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    Turkey Modern History.

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    fatimaghalaezzahrae
    The document provides a detailed summary of Turkey's modern history from 1800 to the late 19th century. It describes the Ottoman Empire's declining military and increasing fiscal crisis in the 18th century. The 19th century brought reforms under sultans like Selim III and Mahmut II to modernize the army and bureaucracy, establish new institutions, and bring the religious foundations under government control. However, reform efforts faced opposition and were undermined by their reliance on local elites. The period of the Tanzimat saw further modernizing reforms but also economic difficulties for the Ottoman Empire in integrating with the capitalist system and defaulting on debts in the 1870s.

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    Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd

    Turkey Modern History.

    Uploaded by

    fatimaghalaezzahrae
    9 views3 pages
    The document provides a detailed summary of Turkey's modern history from 1800 to the late 19th century. It describes the Ottoman Empire's declining military and increasing fiscal crisis in the 18th century. The 19th century brought reforms under sultans like Selim III and Mahmut II to modernize the army and bureaucracy, establish new institutions, and bring the religious foundations under government control. However, reform efforts faced opposition and were undermined by their reliance on local elites. The period of the Tanzimat saw further modernizing reforms but also economic difficulties for the Ottoman Empire in integrating with the capitalist system and defaulting on debts in the 1870s.

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    The document provides a detailed summary of Turkey's modern history from 1800 to the late 19th century. It describes the Ottoman Empire's declining military and increasing fiscal crisis in the 18th century. The 19th century brought reforms under sultans like Selim III and Mahmut II to modernize the army and bureaucracy, establish new institutions, and bring the religious foundations under government control. However, reform efforts faced opposition and were undermined by their reliance on local elites. The period of the Tanzimat saw further modernizing reforms but also economic difficulties for the Ottoman Empire in integrating with the capitalist system and defaulting on debts in the 1870s.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as docx, pdf, or txt
    9 views3 pages

    Turkey Modern History.

    Uploaded by

    fatimaghalaezzahrae
    The document provides a detailed summary of Turkey's modern history from 1800 to the late 19th century. It describes the Ottoman Empire's declining military and increasing fiscal crisis in the 18th century. The 19th century brought reforms under sultans like Selim III and Mahmut II to modernize the army and bureaucracy, establish new institutions, and bring the religious foundations under government control. However, reform efforts faced opposition and were undermined by their reliance on local elites. The period of the Tanzimat saw further modernizing reforms but also economic difficulties for the Ottoman Empire in integrating with the capitalist system and defaulting on debts in the 1870s.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
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    SUMMARY OF:

    TURKEY A MODERN HISTORY

    A summary made by: Iliass Derouich


    The title implies that there is such a thing as modern history (or even modern Turkey) and
    hence is the result of periodization. The author discusses this aspect of the book with the
    reader, rather than suggesting that it is in some way the unavoidable work of history itself.
    The European economy is based on the work of scholars who support and apply
    Wallerstein's dependency theory to explain how Turkey came to occupy a subservient place
    on the periphery of a capitalist world system. Historians who are informed by the concept of
    modernization see developments in the Ottoman Empire and Turkey as a struggle between
    traditionalists and reactionaries.
    In 1800 the governmental system could still be characterized as patrimonial: it formed an
    extension of the sultan's household. According to the Ottoman ideology, society in the empire
    was organized around a – theoretically strict – distinction between a ruling elite, which did not
    pay taxes and was entitled to carry arms. The Ottoman elite exercised power through an
    extended household, a 'great tradition', based on written Islamic sources and a secular code
    of conduct. There was an exceedingly wide chasm between this civilization and the almost
    illiterate rural population. One link between the elite civilization and popular culture was
    formed by the mystical orders or fraternities.
    The military weakness of the Ottoman Empire led to a permanent fiscal crisis. War, once an
    important source of income for the empire, had become a loss-making industry. In the
    provinces, both Asiatic and Europe, the eighteenth century had witnessed the rise of the
    ayan. Selim III's government was ineffective when it came to financing reforms. He had
    alienated the military by his efforts to create a new army and the majority of the ulema
    disliked French influence. The first ambassadors were by all accounts less than effective in
    representing the Ottoman people to Europe.
    The Philiki Hetairia, a Greek patriotic society founded in Odessa in 1814, had been busy
    founding cells throughout the Balkans. The rebels were badly organized and divided among
    themselves. But the Ottoman army in 1821–24 signally failed to defeat them. The Russians
    received the diplomatic prize they had aimed for in the treaty of Hünkar İskelesi, concluded
    in. The policies of Sultan Mahmut II from 1826 onwards determined the direction that
    Ottoman reform efforts would take. They were ultimately aimed at strengthening the central
    state through building a modern army.
    Launched the first Ottoman newspaper, the Moniteur Ottoman with its Ottoman-language
    equivalent, the Takvim-i Vekai, in 1831. He brought the holdings of the religious foundations
    under government control. Institutions resembling a treasury department and a justice
    ministry also evolved.
    The sultan sent a small group of students to Europe in 1827 for the first time. Europe and of
    a European language led to new types of education. Problems hampered efforts to reform
    during Mahmut's reign and those of his successors undermined by five main factors. Mahmut
    II's reforms had to be executed through the people, such as the provincial notables, whose
    abuses the reforms were intended to terminate. The economic developments of Mahmut II
    and his immediate successors must be understood in the context of worldwide economic
    trends. Great Britain had emerged from the Napoleonic wars without real rivals as a global
    trading nation.
    Mahmut's death did not mark the beginning of a period of reaction, as Selim III's death had in
    1807. In June 1841 Mehmet Ali accepted the loss of his Syrian provinces in exchange for the
    hereditary governorship of Egypt. The most violent inter-communal conflict of these years
    was fought out in Lebanon. Britain declared war in March 1854 after mediation by France,
    Britain, Austria, Prussia and Prussia failed. A peace conference was held in Paris in
    February–March 1856 and produced the Treaty of Paris. Although the war had been fought
    to defend the Ottoman Empire it had to accept peace terms.
    The Victorian age saw a marked increase in piety and the activity of missionary societies.
    The army, now called the nizamiye troops, was expanded and given modern European
    equipment. Efforts to establish a fairer and more effective system of taxation were also
    made. In 1840 a reorganization of the system of taxation was announced. In 1864 a new law
    on provincial organization introduced a complete hierarchical system of provinces. The
    canon law of Islam, the şeriat, was never abrogated, but its scope was limited almost
    completely to family law.
    The period of the Tanzimat coincided with the mid-century economic boom in Europe.
    Ottoman economy into the capitalist system progressed faster than before. Priority was given
    to the creation of professional training colleges for the bureaucracy and army. Secularization
    was also the most important trend in education during this period. Many of the reform policies
    of the Ottoman Empire in the 18th and 19th centuries were implemented by lesser
    bureaucrats. But many of the lesser bureaucrats had only a superficial knowledge of the
    West, combined with a snobbish rejection of traditional Ottoman ways. The first Ottoman
    newspaper was started in Sultan Mahmut's days but was more an official bulletin than a
    newspaper in the modern sense.
    After the death of Fuat Pasha and Ali Pasha, Ottoman reformers were in temporary eclipse.
    The crash on stock exchanges in 1873 marked the beginning of the Great Depression in the
    European economy. Ottoman Empire could no longer pay interest on older loans and had to
    default on its debt. In spite of their inexperience and the lack of representative traditions in
    the empire, many members genuinely tried to represent the views of their constituencies
    responsibly. The parliament almost totally failed in its legislative functions, partly because the
    constitution allowed the sultan and his ministers to govern by decree, but it was an effective
    forum for criticism of the government’s conduct of affairs – so effective and irritating, in
    fact, that on 14 February 1878, the sultan prorogued it indefinitely. This, to all intents and
    purposes, meant the end of the constitutional regime and, from this time on, Sultan
    Abdülhamit II not only reigned but also ruled as an absolute monarch for 30 years.
    Railway construction, requiring as it does much greater investment, was far slower to
    develop, but still, the mileage was greatly extended in these years. French and British
    companies had built the first railways in the Ottoman Empire. Macedonia was connected to
    the capital, as was the interior of Anatolia with the building of the Anatolian railway, which
    reached Ankara in 1892 and Konya four years later. ‘Baghdad railway’, which caused a great
    deal of tension between the great powers in the years before the First World War.

    In combination with the railway lines connecting the ports to the productive hinterland, the
    steamships speeded up the integration into the capitalist system of some areas and some
    sectors of the Ottoman economy. Improved education led to increased literacy, creating a
    market for the Ottoman press, which expanded rapidly under Abdülhamit in terms of both the
    number of publications and circulation figures.

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