, the my sister doing?” “Are they having more fun than I
games you play. An environment that grows out of am?” “Are they bored?”
your relationship with the child is unique and fluid.
The quality and quantity of relationships among you The school we are talking about is not the school you
as adults and educators also reflects your image of are familiar with in the past, but it is something that
the child. Children are very sensitive and can see and you can hope for.
sense very quickly the spirit of what is going on
among the adults in their world. They understand Considering Each Child’s Reality
whether the adults are working together in a truly
collaborative way or if they are separated in some We can never think of the child in the abstract. When
way from each other, living their experience as if it we think about a child, when we pull out a child to
were private with little interaction. look at, that child is already tightly connected and
linked to a certain reality of the world — she has
Posing Important Questions relationships and experiences. We cannot separate
this child from a particular reality. She brings these
When you begin working with children in the experiences, feelings, and relationships into school
morning, you must, as adults, pose questions about with her.

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 Malaguzzi, L. March/April 1994. "Your Image of the Child: Where Teaching Begins." Child Care Information Exchange. Vol 96. Pp 52-56.

And it is the same for you as adults. When you tions that take place there. Their expectations of
enter the school in the morning, you carry with you these interactions is critical.
pieces of your life — your happiness, your sadness,
your hopes, your pleasures, the stresses from your It is also important for the teachers to enjoy being
life. You never come in an isolated way; you always with the other teachers, to enjoy seeing the children
come with pieces of the world attached to you. So stretch their capacities and use their intelligences, to
the meetings that we have are always contaminated enjoy interactions with the children. Both parts are
with the experiences that we bring with us. essential.

Growing Comfortable with the Unknown Both children and adults need to feel active and
important — to be rewarded by their own efforts,
their own intelligences, their own activity and
School is not at all like billiards. When you play
energy. When a child feels these things are valued,
billiards you push the ball with a certain force and it
they become a fountain of strength for him. He feels
hits the table and bounces off; there’s a definite way
the joy of working with adults who value his work
the ball will go, depending on force and direction.
and this is one of the bases for learning.
Children are not at all like this, predictable. But
sometimes schools function as if they were; these are
Overactivity on the part of the adult is a risk factor.
schools with no joy.
The adult does too much because he cares about the
child; but this creates a passive role for the child in
Of course, many things that happen in school can be
her own learning.
seen ahead and planned beforehand. But many
things that happen cannot be known ahead of time.
Something will start to grow inside the child and
Finding Our Way in the Forest
suddenly what is happening in the school will move
All of this is a great forest. Inside the forest is the
in that direction. Sometimes what happens starts
child. The forest is beautiful, fascinating, green, and
inside the adults. School can never be always
full of hopes; there are no paths. Although it isn’t
predictable. We need to be open to what takes place
easy, we have to make our own paths, as teachers
and able to change our plans and go with what
and children and families, in the forest. Sometimes
might grow at that very moment both inside the
we find ourselves together within the forest, some-
child and inside ourselves.
times we may get lost from each other, sometimes
we’ll greet each other from far away across the forest;
Each one of us needs to be able to play with the
but it’s living together in this forest that is important.
things that are coming out of the world of children. And this living together is not easy.
Each one of us needs to have curiosity, and we need
to be able to try something new based on the ideas We have to find each other in the forest and begin to
that we collect from the children as they go along. discuss what the education of the child actually
Life has to be somewhat agitated and upset, a bit means. The important aspect is not just to promote
restless, somewhat unknown. As life flows with the the education of the child but the health and happi-
thoughts of the children, we need to be open, we ness of the child as well.
need to change our ideas; we need to be comfortable
with the restless nature of life. We need to think of the school as a living organism.
Children have to feel that the world is inside the
All of this changes the role of the teacher, a role that school and moves and thinks and works and reflects
becomes much more difficult and complex. It also on everything that goes on. Of course not all children
makes the world of the teacher more beautiful, are the same — each child brings a part of something
something to become involved in. that’s different into the school.

Enjoying Relationships Learning to Wait

The ability to enjoy relationships and work together All of this pushes us to produce a higher level of
is very important. Children need to enjoy being in observation. We must move beyond just looking at
school, they need to love their school and the interac- the child to become better observers, able to penetrate

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Malaguzzi, L. March/April 1994. "Your Image of the Child: Where Teaching Begins." Child Care Information Exchange. Vol 96. Pp 52-56.

into the child to understand each child’s resources When the child is observed, the child is happy — it’s
and potential and present state of mind. We need to almost an honor that he is observed by an adult. On
compare these with our own in order to work well the other hand, a good teacher who knows how to
together. observe feels good about himself because that person
knows that he is able to take something from the
Our task is to construct educational situations that we situation, transform it, and understand it in a new
propose to the children in the morning. It’s okay to way.
improvise sometimes but we need to plan the project.
It may be a project that is projected over a period of What the child doesn’t want is an observation from
days, or weeks, or even months. We need to produce the adult who isn’t really there, who is distracted.
situations in which children learn by themselves, in The child wants to know that she is observed, care-
which children can take advantage of their own fully, with full attention. The child wants to be
knowledge and resources autonomously, and in observed in action. She wants the teacher to see the
which we guarantee the intervention of the adult as process of her work, rather than the product. The
little as possible. We don’t want to teach children teacher asks the child to take a bucket of water from
something that they can learn by themselves. We one place to the other. It’s not important to the child
don’t want to give them thoughts that they can come that the teacher only sees him arrive with the bucket
up with by themselves. What we want to do is of water at the end. What is important to the child is
activate within children the desire and will and great that the teacher sees the child while the child is
pleasure that comes from being the authors of their working, while the child is putting out the effort to
own learning. accomplish the task — the processes are important,
how much the child is putting into the effort, how
We need to know how to recognize a new presence, heroic the child is doing this work. What children
how to wait for the child. This is something that is want is to be observed while engaged, they do not
learned, it’s not automatic. We often have to do it want the focus of the observation to be on the final
against our own rush to work in our own way. We’ll product. When we as adults are able to see the
discover that our presence, which has to be visible children in the process, it’s as if we are opening a
and warm, makes it possible for us to try to get inside window and getting a fresh view of things.
the child and what that child is doing. And this may
seem to be passive, but it is really a very strong “If only you had seen all I had to do.” The child
activity on our part. wants this observation. We all want this. This means
that when you learn to observe the child, when you
have assimilated all that it means to observe the
Becoming Totally Involved child, you learn many things that are not in books —
educational or psychological. And when you have
It’s a constant value for the children to know that the done this you will learn to have more diffidence and
adult is there, attentive and helpful, a guide for the more distrust of rapid assessments, tests, judgments.
child. Perhaps this way of working with the child The child wants to be observed, but she doesn’t want
will build a different understanding of our role than to be judged. Even when we do judge, things escape
we have had before. Clarifying the meaning of our us, we do not see things, so we are not able to evalu-
presence and our being with children is something ate in a wide way. This system of observing children
that is vital for the child. When the child sees that the carries you into many different feelings and thoughts,
adult is there, totally involved with the child, the into a kind of teaching full of uncertainty and doubt,
child doesn’t forget. This is something that’s right for and it takes wisdom and a great deal of knowledge
us and it’s right for the children. on the part of the teachers to be able to work within
this situation of uncertainty.
There are many things that are part of a child’s life
just as they are part of an adult’s life. The desire to Discovering a New Way of Observing
do something for someone, for instance. Every adult
has a need to feel that we are seen/observed by Observing in this way offers tremendous benefits. It
others. (Observing others is also important.) This is requires a shift in the role of the teacher from an
just as true for children as for adults. Therefore, it’s emphasis of teaching to an emphasis on learning,
possible to observe, to receive a lot of pleasure and teachers learning about themselves as teachers as
satisfaction from observing in many different ways. well as teachers learning about children. This is a

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 Malaguzzi, L. March/April 1994. "Your Image of the Child: Where Teaching Begins." Child Care Information Exchange. Vol 96. Pp 52-56.

self-learning that takes place for the teacher and it When we in Reggio say children have 100 languages,
enables the teacher to see things that are taking place we mean more than the 100 languages of children, we
in children that teachers were not able to see before. also mean the 100 languages of adults, of teachers.
The teacher must have the capacity for many differ-
We have to let children be with children. Children ent roles. The teacher has to be the author of a play,
learn a lot from other children, and adults learn someone who thinks ahead of time. Teachers also
from children being with children. Children love to need to be the main actors in the play, the protago-
learn among themselves, and they learn things that nists. The teacher must forget all the lines he knew
it would never be possible to learn from interactions before and invent the ones he doesn’t remember.
with an adult. The interaction between children is a Teachers also have to take the role of the prompter,
very fertile and a very rich relationship. If it is left to the one who gives the cues to the actors. Teachers
ferment without adult interference and without that need to be set designers who create the environment
excessive assistance that we sometimes give, then in which activities take place. At the same time, the
it’s more advantageous to the child. We don’t want teacher needs to be the audience who applauds.
to protect something that doesn’t need to be pro-
tected. The teacher has many different roles and she needs to
be in many places and do many different things and
It’s important for the teacher who works with young use many languages. Sometimes the teacher will find
children to understand that she knows little about himself without words, without anything to say; and
children. Teachers need to learn to see the children, at times this is fortunate for the child, because then
to listen to them, to know when they are feeling some the teacher will have to invent new words.
distance from us as adults and from children, when
they are distracted, when they are surrounded by a Forging Alliances with Families
shadow of happiness and pleasure, and when they
are surrounded by a shadow of sadness and suffer-
We must forge strong alliances with the families of
ing. We have to understand that they are moving
our children. Imagine the school as an enormous
and working with many ideas, but their most impor-
hot air balloon. The hot air balloon is on the ground
tant task is to build relationships with friends. They
when the parents bring their children in the
are trying to understand what friendship is. Children
grow in many directions together, but a child is
morning. Some parents think the balloon is going to
always in search of relationships. Children get to rise up and fly around during the day. Others
know each other through all their senses. Touching would really prefer that the balloon remain on the
the hair of another child is very important. Smell is ground because that way they are sure their children
important. This is a way children are able to under- are safe and protected. But the children want to go
stand the identity of themselves and the identity of up and fly and travel everywhere in a hot air
others. balloon, to see in this different way, to look at things
from above. Our problem is that to make the hot air
Redefining Roles balloon fly we have to make sure that parents
understand the importance of what the teachers and
children are doing in the hot air balloon. Flying
We need to define the role of the adult, not as a
through the air, seeing the world in a different way,
transmitter but as a creator of relationships —
relationships not only between people but also
adds to the wealth of all of us, particularly the
between things, between thoughts, with the environ- children.
ment. It’s like we need to create a typical New York
City traffic jam in the school. We need to make a big impression on parents, amaze
them, convince them that what we are doing is some-
We teachers must see ourselves as researchers, able to thing extremely important for their children and for
think, and to produce a true curriculum, a curriculum them, that we are producing and working with chil-
produced from all of the children. dren to understand their intelligence and their intelli-
gences. This means that we have to become skilled in
What we so often do is impose adult time on flying and managing this hot air balloon. Perhaps it
children’s time and this negates children being able to was our previous lack of skill that made us fall. We
work with their own resources. all need to learn to be better hot air balloon pilots.

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Malaguzzi, L. March/April 1994. "Your Image of the Child: Where Teaching Begins." Child Care Information Exchange. Vol 96. Pp 52-56.

Building Strong Images

What we have to do now is draw out the image of the
child, draw the child out of the desperate situations
that many children find themselves in. If we redeem
the child from these difficult situations, we redeem
ourselves. Loris Malaguzzi
February 23, 1920 — January 30, 1994
Children have a right to a good school — a good
building, good teachers, right time, good activities. Loris Malaguzzi, founder of the Reggio Emilia
This is the right of ALL children. Approach, began teaching in schools started by
parents just after the end of WWII. Through the
It is necessary to give an immediate response to a years, he transformed that courageous initiative into
child. Children need to know that we are their the internationally acclaimed program for young
friends, that they can depend on us for the things they children that we know today.
desire, that we can support them in the things that
they have, but also in the things that they dream Those who worked with Malaguzzi or heard him
about, that they desire. speak have vivid memories of an intense learning
experience — his philosophical reflections, surprising
Children have the right to imagine. We need to give observations, challenges of conventional thoughts in
them full rights of citizenship in life and in society. education, unexpected turns of thought, complexity
of ideas, and delightful metaphors. One way to pay
It’s necessary that we believe that the child is very tribute to Loris Malaguzzi is to listen to his words:
intelligent, that the child is strong and beautiful and
has very ambitious desires and requests. This is the “Our goal is to build an amiable school, where
image of the child that we need to hold. children, teachers and families feel at home. Such a
school requires careful thinking and planning con-
Those who have the image of the child as fragile, cerning procedures, motivations and interests. It
incomplete, weak, made of glass gain something from must embody ways of getting along together, of
this belief only for themselves. We don’t need that as intensifying relationships.”
an image of children. Edwards, Gandini, and Forman (editors),
The Hundred Languages of Children (Norwood, NJ:
Instead of always giving children protection, we need Ablex, 1993).
to give them the recognition of their rights and of their
strengths.

Translated by Baji Rankin, Leslie Morrow, and Lella

Gandini.

Exchange 3/94
Reprinted with permission. Further distribution prohibited. 66/78
Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood
Volume 9 Number 1 2008
www.wwwords.co.uk/CIEC

Young Children’s Access to Real Life:

an examination of the growing boundaries between
children in child care and adults in the community

JOHN NIMMO
Child Study and Development Center,
University of New Hampshire, Durham, USA

ABSTRACT Young children in industrialized societies are increasingly separated from the everyday
lives of adults in their community. This article explores the historical and cultural dynamics (and
contradictions) of a growing boundary between children, particularly those in child care, and adults
without primary care-giving roles. The article proposes that young children’s participation in and
contributions to a democratic society are rooted in access to this real life. The active role of children in
the formation of social capital should be recognized by educators and policy makers as significant in the
development of identity. A framework and strategies for developing meaningful child–adult relations
in the context of child care are proposed as the basis for further research and practice.

Introduction
A quarter of a century ago, Suransky (1982) argued that ‘we now separate children from the world
of work; we dichotomize play from work; we deny the significance of the child’s contribution to
the cultural forms of everyday life’ (p. 8). Referring to the context of North America, Suransky
warned us that children can emerge from years of child care and schooling ‘having been deprived
of their own history-making power, their ability to act on the world in significant and meaningful
ways’ (p. 8). In contrast to cultures in which children remain more central to the functioning of the
local community, mainstream child care ‘serves as a means for placing children “in storage”’
(p. 199).
In this article I explore young children’s dwindling access to and participation in real life while
in child care. I examine the roots of a growing boundary between the worlds of children and adults,
particularly in western industrialized societies, and initiate a dialogue about the ways early
educators might respond intentionally to how this phenomenon plays out in the context of group
care. In particular, I consider the contribution of children’s participation in the community to their
emerging engagement in democratic life.
By real life, I mean the everyday pursuits of adults in the neighborhood and wider community
[1], specifically, the lives of adults not engaged directly in the care of children as a primary role.
While children’s peer culture and the imaginative life of play are powerful contexts for early
identity development, preschool children already recognize that the domains of adults are in
important ways more powerful than their own. Adults define a world in which they have access to
decision making, resources, literacy, and networks that reaches beyond the realms of children (Hill
et al, 2004). Even in contexts where adults lack power in society because of oppression, they still
retain influence over children and the world they live in (Roche, 1999; Canella, 2001).
Real life as defined here is not necessarily a good, just, exciting, or simple thing. It includes
complexity, conflict, inequality and the mundane. Rather than seeking to return to a romantic

3 http://dx.doi.org/10.2304/ciec.2008.9.1.3

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notion of how things may or may not have been in the past, this article is an opportunity to take
stock of changes in adult–child relations when children are in formal care for long hours.

Boundaries in Children’s Participation in Real Life

Thirty years ago, Bronfenbrenner (1974) argued that children in the United States were being
increasingly alienated from adult society by social factors still evident today. The historical context
for his thesis was the dawn of group child care as a player in young children’s entry into society.
While he proclaimed, ‘Day care is coming to America’ (p. 56), we can now say: It is here! It is in the
light of this change and the need to focus on the often neglected contexts of neighborhood and
community [2] that this article revisits some of the problems identified three decades ago and
considers newly emerging issues. While these problems are documented most vividly for the
United States, there is evidence of their impact on children in other post-industrial societies, as well
as many instances in which social policy and the cultural context in various countries has supported
integration of children into their communities.
In this section I explore four key issues that play a role in the separation of young children
from the adult community in post-industrial societies: (1) the exclusion of children from work; (2)
the protection of children from risk; (3) the commercialization of children’s identity; and (4) the
fragmentation of social capital in neighborhoods.

The Exclusion of Children from Work

Prior to the industrial revolution in Europe, work typically occurred within the context of family
and village life (Baer, 1979). Children worked and played beside adults, and engaged in activities
that were economically and socially significant to the family. Work and play activities were more
intermingled, less separated. Work activities for children as young as seven involved
master/apprentice relationships in which they were expected to take on increasing responsibilities
(Fyfe, 1989). Life in mediaeval Europe was hardly romantic, but rather a time in which children
were also subjected to, rather than protected from, much that was abhorrent about society
(Postman, [1982] 1994).
After the separation of industry and work from the home in the eighteenth century, the
children of many working-class families continued to engage in labor, along with adults, in
situations of exploitation in factories or in the fields. Other children, privileged by social class and
gender, began to enter schooling. In both settings, the activities of work and play became
increasingly contained and compartmentalized – for both children and adults (Baer, 1979; Fyfe,
1989; James et al, 1998; Prout, 2005).
The movement to end child labor in industrialized countries, while necessary to curtail
abuses, also sped up the disconnection of play from work – and work (in the adult sense) from the
activities of children (Finkelstein, 1987). Gittins (1998) comments:
Legislation forbidding children to work protects them from physical stress and pain and often
dangerous conditions. It also, however, excludes them from adult society, from a sense of
personal worth and status that undoubtedly come from work. (p. 68)
With the advent of formal schooling, children were now being prepared to take their place in
society at a later date. Social scientists argue that this shift led to the belief that children are
incomplete or, at best, in a state of becoming adults until their schooling is concluded (Wyness, 2000).
The international movement to free children from the exploitation of labor that is physically
and emotionally abusive was and is critical to children’s well-being and establishment of rights
(Fyfe, 1989). However, Canella & Viruru (1997) argue that the play/work dichotomy that
dominates western thinking about early childhood education (in which play is good and work is
bad) needs to be reconceptualized in light of what we know about the diverse experiences of
children in differing social and cultural contexts. Cross-cultural research tells us that children’s
participation in community work is often significant in the process of constructing a meaningful
identity (Rogoff, 1990; Bloch & Adler, 1994). For instance, observations of traditional Mayan

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communities confirm that young children observe and then participate in work activities as a
precursor to becoming productive adult members (Gaskins, 2000).
Formal early childhood settings in industrialized societies often create boundaries between
children’s play and community work through a standardized curriculum and scheduling, and other
decisions that restrict the options available to children for investigating their local environments. In
contrast, teachers need to consider meaningful ways in which children might observe and
participate in work activities (as opposed to labor). For instance, the educators from the renowned
child care centers in Reggio Emilia, Italy have invited children to interview city workers about the
pipes under the streets, join the grape harvest at a local vineyard, and design the stage curtain for
an important civic building (Nimmo, 1998). These forms of engagement provide children with
direct sources of information about real adults in their community and how they contribute to
their city.
Even options to observe work in the community are limited for many children. The visibility
and accessibility of adult work to children and the opportunity to develop relationships in these
settings impacts what children understand about this arena of real life (Furth, 1980; Bowes &
Goodnow, 1996). The working world in industrialized societies remains hidden and out of the
reach of children, making it difficult for them to understand these economic relations (Hutchings,
1993). Young children are left primarily to construct their ideas about social institutions through
indirect sources such as parents, peer discourse, school, and the media (Barrett & Buchanan-
Burrow, 2005). Drawing on cross-cultural research, Rogoff (1990) comments: ‘In the U.S. middle
class, many school-age children do not even know what their parents’ occupations are, much less
how their parents carry out adult work and adult interaction’(p. 124). In traditional societies, in
Central America and Africa, Rogoff found that children were more fully integrated in adult
activities:
Children are present at most events of interest in the community, from work to recreation to
church. They are able to observe and eavesdrop on the ongoing processes of life and death, work
and play, that are important in their community. (p.124)
There are many children in western societies who continue to have meaningful contact with adult
work, often out of economic necessity or in order to maintain ethnic and cultural identity. In rural
areas, the visibility of work roles and the need for a helping hand in the farm or corner shop
certainly play a role. Even so, the dominant educational institutions in American society and
elsewhere often place little value on these experiences and do not seek to find ways to create a
connection between this curriculum of real life and the academic curriculum inside the school. For
instance, Cleary & Peacock (1997) share the example of a Native American child who learned
significant cultural information through fishing with an adult relative, but his teachers did not
recognize these experiences as potential starting points for the school curriculum.
Children in group care in western societies typically observe adults who are largely defined by
their relationship with children, as teachers and care-givers, rather than by a range of adult roles
defined by work and activity in the community. While parents may flow freely into some centers,
participate in the curriculum and even be visited in their work settings by excited preschoolers, the
focus often remains on building a relationship with a peer’s parent, rather than on learning about
adult community. In contrast, I propose that it is important for children to be directly engaged with
adults in meaningful activities of many kinds because of the potential impact on the child’s sense of
competence and identity.

The Protection of Children from Risk

Evidence suggests that many children in the United States and Europe are now more corralled by
rules and surveillance than we have ever witnessed before (New et al, 2005; Prout, 2005). The
complex world of work has been one place in which the rules intended to keep children safe have
led to their exclusion from such settings (at least according to the law if not in reality). The social
construct of children as vulnerable and in need of protection is, in part, a response to the perceived
and real dangers of post-industrial societies (Lansdown, 1994, Wyness, 2000; Canella, 2001).

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The unintended consequence of a family’s concern for child safety is the limitation of
children’s ventures into the social world around them. According to Rossi (2001a), this limitation is
one of the key social factors impeding the development of children in North America:
Even children from healthy loving families that instill in them trust in others and a desire to be
helpful to others are prevented from moving on to the next developmental stage of extending
that circle of others to encompass persons outside the family. Instead they learn that the world is
a fearful scary place and that it is best to stay safely within a narrowly defined, cautious world of
known adults and peers and friends. These are hardly fruitful grounds for the development of
social responsibility and civic morality. (p. 21)
Drawing on Beck’s concept of the risk society, James et al (1998) contend, ‘parents increasingly
identify the world outside the home as one from which their children must be shielded and in
relation to which they must devise strategies of risk reduction’ (p. 7). A formidable list of perceived
threats to children’s physical, emotional and moral safety can be identified: physical harm from
urban traffic and child molesters; the testing, observation and documentation of young children in
school; the entry of the media into family space; and lack of supervision in child care. Even in a
country such as Denmark where social policy has helped to create child-friendly cities with
pedestrian zones and adventure playgrounds, Rasmussen (2004) reports that the everyday lives of
many children are largely limited to institutionalized spaces such as the school, home and
recreation facilities.
In the child care context of the USA and Australia, the themes of danger and public liability
are expressed in ‘no field trip’ policies, the installation of video surveillance cameras so parents can
log on to see that their child is safe, and imposing security that is intended to keep out those who
might pose a threat. At one center in urban Australia I spoke to teachers who were even reluctant
to take children on walks to the neighborhood shops. Many children were shuttled in with parents
by car from outlying neighborhoods and learned little about the center community. For other
children, this was their neighborhood. In my rural community in the United States children under
five at the university laboratory school can not ride the shuttle around campus because of State
licensing regulations.
This disposition to ‘avoid risk’ has flowed into how early childhood educators (and policy
makers) make decisions about potential child care experiences (from visits to adult workplaces to
riding on buses) that do not fit within a narrowly prescribed world of ‘protected’ childhood. The
resources, complexity, and diversity of community life could enrich the preschool curriculum
when children have access both outside and inside the center. For instance, the Harvard Project
Zero authors detail the process of preschoolers engaged in guided apprenticeship experiences with
professionals from occupations exemplifying the multiple intelligences (Gardner et al, 1998).

The Commercialization of Children’s Identity

At the same time that parents, care-givers, and society are seeking to control the flow of risk, young
children are increasingly encountering the impact of the electronic age. Television, video gaming,
and the Internet offer information and images in a format readily available and ferociously
consumed by children. These changes often represent an intrusion of the commercial world, rather
than a meaningful linking together of child and adult culture. Children’s identity is in the process of
being marketed (Giroux, 2001). The commercialization of identity refers to the ways in which
children are being told who they are or who they should be by the mass media. Through
advertising and product placement, and through the shows themselves, children are being told
how to dress, how to look, what to listen to, what to think, how to behave and, of course, what to
buy.
This is not to say that popular culture is an inherently bad thing for children or that they are
passive recipients of what is consumed. In many ways, children actively engage with, explore
identity through, and are inspired by the mass media (Tobin, 2000; Buckingham, 2003). There is
also the potential for television and the Internet (like books in the past) to provide children with a
window into the lives of people that they might never have known directly (Barrett & Buchanan-
Barrow, 2005). Still, we need to consider how children can also learn who they are through first-
hand interactions with real life as defined in this article. While the media may be more accessible

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and seductive than the neighbourhood, it is hardly a complete representation of what it means to
live in a particular community. Hatano & Takahashi (2005) note that the media can provide
information that is both erroneous and superficial in terms of children’s social understanding.
While media literacy programs (at home and school) and children’s own critical construction of
this information are always important, early childhood educators should also consider how the
media influence on identity can be minimized through more intentional and meaningful direct
contact between young children and real life experiences.

The Fragmentation of Social Capital in Neighborhoods

Children build their identity through access to a vibrant, interconnected set of relationships in the
community conceptualized here as social capital. Coleman (1988) articulated three aspects to social
capital that impact the well-being of children: first, that the child has ready access to an ongoing
relationship with a trustworthy community adult; second, that this adult has access to a network of
social relationships and resources within and outside of the community; and third, that there are
social norms of behavior that are modeled and expected by these community members. The
French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu argued that people must also be able to understand and
maintain social networks in order for them to be useful and that access to cultural capital
(knowledge of the specific information needed to succeed in a society) must also be considered
(Schaefer-McDaniel, 2004).
Social capital appears to benefit individuals and communities in a number of ways. Collective
problems can be resolved through shared effort, information can flow more readily throughout the
community, and troubling events can be coped with via the mobilization of resources (Putnam,
2000). Access to social capital strengthens children’s social networks and contributes to their
participation in democratic life (Schaefer-McDaniel, 2004). Research indicates that the social
cohesion of a neighborhood is an important factor in maintaining resilience and a sense of hope in
the face of poverty and racism (Limber & Nation, 1998).
Drawing on survey data collected across the USA, Putnam (2000) argues that social capital has
been on a steady decline since the 1960s. Recent research (Rossi, 2001b) indicates that there are
signs of a revitalization of social capital through new forms of volunteerism, including community
service learning in schools. In rural areas, the potential for maintaining social capital is improved
through more visible and accessible lines of social connection, reduced residential mobility and risk,
and less-scheduled adult and child lives.
Sociologists’ conceptions about how social capital is accumulated and even defined vary
significantly (see Forrest & Kearns, 2001; Schaefer-McDaniel, 2004). For instance, Putnam focused
on a narrow range of traditional associations such as adult membership in civic clubs and didn’t
consider the various ways in which children might initiate and develop both their own social
networks and an understanding of adult relationships in the community. Still, the loss of social
capital is very likely fraying the potential lines of connection between children and adults in many
communities; the realities of child care only serve to compound the problem. When children spend
long hours in child care separated from the community, they are also separated in many ways from
the social capital of that community. An alternative is possible. In the Chicago Commons child care
programs in a diverse, low-income area of the inner city, each center proudly reflects the culture of
the surrounding neighborhood through a variety of strategies. Families are engaged in developing
documentation of the local assets of the neighborhood, such as shops and parks, and create a
documentation panel for the front entrance of their child care center. Many of the children’s
curriculum investigations involve visiting some of these same spots, such as a long-term
investigation of hair that led them to visiting the local hairdressing salon. In turn, children share
these community connections with their families and help to reinforce a more vital view of the
neighborhood.

Bridging Children’s Separation from Real Life

The four interconnected issues outlined in this article are grounded in constructions of childhood
that permeate post-industrial societies and in turn early childhood education. Images of children as

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incomplete, vulnerable, and invisible are powerful in reinforcing the increasing separation of
children from the worlds outside of early childhood centers (Mayall, 1994; Gittins, 1998; Prout,
2005; Wyness, 2000). In the second part of this article I offer a rationale for viewing children as
contributors to social capital, discuss the link between community participation and emerging
citizenship, and propose a framework for being intentional about developing relationships between
children and the community that could in turn guide future research.

Young Children as Contributors to Social Capital

A contrasting image of the young child as active, competent and visible – a participant in real life –
has been proposed in which children are ‘autonomously capable of gaining control of the adult
world’ (Malaguzzi, 1993, p. 72). An appreciation of childhood agency and visibility presses us to
look at children as not only the recipients of the goods of social capital but also as members of the
networks that make these goods possible (Morrow, 2003; Schaefer-McDaniel, 2004). Formulations
of social capital remain adult-centered and have not considered the role that children might play in
contributing directly to the social networks of a community (Morrow, 2003; Schaefer-McDaniel,
2004). Research indicates that ‘the presence of children in the home affects the quality and quantity
of a family’s social network’ (Bronfenbrenner et al, 1984, p. 309) by providing a motivation for
seeking relationships and resources. If children are participating directly in a community then they
are likely to also create and sustain networks that have meaning to the community. One example
involves children’s work with master gardeners and farmers in a community garden project at a
university child care center (Nimmo & Hallett, 2008). Interviews with the adult participants
indicate that they saw the children as playing an active role in forming social networks and in
shifting the adults’ views about how children might contribute to the project. Further research will
be needed to develop a conceptualization of social capital that is responsive to the developmental
capacities of our youngest citizens.

Citizenship through Participation

Dismantling some of the boundaries between children and adults is important for a number of
reasons. How children know and participate in their social and cultural contexts impacts their sense
of identity. Drawing on Baacke’s framework, Jans (2004) argues that ‘citizenship as an identity is
only of use when children can borrow this identity from the ecological zones they appropriate’
(p. 39). Research has documented that children’s spatial mobility and social range (from home into
the community) is limited by adult perceptions and realities of developmental ability (Matthews,
1992; O’Brien et al, 2000). Without intentional practices that recognize the importance of
engagement in the broader community, young children could have an increasingly constrained
range of interactions in the ecological zones beyond the family and childcare.
In order for children to impact and even change the world around them they need to
understand their place in the world. Early opportunities to engage in democratic decision making
and social activism that leads to change in one’s community is linked to children’s social inclusion
(Hill et al, 2004) and most likely offers a model for later action as an adult citizen (Hart, 1997;
Morrow, 2003; Jans, 2004; Schaefer-McDaniel, 2004).
Wyness (2000) contends that ‘children’s structural invisibility still seems to be reflected in the
way that institutions and politicians are by and large still expected to make decisions on behalf of
children, grounded in the notion of knowing what is in the child’s “best interest”’ (p. 25).
Recognition of children’s ability to contribute is an essential step in their public visibility and their
ability to build social capital. In her examination of children’s engagement in meaningful decision
making in their communities, Sinclair (2004) concludes that we need to ‘offer genuine participation
to children that is not an add-on but an integral part of the way adults and organizations relate to
children’ (p. 116). For instance, children have been invited in Europe and the USA to provide input
into the planning of a child-friendly neighborhood including opportunities to discuss ideas with
adult experts such as architects and town planners (de Coninck-Smith & Gutman, 2004). Based on
extensive research into community work on environmental issues around the world, Hart (1997)
warns against using children in these projects in a tokenistic fashion. For the younger children the

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starting point is simply having the opportunity to learn about their own neighborhood. For
example, the children might discover through building a relationship with a neighbor that the
surrounding streets are not wheelchair accessible. With encouragement from the teacher they
could move to discussing what they can do about this local problem.

Intentional Relationships as the Seeds of Participation in Social Networks

Children’s democratic participation rests, in part, on greater transparency between children in early
childhood programs and adult worlds in the community. This transparency includes contact and
relationships between children and adults that are meaningful and responsive to the participation of
children. In my discussions with teachers in Australia and the USA I have found that the
institutional structures that frame child care (i.e. licensing, transportation, security, resources, and
parental fears) often work against the development of community relationships. As noted
previously, the media and marketplace currently offer children and families more accessible and
seductive sources of pseudo-community. Given these pressures, early educators need to be
intentional and proactive about the development of relationships between community adults and
our youngest children. This will require a new paradigm regarding the role of risk in early
education in which teachers recognize the significance of a ‘risk-rich’ curriculum in which they
‘embrace unknown territories, new ideas, and new relationships’ (New et al, 2005, p. 16). For
instance, many child care programs have various adult workers who come into the facility to clean,
fix equipment, or deliver food and mail. At my own university center we began to look more
closely at how we habitually excluded and made many of the folks invisible to the children by
asking them to come at times that were perceived as less disruptive to the program and safer for
the children. We also realized that we often didn’t acknowledge or introduce the adults to the
children as we would many other visitors. The social class messages about who is invisible in our
community were powerful! We have begun to be more intentional about allowing some risk and
disruption by inviting the workers to come at times when they can meet the children and explain
how they are contributing to the center. Additionally, we have taken photographs and started to
learn the names of workers who can’t come during school hours so that children can learn about
them.
Even traditional notions of community outreach such as a field trip tend to be one-time visits
that focus on the place (a museum) rather than on building relationships with the people (those
who created the displays). In seeking out and assessing meaningful community relationships, the
following six elements are proposed as an alternative framework for research, analysis and practice.
In this framework, the sheer numbers of contacts is not as important as the depth and diversity of
relationships and roles that are within reach of children:
• Intimacy: Will this relationship include care and concern?
• Continuity: Will this relationship be developed through opportunities for multiple contacts over time?
• Complexity: Will this relationship have the potential to engage the child’s curiosity and imagination?
• Identity: Will this relationship offer the child insight into her/his sense of place and belonging? In
particular, for children outside the cultural mainstream, educators will need to seek community
contacts that can affirm cultural and ethnic identity in the face of pressures to assimilate (Ladson-
Billings, 1994).
• Diversity: Will this relationship stretch the child’s understanding of human diversity? Teachers have a
role in stretching the kinds of settings accessible to children who are from socially or culturally
homogeneous communities, whether from isolated rural towns or White middle-class urban
and suburban enclaves (Derman-Sparks & Ramsey, 2006).
• Reciprocity: Will this relationship strengthen the adult’s image of the child?
There is, of course, a danger that young children’s engagement with real life could reinforce the
status quo, with its present injustices, particularly if no critical perspective is taken. It is essential to
recognize that the negotiation of relationships between children and adults will need to be rooted
firmly in the principles of reciprocity and an acknowledgment of children’s agency – their ability to
think and to contribute – not a one-way flow from adults to children (Wyness, 2000). In this way
children’s access to real life can be a mark of respect for their competence as human beings.
Reciprocity also means that adults (who are often living lives separate from young children) have

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the opportunity to learn about and construct a more powerful image of children. This process has
political implications because decisions regarding resources for children and public policies that
impact their everyday life (i.e. creating a child-friendly city) are connected to whether adults
perceive children as valuable, visible, and worthy members of society.

Challenging the Early Childhood Lore

The issue of how the worlds of children and adults should be linked will undoubtedly raise
concerns for many working with young children; it is a topic that challenges the traditional western
early childhood lore in significant ways (Nimmo, 1998). Tied to these concerns will be a reluctance
by educators to deconstruct dichotomies (i.e. play/work, individual/community, child/adult) that
simplify their practice and to examine accepted truths in our field that frame decisions about what
is good for our children (Grieshaber & Canella, 2001; MacNaughton, 2005; Prout, 2005). To talk
about children’s engagement in work is not to deny the importance of diverse forms of play in
children’s construction of the world. To examine how children might work as an apprentice under
the guidance of an adult or have access to adult-focused activity and settings does not mean that a
child-centered approach has been abandoned. To wonder about the competence of children to
engage with a complex and untidy world hardly requires naivety about the risks that exist for
children in a sometimes-dangerous world. By taking less for granted and by drawing on diverse
cultural and social perspectives educators can consider more complex possibilities for practice.
It is also clear that when we speak about children’s participation in the community, we
should examine the variability due to social and political contexts such as race and ethnicity. For
instance, ethnographic portraits of children’s programs in the United States suggest that the
individualism of the dominant cultural paradigm reinforces the separation of children from adults
(Suransky, 1982; Lubeck, 1986) often in deference to a minority family’s value of belonging (Valdes,
1996). In contrast, programs focused on the cultural needs of communities of color tend to value
and support a flow of interdependent relationships between children and adults (Ladson-Billings,
1994). In other societies, the contexts of national origin, subcultural membership, gender, and
social class take the foreground in complicating the issue of children’s community participation.
For instance, many children already participate actively in paid work due to reasons of family
economics and gender.
We know that many children in the industrialized world and in other societies around the
globe, suffering from the effects of social inequity, oppression, and cultural genocide, are enduring
a real life that is often marred by violence and abuse. Early childhood programs can provide a safe
haven for children in order to nurture their resilience in the face of such traumatizing settings
(Garbarino et al, 1992). Even so, I maintain that the need to connect children with existing (but
often invisible) strengths within the adult community is also critical in order to support the
development of a positive and culturally consistent identity. Ladson-Billings (1994) maintains that
culturally responsive teaching requires linking pedagogy and the curriculum to the students’
neighborhoods as seen in the Chicago Commons programs described earlier.
Even at the national level there are glimmers of change. In Aotearoa/New Zealand the
Ministry of Education (1996) has already released a framework for the national early childhood
curriculum that includes ‘family and community/Whānau tangata’ as one of only four underlying
principles drawn from Māori culture. The recently revised center accreditation standards from the
National Association for the Education of Young Children in the USA also include clearer and more
significant and specific criteria concerning local community participation by programs (Ritchie &
Willer, 2005). Early childhood programs can provide what Suransky (1982) called the ‘kernel’ of the
community in which the center takes an active role in creating and radiating meaningful
connections between children, families and the neighborhood.

Conclusion
This article is not a call for a return to an elusive image of the child embraced by a loving and
supportive village, an image that may or may not have existed, in another time and place. Real life
is rich and messy with complexity, diversity and the unexpected – realities that must be

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encountered and negotiated in our research, policy and practice regarding young children. Doing
this will require intentionality in how we view our youngest children, especially those in child care,
in relation to their authentic participation in society. While we know a great deal about how
school-age children can be engaged in their communities, we still have much to learn about what is
possible with preschoolers. The challenge of engaging our youngest citizens in democratic life as
both participants and contributors begins in the everyday life of their community and is essential in
these times when democracy and equity are under threat.

Correspondence: John Nimmo, Executive Director, Child Study and Development Center, Associate
Professor, Family Studies, University of New Hampshire, Pettee Hall 201, 55 College Road,
Durham, NH 03824, USA (j.nimmo@unh.edu).

Notes
[1] Neighborhood includes informal social systems and relationships that exist within a limited residential
area, often marked by feelings of shared identity and future (Bronfenbrenner et al, 1984). Within a
geographical area residents may define the boundaries of their neighborhood differently and include
connections outside of the local area (Brooks-Gunn et al, 1997).
Starting with the family and neighborhood, community reaches out to include connections made
through parents’ workplaces, relatives, religious institutions, cultural connections, and other
significant activities that reflect identity. Community can also be used to define a set of relationships
grounded in feelings of care, belonging, and shared purpose – feelings that may or may not be
present in the geographically based concept (Nimmo, 1992; Rossi, 2001a).
[2] Whether we are talking about rural or urban settings will influence the make-up and boundaries of
community and neighborhood and potentially ameliorate the impact of the issues discussed in this
article. Factors to consider include: the degree of social complexity (the number and diversity of
people and roles), the clarity of geographic and neighborhood boundaries, the levels of
interdependence and residential stability, the extent of environmental risk, and access to adult
activity.

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