TUNNELS

Tunnel may be defined as underground route or passage driven through the ground without
disturbing the over lying soil or rock cover.
OR
A tunnel is a horizontal or nearly horizontal excavation that is open to the ground surface
at each end.
When excavation proceeds in a vertical or nearly vertical direction and is open to the
surface only at the top, it is called a shaft.
A drift /adit is similar to a tunnel except that, it open to the surface at one end only.
The term Raise or Stope is used to denote an inclined excavation driven from the main
tunnel or drift in an upward direction. While Winze is the term which is used to describe
an inclined excavation driven from the main tunnel or drift in the downward direction.
There are four terms commonly used to describe the location of parts of tunnel.
1. The roof also referred to as back or crown or arch.
2. The sides are referred to as walls.
3. The spring line is the point where the curved portion of the roof intersects the top of the
walls.
4. Base of the tunnel is called floor or invert of the tunnel.
TYPES OF TUNNELS
Tunnels are driven for a variety of purposes and are classified accordingly.
TRAFFIC TUNNELS
This group includes all tunnels which are excavated to divert the traffic load of whatsoever
type from surface to sub surface routes for a short length with a view of facilitating the flow of
traffic at a desired speed and maximum convenience and at minimum cost .The railway tunnels,
the high tunnels and the pedestrian tunnels are main sub groups of traffic tunnels. A few
navigational tunnels also fall under this category. e.g., Simplon tunnel of Italy (20 Km long),
Jawahar tunnel in India in Himalayan mountain in Jammu N Kashmir (2.5 Km long ). A traffic
tunnel is usually adopted as a convenient and cost effective alternative to provide a direct link
between two places separated by such inconvenient obstacles as mountains, hills, water bodies
or even densely populated areas in the metropolitan cities.

THE HYDROPOWER TUNNEL

These are also called PRESSURE TUNNELS. These tunnels feed water under great pressure
to turbines.
THE PUBLIC UTILITY TUNNELS
This group includes a variety of underground excavations made for specific purposes such as
for disposals of urban waste (sewage tunnels), for carrying pipes, cables and supplies of oil,
water, etc.
A recent development is construction of underground parking places and storage chambers to
overcome space shortage in cosmopolitan cities. Subways and tube railways also fall in the
category of excavation but they are in most cases, not tunnels in the strict sense because they
are excavations made in the ground and then covered from the top. This method of placing the
tubes or tracks is called “cut and cover” method and not tunneling in which as said earlier, top
cover remains undisturbed and intact during the excavation.
Geologically speaking, only two classes of tunnels are recognized.
1. Tunnels through rocks (Rock tunneling )
2. Tunnels through soils or loose sediments (soft ground tunneling).
DIVERSION TUNNELS
To facilitate the work of dam foundations, the dam site should be dry and this objective is
achieved by diverting the normal flow of water through the tunnel dug along the valley sides.
DISCHARGE TUNNELS
These are tunnels meant for conveying water from one point to another under gravity force.
GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Geological investigations are very important in tunnelling projects. These determine to a large
extent solutions to following engineering problems connected with tunnelling.
1. Selection of tunnel route: - There might be available many alternate alignments that
could connect two points through a tunnel. However, the final choice would be greatly
dependent on the geological constitution along and around different alternatives. The
alignment having least geologically negative factors would be the obvious choice.
2. Selection of excavation method :- Tunnelling is a complicated process in many
situation and involves huge costs which would multiply manifolds if proper planning
is not exercised before starting the actual excavation .And the excavation methods are
intimately linked with the type of rocks to be excavated. Choice of the right method
will, therefore, be possible only when the nature of the rocks and the ground all along
the alignment is fully known. This will help in selecting the type of explosives to be
used for excavation and to plan the system of support to be installed at crucial points.
3. Selection of design for the tunnel:- The ultimate dimension and design parameters of
a proposed tunnel are controlled, besides other factors, by geological constitution of the
area along the alignment Whether the tunnel is to be circular ,D –shaped, horse-shoe
shaped or rectangular or combination of one or more of these outlines, is more often
dictated by the geology along the alignment than by any other single factor. Thus, in
self supporting and strong rocks, either D- shape or horse- shoe shape may be
conveniently adopted but these shapes would be practically unsuitable in soft ground
or even in weak rocks. In those cases circular outline may be the first choice.

4. Assessment of cost and stability:- These aspects of the tunnelling projects are also
closely interlinked with the first three considerations. Since geological investigations
will determine the line of actual excavation, the method of excavation and the
dimensions of excavation as also the supporting system of the excavation, all estimates
about the cost of the project would depend on the geological details.
5. Assessment of environmental hazards:- The process of tunnelling, whether through
rocks or through soft ground, involves disturbing the environment of an area in more
than one ways. The tunneling method might involve vibrations induced through
blasting or ground cutting and drilling, producing abnormal quantities of dust and last
but not the least, interference with water supply system of the nearby areas.
GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN TUNNELLING
The convenience and cost of tunnelling as well as the safety and stability of a tunnel depend,
to a considerable extent on
1. The nature of the rocks, which occur along the course of the tunnel.
2. The geological structure of the rocks.
3. Groundwater conditions.

1. NATURE OF ROCKS:-
A) Hard and crystalline rocks:
Crystalline rocks of igneous origin are most favorable for tunnel and can be excavated by
using conventional rock blasting methods and also by tunnel boring machines of suitable
strength. The cost of tunneling through rocks of this type is naturally, rather high, but this
extra cost is compensated in another form, since such tunnels normally do not require
protective inner lining for their safety and stability.
B) Soft rocks: This group includes shale poorly compacted sandstone, porous limestone
and dolomite, slate and phyllite with high degree of cleavage and also decomposed varieties
of igneous rocks. These rocks can be excavated very easily, but such tunnels always require
a sufficiently strong inner lining for their safety and stability.
C) Fissured rocks:
Any type of hard and soft rock that has been deformed due to secondary fracturing or
faulting are always hazardous. Some volcanic rocks like basalt, rhyolite, trachyte, etc are
hard and tough and at the same time, contain joints and vesicles filled up with water or
secondary minerals. Tunneling through such rocks is therefore generally hazardous.
Tunnels through crushed and fragmented rocks must be protected by means of a suitable
lining.
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
The design, stability and cost of tunnel depend not only on the type of rock but also on the
structures developed in these rocks.
The main structural features are dip and strike, folding, faulting, shear zones and joints.
DIP AND STRIKE: These two quantitative properties of rocks determine the attitude of rocks
and hence influence the design of tunnel to a great extent. Three general cases may be
considered.
1) HORIZONTAL STRATA:
Horizontally layered rocks might be considered quite favourable. In massive rocks, that is
when individual layer is very thick, and the tunnel diameter is not very large, the situation
is especially favourable because the layer would then over bridge flat excavation by acting
like a natural beam. But when the layers are thin and fractured, they cannot be dependent
upon as beams. In such cases, either the roof has to be modified to an arch type or has to
be protected by giving a lining.
 2) MODERATELY INCLINED STRATA :
a) Tunnel axis parallel to the dip direction:-
The beds offer a uniformly distributed load on the excavation. The arch action where the rocks
at the roof act as natural arch, transferring the load on the sides. Even relatively weaker rocks
might act as self supporting in such cases. However, the axis of the tunnel has to pass through
a number of rocks. This is undesirable because in such a case the tunnelling conditions differ
from place to place and this may lead to problem like instability and over break.
b) Tunnel axis parallel to the strike :-
The pressure distributed to the exposed layers is asymmetrical along the periphery of the tunnel
opening as one half would have bedding planes opening into the tunnel and offer potential
planes and conditions for sliding into the opening. The bridge action though present in part, is
weakened due to discontinuities at the bedding planes running along the arch.

3) STEEPLY INCLINED OR VERTICAL STRATA:

a) Tunnel axis parallel to the dip :-
When the tunnel axis is parallel to the dip direction, the formations stand along the sides
and on the roof of the tunnel. An apparently favourable condition provided all the
formations are sound.
 b) Tunnel axis parallel to the strike :-
In tunnels running parallel to the strike of beds, it is more than likely that a number of
bedding planes are intersected at the roof and along the arch so that natural beam action
or arch action gets considerably weakened.

4) FOLDING
Folds represent the deformation of rocks under the influence of tectonic forces. Hence
the folded rocks will be under considerable strain. When excavations for a tunnel are
made in folded rocks, such rocks get the opportunity to release this strain. Such a release
may occur in the form of rock burst or rock fall or bulging of the sides or the floors or
the roof. In folded regions, the tunnel alignment may be parallel or perpendicular or
oblique to the axis of the folds. Further, the tunnel may run along the crest or trough of
limbs.

a) Tunnel along the limbs, parallel to the axis of a fold :-

This is desirable because similar formations with similar physical properties and physical
conditions are encountered along the course of the tunnel.
b) Tunnel along crest, parallel to the fold axis:-
Along the crest, the rock masses may be in a highly fractured condition. As a consequence of
this, if a tunnel is driven in such a place, there may be a frequent fall of rocks from the roof.
But at the anticlinal core, joints are developed perpendicular to the bedding planes and wedge
shaped blocks are produced. These wedge shaped blocks acts as a keystone and they prevent
the fall of adjacent rock masses.
c)Tunnels along troughs, parallel to the fold axis:-
Tunnels along troughs encounter unfavorable conditions. The joints converge upwards so that
the blocks bound by joint planes are liable to fall down into the tunnel. Further the inclination
of the bedding planes may guide the percolated water towards the trough and create undesirable
groundwater problems.
d) Tunnel alignment perpendicular to the fold axis:-
This is undesirable because under such a condition, different rock formations are encountered
from place to place along the length of the tunnel and also the tunnel has to pass through a
series of anticlines and synclines. These two factors bring about heterogeneity in physical
properties of rocks. There will be a serious problem of seepage and fallouts through out the
tunnel.
5) FAULTING
Faults are the surfaces along which rock movement has occurred in the past. These are
also potential surfaces for future movements of the rocks. Similarly, fault zones and
shear zones are highly permeable zones, likely to form passages for groundwater.
Therefore it is necessary that, wherever tunnel is intersected by a fault plane or shear
zones, it should be provided by maximum support and drainage facilities.

6) JOINTS
Joints are the planes of weaknesses. Closely spaced joints in all kinds of rocks are
harmful as it may lead to over break which is undesirable. Another problem that is likely
to crop up due to joints is the groundwater problem. It may, however, be necessary to
protect these weak zones by means of a suitable lining within the tunnel.
LINING OF TUNNELS:-
When tunnel is made through weak and loose or unconsolidated formations, they are provided
with suitable lining for safety and stability. Lining refers to the support provided for the tunnel.
Lining may be in the form of steel structure or concrete. The main purpose of lining is to resist
the pressure from the surrounding (roof or sides ) and to protect the shape of the tunnel. Lining
take care of the weaknesses of the ground. It also helps in checking the leakage of groundwater
into the tunnel.
The thickness of concrete lining depends upon the extent of protection required, and the degree
of weakness of the ground. It also depends on the over break phenomena. Lining provides a
regular shape to the tunnel. Lining being a very expensive treatment needs to be provided only
at such places where rocks are not capable of supporting themselves, i.e., where the rocks are
weak and likely to collapse. Lining is also provided in such places where the seepage of water
into the tunnel occur and create problems. In the case of very weak rocks with unfavourable
geological structures lining may be necessary throughout the length of the tunnel. The zone of
faulting and shearing also need suitable lining to impart strength to them.
OVERBREAK
Excavation through hard rocks necessarily involves the removal of some of the rocks outside
the proposed perimeter of the tunnel. The quantity of rock broken and removed, in excess of
what is required by the perimeter of the proposed tunnel, is known as over break. The
geological factors which govern the amount of over break are:
1. The nature of the rocks.
2. The orientation and spacing of joints or weak zones in them.
3. In case of sedimentary rocks, the orientation of the bedding planes and thickness of beds
with respect to the alignment of the tunnel.
Massive and soft rocks of homogenous nature cause less over break than hard rocks with well
developed joints and weak zones. In sedimentary rocks, thin formations and those with
alternate hard and soft rocks produce more over break. In metamorphic rocks, foliated and soft
formations like slates and schists produce more over break if the tunnel axis lies parallel to
them and less over break if they are mutually across.
In general, tunnels which pass through a single thick homogenous formation without structural
defects produce little over break, where as tunnels which pass through a variety of rocks with
structural defects like fault zones have more over break.
STRESS CONDITIONS IN TUNNELS:-
The rocks in nature, specially the deep ones (deeper than 600m) are under the great load of the
overlying mass of rocks and sediments and also because of their own weight. Stresses develop
in the rock mass because of these factors. In general, every stress produces a strain and
displaces the individual rock particles, provided there is space available for the movement.
Tunnelling provides that space. If the rock is confined and its motion thus prevented, there will
only be a partial rock displacement, if any. Such stresses which could not produce a
displacement because of the confinement of the rock mass, still remains in the rock mass as
storage. They are called as residual stresses. When there is no confinement, the rock particles
are displaced. The amount of movement, depend on the magnitude of the residual stresses.
There may be only a small displacement with an insignificant rupture of the rock, or the
displacement may be very large involving a violent movement. This is known as PRESSURE
RELIEF PHENOMENA, which involves a decrease of the residual stresses, accompanied by
the movement of rock mass with variable degrees of violence. An opening in the rock mass
such as excavation for the tunnel causes the adjacent rock to fall into the opening. This in turn
may liberate the previously confined rock masses and relieve the pressure.
In deep tunnels which are driven at great depths below the surface, rock burst may occur. Even
if there are no residual stresses in a rock mass, the construction of an opening makes the
adjacent rocks to flow into it. However, in nature there obtain a system of self-balancing
shearing stresses which makes the material draw inwards. This phenomenon is known as
ARCHING. i.e., there is neither generation nor release of pressure. It involves radial stresses
acting normal to the wall of the tunnel, and circumferential stresses acting parallel to the
circumference. The radial stress at the wall is zero, but progressively increases inward. As long
as the shear strength of the material above the tunnel opening is more than the corresponding
shearing stress resulting from the overburden, there will be no failure. A reinforced lining is
therefore provided to divide distribute the weight the overburden.
EFFECTS OF TUNNELLING ON THE GROUND:
The tunnelling process deteriorates the physical conditions of the ground. This happens due to
heavy and repeated blasting during excavation, the rocks get shattered to a great extent and
develop numerous cracks and fractures. This reduces the cohesiveness and compactness of
rocks. In other words, rocks become loose and more fractured and porous. This naturally
adversely affects the competence of the rocks concerned. Before tunnelling, the underground
rocks which were under pressure or which were in association with some geological structures
like folding would have been in state of equilibrium in terms of the prevailing stress and strain
of the region. When an empty tunnel is created through such rocks, that equilibrium gets
disturbed and as a consequence, the rocks of the roof may collapse, the sides may buckle and
then floor may undergo warping. Further as a consequence of underground tunnelling, the over
lying rocks are deprived of support from the bottom. Such unstable conditions become still
more precarious if the beds are incompetent or loose or unconsolidated or saturated with
groundwater. Unstable conditions may also result when beds involved are many, heterogeneous
and inclined along the tunnel. Stability of the ground may be jeopardized when the tunnel
ground has unfavourable groundwater conditions. In addition to these factors, at greater depths
high temperatures may be prevailing, making conditions difficult for tunnelling. Sometimes,
poisonous gases may also be encountered during the excavation of tunnels.
CHANGES IN WATER REGIME
Problems
The opening of a tunnel alters the water regime perceptibly. The tunnel is indeed an
underground drain to remove the interstitial water. The extent and rate of removal of water
through the tunnel depend on the permeability of material-there is an onrush of water when the
tunnel strikes a permeable zone. The onrush of water is mostly encountered along shear zones,
joints and other planes of structural discontinuities, i.e. zones of secondary permeability. The
environmental problem arising from excessive draining out of underground water through
tunnels is that the groundwater table is lowered in the area and as a consequence of this, wells
go dry in that region and there is dwindling or even disappearance of water in surface streams
flowing over permeable zones.
Remedial Measures
Perhaps the most effective remedial measure to overcome the problem of seepage would be to
lower the water table below the level of the tunnel through pumping and deep dug wells
provided that it does not cause ground settlement. This phenomenon would create a serious
problem if the tunnel passes under habitations. Likewise, horizontal drainage in the form of
bored wells drilled from the deep shafts provide relief from a seepage problem. An ejector -
system is applied to dewater soils and sediments. The ejector produces a vacuum around the
tunnel and thus drains out water from the finer-grained sediments. The second measure is to
block the passage of water by sealing and grouting voids, fissures, fractures, joints, open
cleavages, and cavities on the ground surface. The watershed can be managed to drain out
rainwater and minimize infiltration into the ground. (Valdiya, 1987)

Bibliography
Valdiya, K. S. (1987). Environmental Geology Indian Context . New Delhi : Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Limited.