UNIT-1

INTRODUCTION TO DBMS AND ER MODEL

DATA:
It is any fact that can be recorded (or) it is a raw material
that can be processed on any computer machine.

EXAMPLE:Text(names),Numbers(Phone_numbers),Image
s,Pictures,Videos, Speech etc......

DATA BASE (DB):It is collection ofrelated data and

describe the activities of one (or) more organization .

EXAMPLE:
➔ University database contains entities such as
student,courses, faculty and class rooms.
➔ Relationship between entities such as student
enrollment in courses,faculty teaching courses and use
class rooms for courses.
➔ They are different kinds of data base:
1.Traditional Data Base
2.Multimedia Data Base
3.GIS Data Base
4.Relational Data Base
5.Data ware Housing

1.Traditional Data Base:

It contains names and numbers.

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2.Multimedia Data Base:
It contains videos like speech ,songs,movies etc.....
EX: YOU TUBE

3.GIS (Geographic Information System)Data Base:

It contains images of satilite systems (or) other things.
EX:NASA having GIS

4.Relational Data Base:

It contians tables with rows and columns in 2D form.

5.Data Ware Housing:

It us a kind of Data Base and store huge amount of
data.
EX:Any organization with past 100 years data.

DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM(DBMS):

It is a software (or) Set of programmes that allow user

to define,create and maintain a Data Base and provided
control access of data.

EX: mysql , DB2 , oraclle long , 11g etc....

DATA BASE SYSTEM (DBS):-It is collection of data

base and data base managment system.
DBS = DB + DBMS

EX: DBS= notebook+pen (without computer)

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*Where DBMS being used? (or) Applications of DBMS:

1. Airlines: Reservations,Schedules etc.

2. Telecom: Callsnade,Customer Details,Network usage.
3. Universities: Registration,Grades,Result etc.
4. Banking: All trasactions.
5. Sales: products,purchases,customer etc.
6. Finance: It is like storing sales,Holding
information,Finance statements etc.
7. Online Shopping: It has become a very trend of
modern days.It contains purchase
information,Invites,Payments.
8. Social media sites: It contains accounts like
Facebook,Twitter,Google+ etc.
9. Library Management System: It contains book issue
dates,Name of the book,author,availability of books
etc.
10.Railway Management System: It contains records of
ticket booking, Train departure,Railway status etc.
11.Human Resource Management: It contains
Employee salary,tax etc.
12.Manufacturing department: It contains product
details like quantity,bill purchase,expiry dates etc.
13.Military System: It contains millions of soldiers.they
keep files in secure and safe mode.

File System Vs Database System:

➢ File: It is a sequence of records stored in binary

format.

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 ➢ File System: It is a method of Storing and Organising
the computer files and whatever data they contain easy
to find and access them.

Characteristics of File System:

➔ It is a group of files storing the data of any

Oraganisation.
➔ Each file is called as “Flat” file.(There is no
particular structure and format).
➔ Files are designing by using programming
language such as C,C++.

Limitations/Disadvantages of File System:

(1)Seperated and isolated data.

(2)Duplication of data.
➔ It takes additional storage space.
➔ There is a loss of data integrity.
➔ It is most cost and time.

(3)Data Dependency:
One file is depended on another file and these
are contains paticular physical format that are developed by
programmers.

(4)Data Redundancy:
It means the same amount of data stored in a
different places that is data redundancy.

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(5)Data Security:
The security of data is low in the file system that
can be easy to accesible.

(6)Transaction Problem:
File systems are not support the transaction and ACID
properties.
A - Atomicity
C - Consistency
I - Isolation
D – Durability

(7)Concurrent Problems:

➔ When multiple users acces the same amount of

data at same interval of time is called as concurrent
operating system.
➔ When two or more users read the data
simultaneously then there is no problem but when they
like to update the file,there is a problem.

ADVANTAGES OF DATABASE SYSTEM

To overcome the properties of file system,we use
database system.

(1)Data Independency:
The DBMS provides an abstract view of data and hide
such details.

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(2)Reduce DataRedundancy:
➔ In file system the data can be stored in a
different places and there is a chances of
duplication of data and also there is a waste of
space.
➔ But in DBS ,the files are stored in single
database.The hold data is stored only once so there
is no chance of duplication of data.

(3)Sharing of Data:
➔ In DBS,the data can be shared between authorised
users of DB.
➔ All the users have own rights to access the data.
➔ The DBA(Database Administrator)has complete
access of DB and he can assign user to access the data.

(4)Data Consistency:

It means control the data redundancy which is mean

that sysytem with high data consistency.

(5)Data Integrity:
It means that data in database is always
accurate or correct that can be decrease the duplication of
data also data inconsistency.

(6)Security:
➔ It means protecting your data from unauthorised users.
➔ Data in a DB we kept secure and safe.

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 ➔ Only authorised users should be grant to access the
DB.

(7)Providing Backup and Recovery:

The Backup and recovery of DBS from

software/hardware failures with facilities like the recover
the data and backup the data.

DISADVANTAGES OF DATABASE SYSTEM:

(1) Increased cost:

Database System required sophisticated modern
hardware/software with more cost.

(2)Complexity:
Developers,Designers,DBA and endusers of DB must
have complete skills if they want to use it properly
otherwise there is a chances of loss of data (or) database
failure.

(3)Technical Staff Requirement:

Any organisation have many employees,it is not easy
to for work on DBMS and they well known in DBS.

(4)DataBase Failure:
All the files are stored in a single DB.So, there is a
chances of failure become more.Any accidental failure of
component may cause loss of valuable data.

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(5)Size:
A DBMS become big software,Lots of space and the
memory to run its applications and gains bigger size.

(6)Currency Maintainence:
DBMS should be update according to the current
scenario and new threats comes daily,so DBMS update
itself daily.

(7)Performance:
The total data can be stored in a same DB and there is a
chances of low in the perforamance of Computer System.

COMPONENTS OF DATABASE SYSTEM:

There are 4 types of components of database.

(1)Data
(2)Hardware
(3)Software
(4)Users

(1)Data:
Data stored in database include numerical and non-
numerical data,audio,video etc.

(2)Hardware:
It includes Various storage devices,input and output
devices.
(3)Software:
It includes operating systems,Network Software and
application programs.

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(4)Users:
There are different types os database users in DBS like
DBA(Database Administrator),Database designer,Endusers
and Application users.

DATABASE USERS:
There are two types of database users.
1.Actors on the scene
2.Workers behind the scene

Actors on the scene:

Those who are use and control the database content and
those who design,develop and maintain database
application are called as Actors on the scene.

Database Administrator(DBA):
A person who performs all activities related to
maintaining a database responsibilies includes
designing,implementating and maintaining a database.

Responsibilies of DBA(or)functions of DBA:

1.Installing and upgrading the sql server:

DBA responsible for installing sql server(or)upgrading
sql server with service tax.

2.Monitoring sql server:

The DBA also responsible for sql server is running
with particular performance or not and monitor each and
every time.

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3.Using storage properly:
It means proper use of storage with space requirement
and adding new storage space (disk drives)when required.

4.Performing Backup and Recovery duties:

The DBA responsible for Backup and Recovery of
software or hardware failures.

5.Managing database users and security:

The DBA is also responsible for assigning database
users and proper security level for each user.

6.Working Developers:
The DBA responsible for a person well-known in sql
server.

7.Transferring of data:
The DBA responsible for importing and exporting the
data from the sql server.

8.Providing 24 hours access:

The database server must stay up,and always protected
and provide information to database users.

9.Data ware housing:

It provides huge amount of storage like past hundred
years data.

2.DATABASE DESIGNERS:
They are responsibel for identifying the how much of
data can stored and way to organising.

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3.END USERS:
➢ They are responsible for access the database for
quering,updating and report generation.

They are different types of End users.......

(a) Casual End users:
They use database occationally and need different
information each time using sql.
Ex: Middle(or)high-level managers.

(b)Naive/Parametric Endusers:
They are biggest group of users and frequently update
the database using “canned trasactions”.
Ex:
1.Bank tellers check account balance,withdraw,deposites.
2.Reservations gor airlines and hotels etc checks the
availability of seats or rooms and make reservations.

(c)Sophisticated Endusers:
Engineers,Scientists,Business Analyst are came under
“Sophisticated Endusers”.

(d)Standalone Endusers:
They are maintain personal database with particular
software package.
Ex: Financial

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(4)System Analyst,Application Programmers and
Software Engineers:

(a) System Analyst: They are determine the needs of

particular endusers particularly “Naive endusers”.

(b) Application Programmers:

They always implement,test,document and maitain a
program.

2.Workers Behind the Scene:

Those eho design and develop the DBMS software and
related tools and computer system operators.

(a)Tool Developers:
Design and develop the software tools related to DBS
design,performance ,monitoring etc.

(b)Operators:
They are responsible for day to day operations of
Computer System.

DATABASE MODELS:

It is design and structure of database and defining how

data will be stored,accessed and updated in a DBMS.
There are different database models in DBMS:
(1)Hierarchiral Model
(2)Network Model
(3)Entity-Relationship Model
(4)Relational Model

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(1)Hierarchiral Model:
➔ In this model data in the form of tree like structure with
a single root to which all other data is linked.
➔ In this model childs have single parent node.
➔ In this model data organised in One-to-Many
Relationship.
EX:

Department

Student Faculty Courses

(2)Network Model:
➔ It is extension of Hierarchical Model.
➔ It is a graph like structure.
➔ The parent may have multiple childs also the child
may have multiple parents.
➔ In this model data organised in Many-to-Many
Relationship.
Ex:
A

B1 B2

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 C1 C2 C3
(3)Entity-Relationship Model(ER Model):

➔ The pictorial form of data is known as “E-R

Model”.
➔ In this model data in a database designed in good
way.
➔ For example, College database contains student as
entity and attributes are name,id,age,marks,address etc.
Ex:
Name Id

age Student Marks

address Class

(4)Relational Model:

➔ In this model data organised in two dimentional

table(2D form).
➔ It is a collection of table with data and
relationship.
➔ This model introduced by “EF codd” in 1970.
➔ It is most widely used database model.

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 ➔ The basic structure of data in Relational Models in
Tables.
➔ Tables also known as “Relation”.

Ex:

Name Id Age Marks Address

Ram 103 23 89 kadapa
Raj 107 23 92 chittoor
Rani 100 27 90 Nelloor

DATABASE LANGUAGE:

➔ Database Language also called as “SQL”.

➔ SQL stands for Structured Query Language.
➔ It is not a Database,it is a programming language.
➔ It is standard language for Relational Database.

What can SQL can do?

➔ SQL can create new database.
➔ SQL can create new tables in a database.
➔ SQL can insert records in a database.
➔ SQL can delete records in a database.
➔ SQL can update records in a database.
➔ SQL can retrive data from a database.
➔ SQL can execute Queries against database.

There are 4 types of database languages:

(1)DDL- Data Definition Language.

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 (2)DML- DataManipulation Language.
(3)TCL- Trasaction Control Language.
(4)DCL- Data Control Language.

DDL(Data Definition Language): This Language used

create amd modify the structure of database Objects.
(1)Create:
Create command used to used to create a table (or)
database.
Syntax: create table table_name(column1
datatype1,column2 datatype2,.......);

Ex: create table student (name varchar(20),sid int,age int);

In the above example student is the table_name and it
contains three columns namely are name,id,age.

(2)Alter:
Alter command is used for alternation of data in a database.
• To add column to the exist table.
• To add multiple columns to existing table.
• Drop a column.
• Modify a column.
• Rename a column.

Add column to the existing table:

Syntax: alter table table_name add(column name datatype);
Ex: alter table student add(address varchar(20),marks int);

Drop a column:
Syntax: alter table table_name drop(column_name
datatype);

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Ex: alter table student drop(age int);

Modify a column:
Syntax: alter table table_name modify(column_name
datatype);
Ex: alter table student modify(marks int);
Rename a column:
Syntax: alter table table_name rename(old_column name
to new_column name);
Ex: alter table student rename id to sid;

(3)Truncate Command:
➔ This command is used for remove all the records
from the table but it can’t destroy the table structure.
➔ When we apply truncate command on a table it’s
primary key is initialised.
Syntax: Truncate table table_name;

Ex: truncate table student;

Sid Name Age
501 -- --
502 -- --
503 -- --

(4)Drop command:
➔ This command is used for remove table from the
database.
➔ It destroy the table structure.
Syntax: drop table table_name;
Ex: drop table student;

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(5)Rename command:
This command is used for rename a tablename.
Syntax: rename old_tablename to new_tablename.

Ex: rename student to student_record;

DML( Data Manipulation Language):
➔ This Language used for managing (or) changing
the data in a database.
➔ DML commands are “not auto-committed”.
➔ Insert,Select,Delete,Update are the DML
commands.

(1)INSERT command:
This command is used for to insert data into a table.

Syntax: insert into table_name

values(data1,data2,.....,datan);
Ex: insert into student values(501, “abc”,20);
insert into student values(502, “xyz”,21);
insert into student values(503, “lmn”,22);

(2)SELECT command:
This command is used to retrive data from database.
Syntax: select *from table_name;
Ex: select *from student;

Sid Name Age

501 abc 20
502 xyz 21

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 503 lmn 22

(3)DELETE command:
This command is used to delete data from table.It also
delete particular row.
Syntax: delete from table_name where condition;

Ex: delete from student where sid=502;

Sid Name Age

501 abc 20
503 lmn 23

(4)UPDATE command:
This command is used to update a row of a table.
Syntax: update table_name set column_name=value where
condition;
Ex: update student set age=27 where sid=501;
select *from student;

Sid Name Age

501 abc 27
503 lmn 23

TCL( Trasaction Control Language):

➔ There are used to manage the changes made by
DML statements.
➔ commit,rollback and savepoint are TCL
commands.

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 ➔ These are used to control the transaction in a
database.

(i)COMMIT: It commits the current transaction means

making changes permanently.
Syntax: commit;

(ii)ROLLBACK: It rollbacks the current transaction means

cancelling it changes and it restore the database.

Syntax: rollback to savepoint;

Ex: rollback to A;

(iii)SAVEPOINT: It is used to store data permanently.

Syntax: savepoint save_point;
Ex: savepoint A;

Example for TCL:

sid name
501 abc
502 xyz

insert into student values(503, “lmn”);

commit;
update student set name= “ram” where sid=502;
insert into student values(504, “raj”);
savepoint A;
insert into student values(505, “rock”);
savepoint B;

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insert into student values(506, “rajesh”);
savepoint C;
select *from student;

sid name
501 abc
502 ram
503 lmn
504 raj
505 rock
506 rajesh

rollback to A;
select *from student;
sid name
501 abc
502 ram
503 lmn
504 raju

DCL( Data Control Language):

➔ It is used to provide control the data in a database.
➔ grant,revoke are DCL commands.

(i)GRANT:
It is used to provide access (or) privilages (or)
permission on the databases objects to the user.

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Syntax: grant privilage_name on object_name to
{user_name/public/role_name}[with grant option];
where,

Privilage name: Privilage granted to DDL (or) DML

commands with user like insert, alter,drop,update etc.

Object Name: It names names of database like name of the

table.

User name: It means name of the user who access right is

being granted.

Public: It means grant access rights to all users.

With grant option: It allow a user to grant access rights to
other user.
Ex: grant select on student to user 1(ram);

(ii)REVOKE:
It is used to removes access rights (or) privilages to the
databases objects.
Syntax: revoke privilage_name on object_name from
{username / public / role_name }

Ex: revoke select on student from ram;

Views in Database System:

➔ It is a kind of virtual table.
➔ It also contains rows and columns in real table in
the database.
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 ➔ It contains equal coulumns or less columns
compare with real table.
➔ We can creat a view by selecting fields (columns)
of one or more table present in a database.
➔ A view can either have all the rows of the table or
specific rows based on certain condition.
Views are two types:
i. Simple – It takes data from single table.
ii.Complex –It takes data from two tables.

Syntax for creat view:

creat view view_name as select column 1 , column
2,...... from table name where condition;

Here “view_name” is ‘name of the view’,Table name –

Name of the table(real table) and condition means to select
rows.
Student table (real table)
Sid Name Age
501 abc 20
502 def 21
503 ghi 22
504 pqr 23
505 xyz 24

Ex:- Create view student_view as select name , age from

student where age>21;
select * from student_view;

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 Name Age
Imn 22
pqr 23
xyz 24

Insert rows in a view:

Syntax: Insert into view_name(column 1,column 2) values

value1(name),value2(age);
Ex: Insert into student_view(name,age) values
(‘jesus’,37);

Output:
Name Age
Imn 22
pqr 23
xyz 24
jesus 37

Delete from view:

Syntax: Delete from view_name where condition;

select *from student_view;
Ex: Delete from student_view where age=24;
select *from student_view;
Output:

Name Age

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 Imn 22
pqr 23
xyz 24

Update the view:

Syntax: update view_name set coumnname= “value”

where condition;
select *from student_view;

Ex: update student_view set name= “priya”where age=23;

select *from student_view;
Output:
Name Age
Imn 22
priya 23
xyz 24

Truncate:
Syntax: truncate view view_name;
select *from view_name;
Ex:
truncate view student_view;
select *from view_name;
Output:

Sid Name Age

501 -- --
502 -- --
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 503 -- --
504 -- --
505 -- --

Drop:

Syntax:drop view view_name;

select *from view_name;
Ex: drop view student_view;
select *from student_view;
Output:
table doesn’t exist

Schema and Instance:

➔ Schema:It is a skeleton structure of a data base or
logical view of database.
➔ It defines how the data is organized and how
relation among the entities.

Instance:The data stored in database at particular moment

of time is called as “Instance”
➔ Data base schema defines variable declaration in
table but database instance gives values to the variables
of table.

Data independence:

➔ The capacity of change the schema at one level

without changing schema at the highest level.
➔ These are two types

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 1.Physical data inpedence:
It is the capacity of change the schema at
internal level without changes min the schema at
conceptual level.
2.Logical data inpedence:
The capacity of change the schema at
conceptual level without changes in the schema at external
level.

Three tier schema architecture of DBS (or) levels of

DBS:

User 1 User 2 User 3 ...............

User n

View 1 View 2 View 3 View n

..............

External schema
(highest level)

Conceptual schema (middle level)

Internal schema
(Low level)

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 database

There are three different levels in Database System

1.Internal level
2.Conceptual level
3.External level

(1)INTERNAL LEVEL:

➔ It is also called as “physical level” or “low level”.

➔ It decribes physical representation of data and also
describe additional storage details.
➔ How the data can be stored in database can be
understand by this ,Record placement.

2.CONCEPTUAL LEVEL:

➔ It is also called as “logical level” or “middle

level”.
➔ It describes logical representation of data that can
be stored in database.
➔ In relational DBMS the conceptual level describe
all the relation stored in database.
➔ what data is stored in database and relationship
among the data can give this.
➔ This level represent entities,attribute,relations etc.

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 ➔ For example university database contains entities
such as students,course,faculty,classrooms.

3.EXTERNAL LEVEL:

➔ It is also called as “highest level” .

➔ This level consists of number of different external
views od database.
➔ It describe prticular group of users and provide
powerful and flexible security to the users.
➔ It permits user to access the data in database in a
particular way and same data can be seen by authorized
users at same amount of time.

Introduction to E-R model:

E-R definition:
➔ The pictorial or graphical form of data is known as
“Entity-Relationship(E-R) model”.
➔ It is conceptual view of database.

Elements/Concepts of E-R Model:

1.Entity
2.Attributes
3.Relationship

1.Entity:
➔ It is an object in a real world that can be different
from other objects.
➔ It is represented as Rectangle ( )

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Ex: University database contains entities like
students,faculty,courses,class rooms etc.

name sid

student

marks age

In above diagram student is an entity.

Entity set:
➔ It is a collection of entities with similar types.
➔ It is extension of entity type.

Entity type:
➔ It is a collection of entities that have same
attributes.
➔ It is intension of entity set.
Ex:E1 is an entity having entity type student and set of all
students is called “entity set”.

Weak Entity:
➔ The entity doesnot have primary key.
➔ It is represented as double rectangle.

Strong entity:
➔ The entity have a primary key is called as “Strong
entity”.

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Associative entity:
➔ The entity which look like a relationship.
➔ It is represented as diamond in a rectangle.

2. Attributes:
➔ The property or characteristics of an entity is
called as “Attributes”.
➔ It is represented as eclipse or oval in E-R model.
➔ Ex:student is an entity which contains
name,sid,marks,age.

age sid

student

name marks

Types of Attributes:
a.Simple vs Composite Attributes
b.Single valued vs Multivalued Attributes
c.Stored vs Derived Attributes
d.Complex Attributes

a.Simple Attributes:
➔ Attribute which contains single atomic value
which can’t be divide further.
Ex: Student id,Student ph.no,ph num etc.

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 age sid

student

Ph num

Composite Attributes:

➔ The Attributes which contains no more than one

simple attributes .
➔ Ex:
➢ 1)Student complete name contains firstname,last
name,middle name.
➢ 2)Address also contains doorno. ,street name,pincode
etc.

Middle_name
Door.No.
First_name Pincode

Name Address
Street Name
Last_name

Student

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b)Single valued vs Multivalued Attributes:

Single valued attributes: The attribute which contain only

one value.
Ex:blood group,pan card number etc....

Multivalued attributes:The attribute which contain more

than one value.
➔ It is represend as double eclipse.
Ex:A person may have more than one phone
number,email ids,qualifications etc.

Qualifications Emails

Student
Phone_Nimbers

C.Stored vs Derived Attributes:

Stored Attribute:The attribute which store the value and

specify value to the derived Attribute.
Ex:DOB

Derived Attributes:The attributes which are derived from

stored Attribute.

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 ➔ It is represented as dotted eclipse
Ex:Student age

Student

D.Complex Attribute:
➔ It is the collection of both composite and multivalued
Attributes.

Street Name Pincode

Door.No

Address

Temporary
Address Permanant
Address

3.Relationship:
➔ Relation between entity or association among
entities is called as “Relationship”.

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 ➔ It is represented as diamond in ER model.

Ex1: Employee is working in a department

Employee Working Department

Ex-2: student are studying in college.

Student Studying College

In above examples working,studying is called as

“Relationship”.

Relationship set:The set of relationship of similar type is

called “Relationship set”.

Degree of relationship:The no.of entities participate in a

relationship.

Types of Relationship:

There are 3 types of Relationships in ER model:

a)Binary Relationship

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 b)Ternary Relationship
c)n-ary Relationship

a)Binary Relationship:
➔ It means relation between two entities its degree is
two.

Student Faculty

b)Ternary Relationship:
➔ It means relation between three entities and its
degree is three.
Department

Student Faculty

c)n-ary Relationship:
It means relation between n entities and its degree is n

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Binary Relationship is furher divided into
1.One to One mapping(1-1)
2.One to Many mapping(1-N)
3.Many to One mapping(N-1)
4.Many to Many mapping(N-N)

Cardinality:
The no.of times an entity of entity set participated in a
relationship is known as “Cardinality”
1.One to One mapping(1-1):

➔ One entity from entity set A that can be relation

with atmost 1 entity in entity set B and viceversa.
➔ Let us consider example of a male married to
female and female married to male.

A B
O O
M1 F1
O O
M2 F2
O O
M3 F3

2.One to Many mapping(1-N):

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➔ One entity from entity set A that can be relation
with more than one entity from entity set B can be
relation with atmost one entity from entity set A.
➔ For example one course taken by many students
however many students taken one course.

A B
O
S1
O O C1
S2
O O C2
S3
O

3.Many to One Mapping(N-1):

➔ More than one entity from entity set A that can be
relation with atmost one entity in entity set B and vice
versa.
➔ For example many students taken one
course.However one course taken many students.

A B
O
S1
O O
S2 C1
O O
S3 C2
O
S4

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4.Many to Many Mapping(N-N):
➔ One entity from entity set A that can be relation
with more than one entity from entity set B and one
entity from entity set B that can be relation with more
than one entity in entity set A.
➔ Ex:One couse taken by many students and one
student taken many courses.

A B
O O
S1
C1
O O S2
C2
O O S3
C3
O O S4

Constraints in ER model:

Integrity Constraints:
➔ These are contains set of rules and used to
maintain quality of information.
➔ These are ensure that you can insert,update and
other process have to performed in such a way that data
integrity is not effected.

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 ➔ It is used to guard against accidental failure of
database.

Types of Integrity Constraints:

1.Structural Constraints
2.Key Constraints
3.Domain Constraints
4.Entity integrity Constraints
5.Referential integrity Constraints
1.Structural Constraints:
These are furher divided into two types.
a)Cardinality ratio
b)Participation

a)Cardinality ratio:The maximum no.of times an entity

participated in a relationship.

Statement:Every employee works for exactly one

department and a department can have many
employee,newly formed department do not have any
employee.

Employee works department

O
E1 O
E2 D1
O
E3
E4 D2
O
E5 O
E6 D3
O
E7

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In above example cardinality of employee e1 is 1,the
cardinality of d1 is 2

b)Participation:
➔ The minimum no.of times an entity participated in
a relationship.
➔ Some times it is also caleed as minimum
cardinality.
➔ It is further divided into two types
a)Total participation
b)Partial participation

a)Total Participation:If all entities are participated in

a relationship.
➔ It is represented as “Double lines” in ER diagram.
b)Partial participation:

➔ If some of the entities are participated in a

relationship.
➔ It is represented as single line in ER diagram.
Note point:Minimum cardinality is 1 then total
participation.
➔ Maximum cardinality is 1 , if an entity participated
only one relationship.
➔ Maximum cardinality is one,if an entity
participated in a relationship n times.

2.Key Constraints:

➔ These are uniquely identified in a table.

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 ➔ Key attributes or set of attributes that are uniquely
identifies an entity within entity set.
They are two types
1.Primary key
2.Foreign key

a.Primary key:
➔ primary key contains unique values and never
contains new values.
➔ It is unique column in a table.
➔ A table can have only one primary key which
consists of one or more columns.
Ex:
create table student(sid int,name varchar(20),age
int,marks int,primary key(sid));

student table
sid name age marks
501 Raj 40 99
502 Raju 39 98
503 Ram 41 97
504 Ramu 18 92

b.Foreign key:
➔ It means it likes two different tables together and
column in one table that can be pointing to the primary
key in another table.
➔ They act as cross reference between tables.
Course table
cid sid cname
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 1 501 x
2 502 y
3 503 z

➔ In above table courses and student table.

➔ In student table sid column is primary key in course
table sid column is foreign key.
➔ A foreign key is formed with two or more tables.

Ex: create table course(cid int,sid int,cname

varchar(20),primary key(sid,cid),foreign key(sid)
references student(sid));
desc course;

Diagram for Key constraiants:

eid ename Did Budget

employee Manages Department

eage Dname

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3.Domain Constraints:
➔ It means that valid set of values of an attribute.
➔ You need to define
➢ data type.
➢ length or size
➢ null value is allowed
➢ default value.
➢ It is the value used is unique.
➢ Range value
➔ Domain Constraints=data type+constraints(not
null/unique/primary key/foreign key/default).
➔ Each table has set of columns and each column has
allows same type of data based on its data
type[int,char].
➔ The column doesnot accept values of any other data
type.
➔ Every attribute is bound to specific range of values for
example,age can not less than zero and a telephone
num cannot contain a digit outside 0 to 9.
➔ The data type related with domains include
character,integer,date,time,currency etc.

Ex:
sid name age
1 a 20
2 b 21
3 c a

‘a’ is not allowed because it is an integer attribute.

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4.Entity Integrity Constraints:

➔ It defines primary key value can not be NULL.

➔ This is because primary key value is used to identify
individual rows in a table and if primary key has a null
value then we can’t identify those rows.
➔ A table can contain a NULL value other than primary
key field column.

Ex: sid is the primary key

sid name age
1 a 20
2 b 21
- c a
➔ It is not allowed because primary key can not contain
NULL value.

5.Referential Integrity Constraints:

➔ It can be specified between two tables.
➔ It maintain consistency and accuracy between tables.

Rules:
➢ (i) You can not delete record from primary table if
matching record found in secondary table.
➢ (ii) You can not change a primary key in primary table
if that related to the foreign key of the secondary table.
➢ (iii) Secondary table must be NULL on available in
primary table.

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 student table
(primary table)
sid name age
501 a 20
502 b 21
503 c 20
504 d 22

Course table
(Secondary table)
sid cid cname
501 1 abc
502 2 xyz
503 3 ----
504 4 Pqr

Reduction/Conversion of ER diagrams to
tables/Relation:
➔ ER diagram is converted into tables in relational model
because relational models can be easily implemented
by RDBMS like mysql,oracle etc.
➔ Following are used for converting ER diagrams into
tables.

RULE 1: For strong entity set wuth only simple

attributes.
➢ A strong entity with only simple attributes will require
only one table in relational model.
➢ Attributes of the table will be attributes of an entity set.
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 ➢ The primary key of the table will be the key Attribute
of the entity.

Ex:

Sid Name

Marks
Student

Schema: Student(sid,name,marks)

Roll No Name Marks

RULE 2: For strong entity set with composite attributes

➔ A strong entity set with any no.of composite attributes
will require only one table in relational model.
➔ While conversion,simple attributes of the composite
attributes are taken into account and not the composite
attribute itself.

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 Ex:
last_name
First_name Door.No Pincode

Name
Address

Student
Street Name
sid

Sid First_name Last_name Door.No Streetname pincode

Schema:
student(sid,firstname,lastname,dno,streetname,pincode)

RULE 3:For strong entity set with multi valued

attributes .
➔ A strong entity set with any no.of multivalued
attributes require two tables in relational model.
➔ a)one table will contain all the simple attribute with the
primary key.

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 ➔ b)other table will contain the primary key and all
multivalued attributes.

Ex:
sid marks

Student Mobile_num

First table:
Sid marks

Second Table:
sid marks Mobile num

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RULE 4: Translating relationship into tables.
➢ A relationship set will require one table in relational
model
➢ Attribute of the table are
a)primary key attributes of the participating entity sets.
b)its own descriptive attributes if any.

dept_id b2
eid ename

➔
Works department
Employee in

since

Schema: worksin(eid,deptid,since)

eid deptid since

Note: if we consider the overall ER diagram,three table will

be required in relational model.
➢ One table for entity set “employee”.

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 ➢ one table for entity set “department”.
➢ one table for relationship set “works in”.

RULE 5:For binary relationship with cardinality ratios

➔ 4- case 1:binary relationship with cardinality ratio 1:1
➔ 2-case 2:binary relationship with cardinality ratio 1:m
➔ 3-case 3:binary relationship with cardinality ratio m:1
➔ 1-case 4:binary relationship with cardinality ratio m:n

Case 01:Binary relationship with cardinality ratio m:n

Here 3 tables are required...

b1 b2
a1 a2

m n
A R B

i)A(a1,a2)
a1 a2

ii)R(a1,b1)
a1 b1

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iii)B(b1,b2)

b1 b2

CASE 02:Binary relationship with cardinality ratio 1:m

b1 b2
a1 a2

1 m
A R B

here two tables required

1.A(a1,a2) FK
2.BR(a1,b1,b2)
Here “b1” is foreign key.

Note: here combine table will be drawn for entity set B and
relationset R.
Ex: R(a1,b1) B(b1,b2) BR(a1,b1,b2).

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CASE 03:Binary relationship with cardinality ratio m:1

a1 a2 b1
b2
m 1
A R B

here two tables will be required

i)AR(a1,a2,b1) here b1 is foreign key
ii)B(b1,b2)

Note:here combined table will be drawn from entity set A

and relationship set R.

CASE 04:Binary relationship with cardinality ratio 1:1

a1 a2 b1

b2
A R B
1 1

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here two tables will be required either combine R with
A or B.

way 01: 1.AR(a1,a2,b1)

2.B(b1,b2)
here b1 is the foreign key

a1 a2 b1

b1 b2

Way 02: 1.A(a1,a2)

2.BR(a1,b1,b2)
here “a1” is the foreign key.

a1 a2

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 a1 b1 b2

Points to remember:
➔ While determining the minimum no.of tables required
for binary relationship with given cardinality
ratio,following rules to remember.
➔ a)for binary relationship with cardinality ratio
m:m,separate and individual table will be drawn for
each set and relationship.
➔ b) for binary relationship with cardinality ratio either
1:m or m:1 always remember many side will consume
the relationship i.e, combined table will be set for
many side entity set and relation set.
➔ c) for binary relationship with cardinality ratio 1:1,two
tables will be required .you can combine the
relationship set with any one of the entity sets.

RULE 06: for binary relationship with cardinality and

participation constraints.

Case 01: for binary relationship with cardinality constraints

and total participation from one side.

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 a2 b1
a1 b2

A R B

Because cardinality ratio 1:n,so will combine the

entityset_B and relation set R.then,two tables will be
required.
1.A(a1,a2)
2.BR(a1,b1,b2)
Here a1 is foreign key.

Case 02: for binary relationship with cardinality constraints

and total participation from both sides.
• If there is a key constraints from both the sides of an
entity set with total participation,then relationship is
represented using only one table.

b1 b2
a1 a2

R B
A

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here only one table required.
ARB(a1,a2,b1,b2)

RULE 07: For binary relationship with weak entity.

weak entity set always appears in association with

identifying relationship with total participation constrains.

a1 b1 b2
a2

A R B

here two tables will be required

1.A(a1,a2)
2.BR(a1,b1,b2)

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