Table of Content

CONTROL LABORATORY 2024 1

Module 2 5
Objectives 5
Basic Theory 5
Properties of Root Locus 5
Sketching the Root Locus 7
Root Locus for Discrete Systems 9
Tools 10
Procedures 10
References 10

Module 3 11
Objectives 11
Basic Theory 11
Drawing Bode Plots 12
Drawing the Nyquist Diagram 14
Tools 16
Procedure 16
References 16

Module 2 | Root Locus 3

Table of Figure
CONTROL LABORATORY 2024 1

Module 2 5
Figure 2.1. Closed-Loop System 6
Figure 2.2. Example of root locus and asymptotes of a system 9
Figure 2.3. Diagram showing a discrete root locus with 2 poles and 1 zero 9

Module 3 11
Figure 3.1. Bode Plots, Magnitude Plots (left) and Phase Plots (right) 13
Figure 3.2. Example of a stable Third-Order Nyquist Plot (no encircle in -1) 15

Module 2 | Root Locus 4

Module 2
Root Locus Method

Objectives
1. Understanding the concept and function of Root Locus.
2. Understanding the sketching of Root Locus.
3. Understanding how to analyze the system’s stability using the Root Locus
method.

Basic Theory
Root Locus Technique is a graphical analysis method for system stability. By
using Root Locus Technique, we can analyze how a closed-loop system behaves as
the gain is changed. This closed-loop behavior can be obtained by only observing its
open-loop system. This method could also be used to design a system that meets
the required specification(s) and/or characteristic(s). To analyze a system using
Root Locus Technique, we need to sketch the Root Locus of a system on an s-plane
(frequency domain). Root Locus itself is a path of a closed-loop system’s pole(s)
movements as the gain is changed.

Properties of Root Locus

By observing a control loop system, we’ll obtain the properties of Root Locus.
Figure 2.1 shows a closed-loop system:

Module 2 | Root Locus 5

Figure 2.1. Closed-Loop System
Simplifying the block with mathematical analysis, we’ll obtain the closed-loop
transfer function as:

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐾𝐺(𝑠)
𝑇 (𝑠 ) = 𝑅(𝑠)
= 1+𝐾𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)

And the characteristic equation as,

1 + 𝐾 𝐺( 𝑠) 𝐻 (𝑠) = 0
According to eq. 2.2,

𝐾𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) =− 1 = 1∠(2𝑘 + 1)180° 𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …

where -1 is represented in polar form as 1∠(2𝑘 + 1)180°, having a magnitude and an
angle, hence

|𝐾𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)| = 1
1
𝐾= |𝐺(𝑠)||𝐻(𝑠)|

∠𝐾𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = (2𝑘 + 1)180° 𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …

Eq. 2.5 is called the magnitude criterion, whilst eq. 2.6 is called the angle criterion. An
s point on the s-plane needs to satisfy both properties to be a part of a system’s root
locus.

Module 2 | Root Locus 6

Sketching the Root Locus
Please refer to the Material Assistance Sheets and/or video tutorial for better understanding
regarding these parts.

There are 5 basic criterions for drawing the root locus,

1. The quantity of branches: Branches in Root Locus methods represent the

number of closed-loop poles of the system.
2. Symmetry: Root Locus is symmetrical to real axis.
3. Segment in the real axis: in the real axis, for K>0, root locus is placed on the
right side of the poles and/or zeros in the odd-numbered real axis.
4. Starting and finishing point: Root Locus starts from open-loop poles (when
K=0) and finishes at open-loop zeros (when K → ∞) including poles and zeros
at the infinite point.
5. Intersection between real axis and Asymptote: Determine 𝜃 (angle against
the real-axis) and its real-axis intersection point 𝜎 by using equation below:
(2𝑘+1)π
θ𝑎 = #𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠−# 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠
𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …

∑𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠−∑𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠
σ𝑎 = #𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠−#𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠

Other than the five criterions described above, there are three additional
criterions that can be used to refine the Root Locus sketch:

1. Break-away and Break-in points: The coordinates at the real axis where the
close-loop poles begin to leave or re-enter the real axis. Those coordinates
can be found using the below equation:
𝑚 𝑛
1 1
∑ 𝑠 + 𝑧𝑖
= ∑ 𝑠 + 𝑝𝑖
1 1

or,
𝑑𝐾 1
𝑑𝑠
= − 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)

Module 2 | Root Locus 7

2. Imaginary-axis crossing (𝑗ω − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔): The coordinates at the
imaginary axis where closed-loop poles leave the negative real axis towards
the positive real-axis and vice versa. This will give the boundaries that will
separate the stable operation of the system from the unstable operation.
3. Angle of departure and arrival: the angle that the root locus make when
departing from open-loop complex poles and arriving at open-loop complex
zeros.

Meanwhile, the procedure to sketch the root locus is:

1. Determine the open-loop transfer function and place the poles and zeros in
the frequency domain
2. Determine the scope of Root Locus for the real axis domain.
3. Determine the amount and the angles of the asymptotes and its intersection
with the real axis as well.
4. Determine the breakaway point and break-in point, by differentiation or
equation below
5. Determine the intersection between Root Locus and imaginary axis (if exist).
6. Determine the Break-in angle (for zeros) and break-away (for poles).
7. Sketching Root Locus using all the data and information acquired.

Module 2 | Root Locus 8

Figure 2.2. Example of root locus and asymptotes of a system

Root Locus for Discrete Systems

While root loci for continuous systems, as we have discussed above, are
drawn in the s domain, root loci for discrete systems are drawn in the z domain. The
characteristic equation is as follows:

1 + 𝐺𝐻(𝑧) = 0

Figure 2.3. Diagram showing a discrete root locus with 2 poles and 1 zero
1. The closed-loop poles in z map must lie within the unit circle for the system to
be stable.
2. If a simple pole lies at z = 1, or a single pair of conjugate complex poles lies
on the unit circle, the system becomes critically stable.
3. Closed-loop zeros do not affect stability and may be placed anywhere in the z
plane.

Module 2 | Root Locus 9

Tools
● Computer

Procedures
1. Open the ‘Laboratory Sheet’ in your EMAS class. For this module, AnyDesk is
not necessary.

2. Answer the questions and upload photos or scans of your workings (if
necessary) according to the instructions.

Python Syntax
In this module, we can use Python as a tool to help our work, especially to plot the
Root Locus plot that we have learnt before. Here are few syntax that we usually use
in this module:
Plotting Root Locus:
Code: (Note that “ct” here is short for control that has been defined and imported
above with the code “import control as ct”)

Module 2 | Root Locus 10

Output:

Root Locus Python Documentation:

https://python-control.readthedocs.io/en/0.9.4/generated/control.root_locus.html

Note that these functions are only the mostly used functions. There are many other
functions or methods that can be used in Python for this field. You can explore the
documentation yourself.

References
Nise, Norman S. Control System Engineering, Chapter 8: Root Locus Technique
Ogata, Katsuhiko. Discrete-Time Control Systems, 2nd edition.

Module 2 | Root Locus 11

Module 3
Frequency Response Method
Keywords: Frequency Response, Magnitude, Phase, Closed-loop Stability, Bode, Nyquist

Objectives
1. To understand the concept of Bode and Nyquist Diagrams.
2. To determine stability through the concept of frequency response.

Basic Theory
In this module, we will be looking into frequency response methods to analyze
and design a control system. The information obtained from the analysis with
frequency response methods differ from the information obtained from the root
locus method, in which both methods complement each other. One of the
advantages of using the frequency response methods is that we can obtain data for
a measurement without having to create a mathematical model of a system.

The frequency response of a system is defined as the steady state response

of a system when it is given a sinusoidal wave input. When a linear-time-invariant
(LTI) system is given an input sinusoidal wave, the output of the system will also be a
sinusoidal wave that differs in amplitude and phase. Although the amplitude and
phase differ by a certain value, the frequencies are the exact same.

For example, if an input sinusoid of 𝑀𝑖 cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (ω𝑡 + ϕ𝑖), or 𝑀𝑖(ω)∠ϕ𝑖(ω) in

phasor complex number representation, is given to a system, that system will deliver
an output of 𝑀𝑜 cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (ω𝑡 + ϕ𝑜), or 𝑀𝑜(ω)∠ϕ𝑜(ω). Please note that the system

itself is represented in phasor complex number as 𝑀(ω)∠ϕ(ω).

To find the output equation, we must multiply the input equation with the
system equation. The relationship of the input and output is represented with the
following:

𝑀𝑜∠ϕ𝑜 = 𝑀𝑖𝑀∠(ϕ𝑖 + ϕ)

Module 3 | Frequency Response 12

Based on this, we can now determine the function of the system as:

𝑀𝑜(ω)
𝑀(ω) = 𝑀𝑖(ω)

ϕ(ω) = ϕ𝑜(ω) − ϕ𝑖(ω)

𝑀(ω) is the magnitude response of the system and ϕ(ω) is the phase
response of the system. The combination of the two is called the frequency
response in the complete form of 𝑀(ω)∠ϕ(ω). There are two main ways to sketch a
frequency response diagram: the Bode Plot and Nyquist (Polar) Plot.

Drawing Bode Plots

Bode Plots consist of two subplots: the Magnitude and Phase plots. The
Magnitude plot shows the relationship between the magnitude (in logarithmic scale)
with the frequency in the power of tens. The phase plot shows the relationship
between the phase angle with the frequency in the power of tens. If a system has the
transfer function of 𝐺(𝑠), the frequency response can be obtained by substituting the
𝑠 for 𝑗ω. The Asymptotic Approximation of a Bode Plot is drawn by separating all zero
and pole components, then drawing them one by one before drawing the final plot
that is the accumulation of every plot drawn beforehand.

In the following examples in Fig. 3.1, there are two things that need to be
considered, which are the Gain Margin and the Phase Margin. Gain Margin is the
difference between 0 dB and the gain (magnitude) as the phase plot crosses the
angle of 180° or -180°, whilst the Phase Margin is the difference of the angle 180° or
-180° and the phase angle as the magnitude plot crosses 0 dB. The Gain Margin
determines how much gain (magnitude) can be increased before the system
becomes unstable, or how much gain should be decreased to make the system
stable. The Phase Margin works similarly, but instead uses phase angle instead of
gain. Both the Gain Margin and Phase Margin must have values greater than zero (0)
for the closed-loop system to become stable.

Module 3 | Frequency Response 13

Figure 3.1. Bode Plots, Magnitude Plots (left) and Phase Plots (right)

Module 3 | Frequency Response 14

Drawing the Nyquist Diagram
The Nyquist Diagram consists of only one component, a complex plane that
has real values for the x-axis and imaginary values for the y-axis, and a contour plot
(in complex number representation) that moves from the frequency of -∞ to ∞.

A closed-loop system has the following transfer function of

𝐺(𝑠)
𝑇 (𝑠 ) = 1+𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)

Where the characteristic equation would be

1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 0
The values of s that fulfills the characteristic equation, or the zeroes of that
characteristic equation, can be considered as the poles of the closed-loop system.

In a Nyquist Diagram, the complex representation of frequency response of

𝐺(𝑗ω)𝐻(𝑗ω) can be plotted in a complex plane by inserting the frequency values from
ω = 0 to ω = ∞. To plot the complex function, we would need to decompose it into
real and imaginary values. We can do this by multiplying 𝐺(𝑗ω)𝐻(𝑗ω) with the
complex conjugate of the denominator, resulting in the denominator becoming real
and the imaginary part only existing on the numerator part. Once you get to separate
the Real and Imaginary parts, you can then find the frequency where the Real
component is zero, and the frequency where the Imaginary component is zero. For
the rest of the plot, the values are the Magnitude for a certain frequency 𝑀(ω).

2 2
|𝑀(ω)| = 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 + 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
The values are plotted into a semicircle shape on the bottom part of the plot,
showing the movement of the magnitude of frequency response from 0 to ∞.
Afterwards, draw a mirrored semicircle shape on the top part of the plot, as to show
the movement of the magnitude of frequency response from -∞ to 0.

The finished Nyquist Plot of a third-order system would look like this:

Module 3 | Frequency Response 15

Figure 3.2. Example of a stable Third-Order Nyquist Plot (no encircle in -1)

Stability in a closed-loop system can be determined by using the Nyquist

Diagram by using the equation:

𝑍=𝑃 −𝑁
With P as the number of open-loop poles of 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) that are located at the
right half of a complex plane. N is the number of anti-clockwise encirclements the
plot gives at value -1. If the plot gives clockwise encirclements, decrement the value
of N. The number of encirclements is determined by the order of your system, the
higher the order, the more encirclements it gives. Z is the number of zeroes from the
characteristic equation we have seen earlier, or the closed-loop poles that are
located at the right half of the plane. If Z is greater than 0, then the closed-loop
system is unstable.

Module 3 | Frequency Response 16

Tools
● Computer

Procedure
1. Open the ‘Laboratory Sheet’ in your EMAS class. For this module, AnyDesk is
not necessary.

2. Answer the questions and upload photos or scans of your workings (if
necessary) according to the instructions.

Python Syntax
In this module, we can use Python as a tool to help our work, especially to plot the
frequency response including the bode plot and Nyquist plot that we have learnt
before. Here are few syntax that we usually use in this module:
Plotting Bode Plot (Exact Bode Plot, not approximate, so there will be some
difference with the theory on how to sketch bode plot approximately)
Code:

Module 3 | Frequency Response 17

Output:

Plotting Bode Plot with Gain Margin and Phase Margin

Code:

Module 3 | Frequency Response 18

Output:

Plotting Nyquist Plot

Code:

Module 3 | Frequency Response 19

Output:

Documentations
Nyquist:
https://python-control.readthedocs.io/en/0.9.4/generated/control.nyquist_plot.html

Module 3 | Frequency Response 20

Bode:
https://python-control.readthedocs.io/en/0.9.4/generated/control.bode_plot.html

Note that these functions are only the mostly used functions. There are many other
functions or methods that can be used in Python for this field. You can explore the
documentation yourself.

References
Nise, Norman S. Control Systems Engineering, 6th edition. U.S.A, John Wiley & Son.

Visioli, Antonio. Fadali, M. Sami. Digital Control Engineering Analysis and Design

Module 3 | Frequency Response 21