Heliyon 7 (2021) e06954

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Heliyon
journal homepage: www.cell.com/heliyon

Research article

Fabrication and characterization of eco-friendly composite materials from

natural animal fibers
Md. Farhad Ali a, *, Md. Sahadat Hossain b, Samina Ahmed b, c, A.M. Sarwaruddin Chowdhury d
a
Institute of Leather Engineering and Technology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, 1000, Bangladesh
b
Glass Research Division, Institute of Glass & Ceramic Research and Testing, Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (BCSIR), Dhaka, 1205, Bangladesh
c
BCSIR Laboratories Dhaka, Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (BCSIR), Dhaka, 1205, Bangladesh
d
Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, 1000, Bangladesh

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A large amount of useless portion, which is discharging from leather industries, pollutes the environment
Cow hair fiber immensely. The discarded part needs to be recycled to yield other valuable products to subside environmental
Environment pollution. In this research, we utilized a rejected part (cow hair) of leather industries and unsaturated polyester
Composite
resin (UPR) to fabricate valued composites to confine atmospheric pollution. A hand-lay-up technique, which is an
Mechanical properties
Resin
easy and economical approach, was employed for composites fabrication. A number of cow hair fiber percentages
(2, 5, 7, 10, 12, 15, and 20% by weight) were taken into consideration to investigate the impact of fiber loading
on composites. Prepared composites were characterized by a few mechanical properties such as tensile strength
(TS), tensile modulus (TM), elongation at break (EB), bending strength (BS), and bending modulus (BM). Fourier
Transform Infrared (FTIR), Electron Scanning Microscopy (SEM), and water absorption were also performed to
support the data in favor of mechanical properties. Optimum mechanical properties which were supported by the
other analysis were achieved for 5% cow hair containing composites.

1. Introduction reacted with one or more alcohols such as ethylene glycol and propylene
glycol to form long chain-like polyester molecules [12]. Notwithstanding
Based on the sources, natural fibers are classified into plant, animal, the competition from advanced polymers, UPR remains a significant
and mineral fibers. Plant-based fibers are mainly composed of cellulose plastic degree. Applications of UPR are commonly used in plastic, wood
on the other hand animal-based fibers are composed of protein. Contrary, paint, fillers, stuccos, masts and chemical anchoring, self-extinguishing
the mineral fibers are inorganic metals-based fibers [1, 2, 3, 4]. Several mixed material, granite, marble and artificial stone, wood coats, ribbed
authors have shown that the hair has very strong physical and mechan- walls, ribbed walls, acrylic coatings, bathtubs, and painting bags [13].
ical properties. This peculiar hair activity is due to the presence of Many methods are available in current literature to eventually solve such
structural proteins keratin in hair fibers [5, 6]. Hair is a biomaterial limitations using the variety of reinforcements from microfibers to
filament made mostly of keratin proteins [7, 8, 9]. These keratins are nanotubes in the UPR matrix [14, 15, 16, 17].
used in the mid-filament network of epithelial cell cytoplasms and can The latest research has demonstrated that the waste natural fiber can
assist cells and tissues grow, shape cells, create flesh, heal wounds, and be processed to generate biodegradable, cheap, available, sustainable,
reformulate the tissues [8]. The mechanical property of the hair fiber is and durable polymer composites without compromising the fundamental
strongly determined by the feature of the keratin system [8, 10, 11]. properties of fibers [18, 19]. Scientists mainly from developed countries
Unsaturated polyesters are widely used for the structural sections of have recently re-evaluated the economic importance of hair fiber to
the ships such as hulls, pipes, and compartments, and are normally fabricate polymer composite substances and have been able to pioneer in
reinforced by fiber-glass or ground minerals. Unsaturated polyesters are a new field of industrial applications of hair fibers [20, 21].
polyesters consisting of saturated dicarboxylic acid or anhydride The composites shaped by goat and horse-hair fibers in the BC age
(generally phthalic anhydride), or an unsaturated dicarboxylic acid and have been used to stabilize mud and mortar [22, 23, 24]. The develop-
anhydride (usually maleic anhydride). Both of these acid constituents are ment of synthetic and mineral fiber in the intervening decades, however,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: farhadali72@gmail.com (Md.F. Ali).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06954
Received 16 September 2020; Received in revised form 28 October 2020; Accepted 26 April 2021
2405-8440/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Md.F. Ali et al. Heliyon 7 (2021) e06954

led to the intermittent practice of hair fiber as reinforcement [25]. These

latest fibers have shown tremendous advances and have flooded the fiber
industry in a short time, but their shortcomings in terms of production,
processing, pecuniary feasibility, and environmental effect eventually
obligated engines and material scientists from this modern era to rethink
the prospective consumptions of animal fibers for composite [6, 26]. The
key items include vehicle parts, boat hulls, engines, commercial equip-
ment, car-body plates, tubing and baths, flooring, transparent walls,
containers, resistance to corrosions, and materials of the structure. This
visit to fibers, particularly keratin-based fibers, has been shown to
generate a considerable number of studies with encouraging Results for
composite production [27, 28]. The work carried out by Dwivedi et al.
has shown that the flexural characteristics of cow hair fiber are enhanced
by polyethylene and the fibers have greatly improved the mechanical
features of the existing composites [6, 29]. This research aims at inves-
tigating the quality and appropriateness of the use of cow hair fibers as
reinforcement in the UPR matrix. The use of cow hair fibers as a possible
reinforcement leads to the ingenuity of this research.

2. Materials and methods Figure 1. Tensile strength of unsaturated polyester resin and composite with
different hair percentages.
2.1. Materials
removed from the beaker using tissue paper. The water uptake of the
Unsaturated polyester resin (UPR) and methyl ethyl ketone peroxide composites was calculated by using the initial and final weights. The
(MEKP) were bought from the Innovative Resins Pvt. Ltd. located at water uptake was determined by applying the following equation (eq.
Haryana-122018 in India. Hair fiber of black cow was collected from the (1)) [23, 24]:
local leather industry near hemayetpur, Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh. The
Final weight  Initial weight
average fiber diameter (CHF) was 130
15 μm and impurities, blood- Water uptake % ¼  100 (1)
Initial weight
stream, oil, and grade, etc., were removed from fiber by washing robustly
with water and detergent. Cleaned fibers were dried at 27  C for four
days. 2.5. FTIR spectroscopy

2.2. Preparation of composites The Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrophotometer was used to
identify the functional groups of fabricated composites. An attenuated
Cow hair fiber (5 mm length and 135 μm diameter) as reinforcing total reflectance (ATR) attached FTIR spectrometer machine (model:
material and unsaturated polyester resin as the matrix were taken in a IRPrestige 21, SHIMADZU) was employed for functional group analysis.
500 ml beaker and stirred vigorously for uniform mixing. After complete In transmittance mode, FTIR spectrum was counted for the wavenumber
mixing of reinforcing and matrix materials, a certain percentage (1%) of range of 400-4000cm1 with 30 scans.
methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP) which was used as a hardener was
added to fabricate composites. Composites were prepared by hand lay-up
technique and the details of the method were reported [14]. The hair 2.6. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
fiber percentages (by weight) were 2, 5, 7, 12, 15, and 20 where the
remaining percentages were occupied by UPR. This fabrication process of The fracture surface of the composite, after the tensile test, was
the hand-lay-up technique was performed at room temperature (30  C) in explored by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (model: Phenom Pro).
glass molds. The molds were retained for 24 h in a fume hood and then
the fabricated composites are wrapped in polythene bags.

2.3. Mechanical properties of composites

The tensile strength (TS), tensile modulus (TM), and elongation at

break (EB) were evaluated by a universal testing machine (H50 KS-0404)
with an initial splitting of 20 mm, and a crosshead velocity of 10 mm/min
confining sample size to 60  20  3.5 mm. The specimens were
conditioned for three days before testing and all the tests were conducted
under the same conditions maintaining a relative humidity of 50 percent
and room temperature of 30  C. Bending tests were also performed using
the same universal testing machine to determine bending strength (BS)
and bending modulus (BM). All the values documented in this manu-
script are the average of at least 7 (seven) samples.

2.4. Water uptake

The composites were cut to a small dimension (10  2  0.2 cm) for
the water uptake test. The composite samples were submerged in a
beaker holding 1000 ml of distilled water at room temperature for Figure 2. Tensile Modulus of unsaturated polyester resin and composite with
various periods (10 min, 30 min, 2 h, 12 h, and 24 h). Samples were different hair percentages.

2
Md.F. Ali et al. Heliyon 7 (2021) e06954

Figure 3. Elongation at break (percentage) of unsaturated polyester resin and Figure 5. Bending Modulus of unsaturated polyester resin and composite with
composite with different hair percentages. different hair percentages.

Samples were fixed on a carbon tap and coated with gold for 20 s. All the
images were captured at 5 KV voltage.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Mechanical properties of the composite

The TS, TM, Eb, BS, and BM of the prepared composites were
analyzed by a universal testing machine and the data are illustrated
in Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. These mechanical properties are counted
for better applications in various environmental conditions [30, 31].
The values of TS, TM, and EB for the control sample (only UPR) are
18 MPa, 650 MPa, and 5% which are presented in respective
figures.
The highest Results of TS and TM were achieved for the 5% cow's hair
fiber based-composite and the TS, and TM values were 55.38%, and
60.94% higher than that of the control sample. More addition of cow hair
fiber to the composite lessened the stress transfer between the hair and
the matrix. On the other hand, low fiber percentage cannot contribute
Figure 6. Percentage of water uptake of hair fiber-reinforced composites.
sufficient amount of strength to the composites.
That is why the 2% and 7%–20% hair fiber based-composites the control sample was higher (5.00%) than that of the fiber loaded-
revealed lower TS and TM values. Percentage elongation at break for composites. Among the fabricated composites, the 10% fiber based-
composites presented the best result, and that value was only 50.98%
lower than the control sample.

Figure 4. Bending strength of unsaturated polyester resin and composite with Figure 7. Functional group analysis of prepared composites [illustrated as 1 for
different hair percentages. 2%, 2 for 5%, 3 for 7%, 4 for 10 %, 5 for 12%, 6 for 15%, and 7 for 20%].

3
Md.F. Ali et al. Heliyon 7 (2021) e06954

Figure 8. SEM images of different hair based composites and hair fiber.

The incorporation of the cow hair fiber to the unsaturated polyester 3.2. Water uptake of composites
resin augmented the bending strength. The data are represented in Figure 4
as a column chart. From the figure, it is easily noticeable that the 5% fiber The water uptake influences the composites' water-swelling
loading composites depicted the best bending strength (77.39 MPa), which behavior. Three measurements of each composite were conducted,
was 209.57 % more than that of the control sample. At low fiber percentage and their average percentage values were documented. The water up-
(2%), composites cannot gain sufficient strength, while higher percentages take findings are displayed in Figure 6 against cow hair fiber per-
(7%, and more) created a problem regarding stress transfer. centage at room temperature. The water absorption of the composite
The consequence of the cow hair fiber on the BM of prepared com- varied between 1.28% and 1.75%, which was higher than that of the
posites is illustrated in Figure 5. The 5% cow hair fiber based-composites control sample. The hydrophilic character of natural fiber is a big
expressed the best BM values, which was 521.75% higher than that of the concern, as it impedes successful outdoors application. The higher
control sample. A similar effect, which was previously discussed as in the content of cow hair fibers in composites offers an extra advantage of
case of TS and TM, was assumed for BS and BM. This finding also carried good mechanical properties, but the escalation of hydrophilicity leads
good evidence to be a more stable composite than the control sample to further water absorption. The water absorption was increased with
(UPR). A Similar trend in mechanical properties was reported elsewhere time and, no substantial change was documented after 24 h. Similar
[14, 23, 32, 33, 34, 35]. Results are reported elsewhere [36].

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Md.F. Ali et al. Heliyon 7 (2021) e06954

3.3. FTIR analysis 4. Conclusion

The FTIR analysis was conducted for functional group identification Cow hair fiber is available in this country and is a waste material in
in the Hair-UPR composites. The peak in the wavenumber of 2900 the leather industry. The use of cow hair fibers is a new, cost-effective,
cm1 appeared for the existence of the – NH2 group. A further intense environmentally friendly, and recyclable type of content in the com-
peak was observed in the wavenumber of 1700 cm1, which was due to posite process. Cow hair fiber can be used in making environmentally
the presence of CH3 and CH2 groups (for sp3 stretching). Another peak friendly plastic goods for a range of uses and can be quickly replaced with
was recognized for CH groups (for sp3 stretching) was witnessed in the cellulose-based natural fiber. The inclusion of these animal fibers in the
area of 2800 cm1. For the sp3 bending vibration of CH3, CH, and CH2 matrix enhanced the mechanical properties of the fabricated composite
groups, a peak was detected in the wavenumber of 1575 cm1. Another materials. A certain percentage of (5%) cow hair fiber-reinforcement in
peak for the presence of the C¼O group was experimented at 1690- UPR amplified the properties than that of the control sample or other
1750 cm1 wavenumber. For the appearance of the OH group, a percentages. For better mechanical properties, it is suggested from this
peak was emerged in the wavenumber of 3400 cm1. All the peak research to use the 5% cow hair fiber-reinforced unsaturated polyester
positions were more or less similar to the literature [37, 38, 39, 40]. resin based-composites instead of only unsaturated polyester resin.
FTIR data of hair fiber-reinforced UPR based-composites are repre-
sented in Figure 7. No extra functional groups were noticed in FTIR Declarations
spectra, which carried good evidence against the chemical bonding
between fiber and UPR. The slightly improved mechanical properties Author contribution statement
may be the only reason for mechanical bonding between the fiber and
matrix. Md. Farhad Ali: Conceived and designed the experiments; Performed
the experiments; Analyzed and interpreted the data; Wrote the paper.
Md. Sahadat Hossain: Analyzed and interpreted the data; Wrote the
3.4. Scanning electron microscopy analysis paper.
Samina Ahmed: Conceived and designed the experiments; Analyzed
To analyze the cow fiber and matrix adhesion in the composites, the and interpreted the data; Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools
broken samples (after tensile test) were selected for the analysis of sur- or data; Wrote the paper.
face morphology under a SEM machine. Figure 8 revealed the SEM im- A. M. Sarwaruddin Chowdhury: Conceived and designed the experi-
ages of the fracture surface of the cow hair fiber-reinforced UPR-based ments; Wrote the paper.
composite. For a better understanding of surface morphology, all the
samples (2, 5, 7, 10, 12%, 15, and 20% of hair) were analyzed under a Funding statement
SEM machine, and a strong mechanical bonding was noticed between the
cow hair fiber and unsaturated polyester resin. The SEM images also This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies
disclosed that the pulling of the hair fiber from composites was very poor. in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
A smooth surface was observed for all the composites, and a similar
surface was described elsewhere [18, 41]. Some pores, which originated Data availability statement
from the fiber pull-our, are noticed in the SEM images. The fiber and
matrix are well bound together, which bears clear proof that the me- Data included in article/supplementary material/referenced in
chanical properties of composites are marginally higher than that of the article.
control sample. Similar fiber and matrix adhesion was also experimented
within natural fiber-reinforced composites and discussed elsewhere [38, Declaration of interests statement
42, 43]. Generally, there remains no crack in the natural fiber-reinforced
composites [35]. As the SEM images were taken after tensile testing, The authors declare no conflict of interest.
some cracks were observed.
Physico-mechanical properties as well as the environmental issue Additional information
were the main focus of this research. Up to a certain percentage, the
properties were amplified by the addition of fiber. When cellulose based- No additional information is available for this paper.
fibers are gradually added to the matrix (unsaturated polyester resin), the
force transfer from the matrix to the reinforcing agent is improved [14, Acknowledgements
23]. Our Results also revealed the same trend, and all the findings are
discussed in the results and discussion section. The better force transfer The authors would like to give special thanks to Applied Chemistry
between the fiber and matrix amplified the mechanical properties to and Chemical Engineering Department, University of Dhaka, Institute of
some extend. There was no chemical bonding between the hair fiber and Leather Engineering and Technology, University of Dhaka and Glass
UPR, which was confirmed from the FT-IR spectrum by exhibiting no Research Division, Institute of Glass & Ceramic Research and Testing
new bond. This type of mechanical bonding has been also reported in (IGCRT), Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
cellulose-based fiber-reinforced composites [44]. The SEM image of the (BCSIR) for providing the required facilities for this research work.
hair fiber depicted that the surface of the fibers was not entirely smooth,
which made the mechanical bonding strong. SEM images of composite
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