Not in the Booklet Booklet [HL Edition] v. 1.

Marcin Zubrzycki
March 2022

1 Measurement and uncertainties

1.1 Measurement in physics
1.2 Uncertainties and errors
Estimate of the uncertainty of the quantity:
xmax − xmin
∆x = (1)
2

1.3 Vectors and scalars

2 Mechanics
2.1 Motion
2.2 Forces
The spring compression/extension force (Hooke’s law):

F = k∆x (2)

2.3 Work, energy and power

Change in kinetic energy
1 1
∆EK = mv 2 − mu2 = ∆W (3)
2 2
Work-kinetic energy relation:
Wnet = ∆EK (4)
Power developed as the derivative of work done:
dW
P = (5)
dt
Total energy in a system:
E = Ep + EK (6)

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2.4 Momentum and Impulse

3 Thermal Physics
3.1 Thermal concepts
3.2 Modelling a gas
Number of moles in a quantity of m grams of a substance with molar mass µ:
m
n= (7)
µ
Important ideal gas assumptions:
• The molecules have negligible volume,

• The molecules obey the laws of mechanics,

• There are no forces between the molecules except when the molecules collide,
• The duration of a collision is negligible compared to the time between collisions,

• The collisions of the molecules with each other and with the container walls are elastic,
• Molecules have a range of speeds and move randomly,
• The intermolecular potential energy of the molecules in an ideal gas is assumed to be zero at
all times.

Real gas with low pressure & high temperature (sometimes also low density) approximates an
ideal gas.

Boyle’s law:
pV = constant (8)
Charles’ law:
V
= constant (9)
T
Gay-Lussac’s law:
p
= constant (10)
T
Combining them all gives an important result:
pV
= constant (11)
T
Total internal energy:
3 3 3
U= N kB T = nRT = pV (12)
2 2 2
Density:
m
ρ= (13)
V

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4 Waves
4.1 Oscillations
SHM definition:
a ∝ −x (14)
Phase difference described in terms of an angle φ
shift
φ= · 2π (15)
T
(Ep )max is at maximum displacement,
(Ek )max is at equilibrium position.

4.2 Travelling waves

Longitudinal waves on the displacement/distance graph:
Crossing + to − is a compression,
Crossing − to + is a rarefaction.

Visible light segment on the electromagnetic spectrum

700nm ≥ λ ≥ 400nm

4.3 Wave characteristics

Intensity x meters away from a point source of power P :
P
I= (16)
4πx2
Intensity of unpolarised light after passing through a polarizer:
I0
I= (17)
2
The refractive index of water:
cwater = 1.33 (18)

4.4 Wave behaviour

The path difference, where φ is a phase difference:
φλ
∆r = ||S1 P | − |S2 P || + (19)
2π

4.5 Standing waves

Conditions for a standing wave, two waves have to have:
• the same speed,
• the same wavelength,

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 • the same apmplitude,
• opposite directons.
Wavelength of n harmonic in a tube closed or open at both ends:
2L
λn = , n = 1, 2, 3, .. (20)
n
Wavelength of n harmonic in a tube closed on one end and open at the other:
4L
λn = , n = 1, 3, 5, ... (21)
n

5 Electricity and Magnetism

5.1 Electric fields
5.2 Heating effect of electric currents
5.3 Electric cells
5.4 Magnetic effects of electric currents
Radius of the circle a charge moving at right angles to the B field traces:
mv
R= (22)
qB
Time taken for the charge to make a full revolution around the circle (notice how it is independent
of velocity):
2πm
T = (23)
qB
Work done by the magnetic force:
π
W = F s cos = 0 (24)
2

6 Circular Motion and Gravitation

6.1 Circular motion
The speed in circular motion:
2πr
v= (25)
T
Angular speed:
2π
ω= = 2πf (26)
T
The net force on a ball of mass m moving in circular motion at an angle θ from the horizontal
mg
F = (27)
tan θ
Acceleration (not in the booklet is underlined):
v2 4π 2 r
a= = ω2 r = = 4π 2 rf 2 (28)
r T2

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6.2 Newton’s law of gravitation
Speed of a satellite in an orbit of radius r around a mass M :
r
GM
v= (29)
r

7 Atomic, Nuclear and Particle Physics

7.1 Discrete energy and radioactivity
Electric charge on a nucleus of Z protons.

q = Ze (30)

Alpha decay:
A
Z X− >A−4 4
Z−2 Y +2 He + energy (31)
Beta minus decay:
A
Z X− >A 0
Z+1 Y +−1 e + v˜e + energy (32)
Beta plus decay:
A
Z X− >A 0
Z−1 Y ++1 e + ve + energy (33)
Gamma decay:
A
Z X− >A
Z X + γ + energy (34)
The rate of decay is proportional to the number of nuclei which have not yet decayed:
∆N
∝N (35)
N

7.2 Nuclear reactions

Mass defect:
δ = Zmp + (A − Z)mn − Mnucleus (36)
Binding energy:
E = δc2 (37)
Energy released in a decay:
Q = (mreactants − mproducts )c2 (38)

7.3 The structure of matter

proton quark structure - up, up, down. [uud]
neutron quark structure - up, down, down. [udd]
Conserved quantum numbers:
• Baryon number
• Electric charge
• Strangeness (Unless it is a weak force interaction)
• Lepton number (within the family!)

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8 Energy Production
8.1 Energy sources
Specific energy and energy density relation, where ρ is density:

ED = ρES (39)
∆V
Power available from a hydroelectric power station, where Q = ∆t :

P = ρQgh (40)

8.2 Thermal energy transfer

The power of the Sun distributed over the area of a sphere of radius d:
P
I= (41)
4πd2

9 Wave Phenomena (HL)

9.1 Simple harmonic motion
Energies as functions of time
1 1
EK = mω 2 x20 sin2 (ωt) EP = mω 2 x20 cos2 (ωt) (42)
2 2
Energies as functions of displacement
1 1
EK = mω 2 (x20 − x2 ) EP = mω 2 x2 (43)
2 2

9.2 Single-slit diffraction

9.3 Interference
9.4 Resolution
Condition for the resolution to be possible for a circular slit:
s λ
≥ 1.22 (44)
d b

9.5 Doppler effect

Perceived wavelength of a source moving towards(-) or away(+) from the observer
 us 
λ′ = λ 1 ± (45)
v

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10 Fields (HL)
10.1 Describing fields
The magnitude of an electric field a distance r away from a spherical charge Q:
Q Q
E=k = 8.99 · 109 N m2 C −2 · 2 (46)
r2 r
Electric field magnitude between two electric plates of potential difference V d meters apart:
V
E= (47)
d

10.2 Fields at work

Schwarzchild radius:
2GM
R= (48)
c2

11 Electromagnetic Induction (HL)

11.1 Electromagnetic induction
Magnetic flux through a loop with N turns:

ϕ = N BA cos θ (49)

11.2 Power generation and transmission

Induced emf in the coil as the rate of change of the flux linkage:
dϕ
emf = V = − = ωN BAsin(ωt) (50)
dt
The current in a circuit of resistance R:

I = I0 sin(ωt) (51)

Peak current:
V0
I0 = (52)
R
Power lost in a transformer:
Ploss = RI 2 (53)

11.3 Capacitance

12 Quantum and Nuclear Physics (HL)

12.1 The interaction of matter with radiation
The total energy of a light beam with N quanta:

E = N hf (54)

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The momentum of a photon:
E hf h
p= = = (55)
c c λ
Pressure exerted by photons on a surface:
Nh
non-reflective surface: p =
Aλ (56)
Nh
reflective surface: p = 2
Aλ
Maximum kinetic energy of electrons emitted due to the photoelectric effect:
1
Emax = eVs = me v 2 (57)
2
Work function and critical frequency relation:

hfc = ϕ (58)

The wave corresponding to a particle of momentum p

h
λ= (59)
p
Wavelength of a wave corresponding to an electron with potential difference V:
h
λ= √ (60)
2mqV

The relationship between said wavelength and potential difference:

1
λ∝ √
V (61)
− 12
λ∝V

12.2 Nuclear physics

The distance of closest approach:
2Ze2
d=k (62)
EK
Important to remember: All nuclei have the same density.

Half life - decay constant relation:

ln 2
T 21 = (63)
λ
Initial Activity:
A0 = λN0 (64)

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Appendix: Units
Force:
[F ] = N = kgms−2
Work:
[W ] = J = N m = kgm2 s−2
Power:
[P ] = W = Js−1 = kgm2 s−3
Momentum:
[p] = N s = kgms−1
Specific heat capacity:
[c] = Jkg −1 K −1 = m2 s−2 K −1
Specific latent heat:
[L] = kJkg −1 = 103 m2 s−2 = m2 s−2
Pressure:
[p] = Pa = F A−1 = N kgs−2 m−1 = kg 2 s−4
Atmosphere conversion:
1 atm = 1.013 · 105 Pa
Wavelength:
[λ] = m
Wave intensity:
[I] = W m−2 = kgs−2
Charge:
[q] = C = As
Potential difference:
[V ] = V = W q −1 = kgm2 s−3 A−1
Electric field strength:
[E] = N C −1 = kgms−3 A−1
Electric resistance:
[R] = Ω = V A−1 = kgm2 s−3 A−2
Magnetic field strength:
[B] = T = V sm−2 = kgA−1 s−2
Angular velocity (radians are dimensionless, they take the value of 1):

[ω] = rads−1 = s−1

Gravitational field strength:

[g] = N kg −1 = ms−2
Radioactive activity:
[A] = Bq = decayss−1 = s−1

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Specific energy:
[ES ] = Jkg −1 = m2 s−2
Energy density:
[ED ] = Jm−3 = kgm−1 s−2
Gravitational potential:
[Vg ] = Jkg −1 = N mkg −1 = m2 s−2
Magnetic flux:
[ϕ] = W b = T m2 = kgm2 A−1 s−2

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