Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Mechanics
i
FLUID MECHANICS
FLUID MECHANICS
Authors
Dr. Shreenivas N. Londhe
Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune
Pune, Maharashtra (India)
Reviewer
Prof. Tanmay Basak
Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
Madras, Chennai (India)
ii
FLUID MECHANICS
Prof. Tanmay Basak, Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras,
Chennai 600036 (India)
Email ID: tanmay@iitm.ac.in
1. Dr. Ramesh Unnikrishnan, Advisor-II, Training and Learning Bureau, All India Council for Technical Education
(AICTE), New Delhi, India
Email ID: advtlb@aicte-india.org
Phone Number: 011-29581215
2. Dr. Sunil Luthra, Director, Training and Learning Bureau, All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE),
New Delhi, India
Email ID: directortlb@aicte-india.org
Phone Number: 011-29581210
3. Mr. Sanjoy Das, Assistant Director, Training and Learning Bureau, All India Council for Technical Education
(AICTE), New Delhi, India
Email ID: ad1tlb@aicte-india.org
Phone Number: 011-29581339
May, 2023
© All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
ISBN : 978-81-961834-9-3
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means,
without permission in writing from the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE).
Further information about All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) courses may be obtained from the
Council Office at Nelson Mandela Marg, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi-110070.
Printed and published by All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi.
Disclaimer: The website links provided by the author in this book are placed for informational, educational &
reference purpose only. The Publisher do not endorse these website links or the views of the speaker / content of
the said weblinks. In case of any dispute, all legal matters to be settled under Delhi Jurisdiction, only.
iii
FLUID MECHANICS
iv
FLUID MECHANICS
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to the authorities of AICTE, particularly Prof. T.G. Sitharam, Chairman;
Dr. Abhay Jere, Vice-Chairman; Prof. Rajiv Kumar, Member-Secretary, Dr. Ramesh
Unnikrishnan, Advisor-II and Dr. Sunil Luthra, Director, Training and Learning Bureau for their
planning to publish various books for the second-year civil engineering degree level students
according to new education policy (NEP 2020) and outcome-based education system. We sincerely
acknowledge the valuable guidance and important suggestions received from the reviewer of this
book; Dr. Tanmay Basak, Professor, IIT Madras, during the preparation of the manuscript of this
book.
Authors also wish to express sincere gratitude to their teacher Late Prof. R.J. Garde because of
whom they could pursue their studies further in this very interesting field of Hydraulics and Water
Resources Engineering. Authors are very much thankful to Prof. Kanchan Khare, Dept. of Civil
Engg., Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune for her encouragement, suggestions, and critical
comments.
Authors are grateful to Shri Bharat Agarwal; Managing Trustee of BRACT’S, Vishwakarma
Institute of Information Technology (VIIT), Pune, Maharashtra, India and Prof. Vivek Deshpande,
Director, VIIT, Pune; for their support.
Authors extend sincere regards to their colleague Dr. Preeti Kulkarni for her continuous support
during the manuscript preparation of this book as well as for her suggestions and critics.
Authors are also thankful to their family members for their timely help and their patience when the
work of this book was in progress.
Acknowledgements are due to the contributors and different workers in this field whose published
books, review articles, papers, photographs, footnotes, references, and other valuable information
enriched us at the time of writing the book.
Finally, authors are gratified to their each and every student because, while teaching them, they
received “experience of teaching” and have enriched their knowledge of fluid mechanics time to
time.
v
FLUID MECHANICS
Preface
It gives us immense pleasure to present our book on Fluid Mechanics as per AICTE curriculum of
second year civil engineering degree course followed by concept of outcome based education as
per National Education Policy (NEP)2020.
This book is a specially prepared student centric book in which different domains of fluid
Mechanics are introduced in simple manner. This book includes fundamnetals of fluid mechanincs
in total of six units as properties of fluids, fluid statics, buoyancy and flotation, fluid kinematics,
fluid dynamics and dimensional analysis. Efforts have been made to explain the fundamental
concepts of the subject in the simplest possible way. Main purpose of this book is to help under
graduate civil engineering students to understand and apply the basics of fluid mechanics to
applications in engineering problems. The content of this book is aligned with the model curriculum
of AICTE by mapping of Course Outcome, Programs Outcomes and Unit Outcomes. At the start
of each unit, rationale, pre-requisite of that unit are mentioned along with unit (learning) outcomes
to make the students aware about the expected outcome from the same unit . In addition to the
essential information, experiments related to the units are provided along with the objecties ,
procedres and necessary calcualtion basics. Every unit is well supported by a set of objective
questions, theory questions and numerical problems in addition to the solved numerical examples.
The subject matters are presented in a constructive manner so that an engineering degree prepares
students to work in different sectors or in national laboratories at the very forefront of technology.
We sincerely hope that the book will inspire the students to learn and discuss the ideas behind basic
principles of Fluid Mechanics and will surely contribute to the development of a solid foundation
of the subject. We would be thankful to all beneficial comments and suggestions which will
contribute to the improvement of the future editions of the book. It gives us utmost satisfaction to
place this book in the hands of the teachers and students. The authors extend best wishes to students
for the preparation of the fluid Mechanics course.
vi
FLUID MECHANICS
PO2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3. Design / development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the
information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with
an understanding of the limitations.
PO6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the
professional engineering practice.
PO7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for
sustainable development.
PO8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
vii
FLUID MECHANICS
PO9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader
in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader
in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
viii
FLUID MECHANICS
Course Outcomes
ix
FLUID MECHANICS
To implement Outcome Based Education (OBE) knowledge level and skill set of the students
should be enhanced. Teachers should take a major responsibility for the proper implementation of
OBE. Some of the responsibilities (not limited to) for the teachers in OBE system may be as
follows:
Within reasonable constraint, they should manoeuvre time to the best advantage of all
students.
They should assess the students only upon certain defined criterion without considering
any other potential ineligibility to discriminate them.
They should try to grow the learning abilities of the students to a certain level before they
leave the institute.
They should try to ensure that all the students are equipped with the quality knowledge as
well as competence after they finish their education.
They should always encourage the students to develop their ultimate performance
capabilities.
They should facilitate and encourage group work and team work to consolidate newer
approach.
They should follow Blooms taxonomy in every part of the assessment.
Bloom’s Taxonomy
x
FLUID MECHANICS
Students should take equal responsibility for implementing the OBE. Some of the
responsibilities (not limited to) for the students in OBE system are as follows:
Students should be well aware of each Unit Outcome (UO) before the start of a unit
in each and every course.
Students should be well aware of each Course Outcome (CO) before the start of the
course.
Students should be well aware of each Programme Outcome (PO) before the start
of the programme.
Students should think critically and reasonably with proper reflection and action.
Learning of the students should be connected and integrated with practical and real-
life consequences.
Students should be well aware of their competency at every level of OBE.
xi
FLUID MECHANICS
List of Abbreviations
General Terms
Abbreviations Full form
SI System International
MKS Meter kilogram second
CGS Centimeter gram second
List of Symbols
Symbol Description
A, a Area
a acceleration
b width
B centre of buoyancy
c Celerity of pressure wave (acoustic velocity)
C.P centre of pressure
Cc coefficient of contraction
CD coefficient of drag
CG, G centre of gravity
CL coefficient of lift
CV coefficient of velocity
D (d) Diameter
dp Change in pressure
dv Change in volume
E specific energy
Eu Euler number
f friction factor (Darcy) for pipe flow
F force, thrust
xii
FLUID MECHANICS
Fe elastic force
Fg buoyant force
Fi Inertia force
Fp Pressure force
Fr Froude number
Fs Viscus force
Fs surface tension force
g gravitational acceleration
g Acceleration due to gravity
h head, height or depth, pressure head
H total head (energy)
hf frictional head losses
hp horsepower = 0.746 kW
I moment of inertia
IXY product of inertia
J joule
J joule
K bulk modulus of elasticity,
K.E. kinetic energy
l mixing length
L length
Le equivalent length
M Mass, metacentre
MG metacentric height
N Speed, Newton
Ny Mach number
P pressure, Power
Pa pascal
PE potential energy
PE pressure energy
q unit flow, unit discharge
Q Discharge, rate of flow
xiii
FLUID MECHANICS
Re Reynold's number
rpm rotational speed
S Specific gravity, relative density
T Time, torque
V velocity, volume
Vs Specific volume
W weight , watt
We Weber number
α (alpha) angle, kinetic energy correction factor
β (beta) angle, momentum correction factor
γ (gamma) specific (or unit) weight
shear stress
δ (delta) boundary layer thickness
ε (epsilon) surface roughness
η (eta) eddy viscosity
θ Momentum thickness
θ (theta) any angle
μ (mue) absolute viscosity
ν (nu) kinematic viscosity
π (pi) dimensionless parameter
ρ (rho) mass density
σ (sigma) surface tension, intensity of tensile stress
τ (tau) shear stress
φ (phi) speed factor, velocity potential, ratio
ψ (psi) stream function
ω (omega) angular velocity
angular deformation
Displacement thickness
xiv
FLUID MECHANICS
List of Figures
UNIT 1
Fig. 1.1 Viscosity of fluid 8
Fig. 1.2 Classification of fluids 11
Fig. 1.3 Intermolecular forces near liquid surface 14
Fig. 1.4 Forces on droplet of water 15
Fig. 1.5 Forces on bubble 16
Fig. 1.6 Forces on jet liquid 17
Fig. 1.7 Capillarity rise and depression 18
UNIT 2
Fig. 2.1 Free body diagram of fluid element at rest 54
Fig. 2.2 Forces on static fluid element 55
Fig. 2.3 Pressure at a point 57
Fig. 2.4 Pressure independent of size and shape 58
Fig. 2.5 Equivalent liquid columns 59
Fig. 2.6 Absolute and gauge pressure 61
Fig. 2.7 Piezometer 62
Fig.2.8 Simple ‘U’ tube manometers with same liquid in pipe and manometer 63
Fig. 2.9 Simple U tube manometer with manometric fluid different than that of pipe 64
Fig. 2.10 Differential manometer 65
Fig. 2.11 inverted U-tube manometer 66
Fig. 2.12 shows an inclined tube manometer 67
Fig. 2.13 Single tube manometer 67
Fig. 2.14 Micromanometer 69
xv
FLUID MECHANICS
UNIT 3
Fig. 3.1 Archimedes principle 116
Fig. 3.2 (a) Principle of floatation 117
Fig. 3.3 Types of equilibrium 119
Fig. 3.4 Metacentric height 120
Fig. 3.5 Stable equilibrium (M above G) 121
Fig. 3.6 Unstable equilibrium (M below G) 122
Fig. 3.7 Analytical determination of metacentric height 122
Fig. 3.8 Elementary prism 123
Fig. 3.9 The stable and unstable equilibrium due to relative positions of M and G 124
UNIT 4
Fig.4.1 (a) Irrotational Flow 157
Fig.4.1 (b) Rotational Flow 157
Fig.4.2 (a) 1-D Flow 157
Fig.4.2 (b) 2-D Flow 157
Fig.4.2 (c) 3-D Flow 157
Fig.4.3 Stream line flow 158
xvi
FLUID MECHANICS
Fig.4.4 Streamline & pathline for unsteady non uniform flow 159
Fig. 4.5 Stream tube 159
Fig.4.6 Continuity Equation -Elementary parallelepiped 160
Fig.4.7 Flow through a stream tube 163
Fig.4.8 (a) and (b) Rotational and irrotational motion 166
Fig.4.9 (a and b) Rotational motion 167
Fig. 4.10 Flow net within a closed conduct 173
Fig.4.11 A simple arrangement for an electrical analogy study 175
UNIT 5
Fig. 5.1 (a and b) 206
Fig. 5.2 Total energy heads 209
Fig. 5.3 Head variation in a tube 213
Fig. 5.4 Momentum equation for two-dimensional flow 215
Fig. 5.5 Momentum correction factor (𝛽) 216
Fig. 5.6 Typical Venturimeter 219
Fig. 5.7 Pressure variation along venturimeter 220
Fig. 5.8 Inclined Venturimeter 223
Fig. 5.9 Orificemeter 224
Fig. 5.10 Measurement of static and stagnation pressure 228
Fig. 5.11 Pitot tube 229
Fig. 5.12 Pitot static tube 230
xvii
FLUID MECHANICS
List of Tables
xviii
FLUID MECHANICS
Table of Contents
Foreword iv
Acknowledgement v
Preface vi
Outcome Based Education vii
Course Outcomes ix
Guidelines for Teachers x
Guidelines for Students xi
Abbreviations and Symbols xii
List of Figures xv
List of Tables xviii
xix
FLUID MECHANICS
xx
FLUID MECHANICS
152-200
UNIT 4 Fluid Kinematics
xxi
FLUID MECHANICS
xxiii
FLUID MECHANICS
P
d 1 P PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
UNIT SPECIFICS
Through this unit we have discussed the following aspects:
Introduction of fluid mechanics, Liquids and Gases, Units of measurement
Properties of fluids, Mass, Mass Density, Specific Weight, Specific Volume, Specific
Gravity
Viscosity, Kinematic and dynamic viscosity, Classification of fluids
Compressibility & Bulk modulus of elasticity
Cohesion and Adhesion, Surface Tension, Capillarity
Vapor pressure (Boiling point, Cavitation)
This is followed by large number of solved examples. The students are encouraged to solve the
objective questions, long answer questions and numerical problems to judge ones
understanding. The practical on measurement of viscosity is included followed by a list of
references for additional reading.
RATIONALE
This unit introduces basic properties of fluids which are necessarily to be understood before
learning the mechanics of fluids. To understand what happens to the fluid under the action
of forces either at rest or in motion one must first understand the internal structure of the
fluid, its classification, response to forces and behaviour with changes in physical
parameters like temperature and pressure.
1
FLUID MECHANICS
PRE-REQUISITES
Mathematics: Derivatives (Class XII)
Physics: Mechanics (Class XII)
UNIT OUTCOMES
List of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
(At the end of this unit, students will understand.)
U1-O1: Difference between liquids and gases as fluids
U1-O2: Units of measurement
U1-O3: Properties of fluids
U1-O4: Classification of fluids
1.1 Introduction:
Matter in the universe exists in three states, the solids, liquids and gases. This classification
is based on spacing of different molecules of the matter and the response of the matter
to the stress. The solids exhibit rigidity of form owing to the closeness of molecules
in them. Their form/shape remains same in normal temperature and pressure
situations. On the other hand, the liquids and gases show a very less rigidity of form
i.e., they take the shape of the container. This is due to the larger distance between
their molecules. The gases have more freedom of movement due to greater distance
between their molecules than the distance between molecules of liquids. When
subjected to a shearing force solid tend to deform which is resisted by the internal
resistance (shear stress). If the force is removed solids regain their original shape
2
FLUID MECHANICS
and size owing to their resilience. If the force exceeds certain limit the solids deform
permanently. On the other hand, the liquids and gases deform continuously under the
action of shear, however small it may be and start flowing. Owing to this behaviour
of ‘flowing’, the liquids and gases are termed as fluids. Thus, fluid can be defined as
a substance which deforms continuously when subjected to a tangential or shear
stress (force), however small the stress (force) may be.
Mechanics is a branch of science which deals with study of action of forces on bodies in a
state of rest or in motion. When rules of mechanics are applied to fluids, it is termed
as 'Fluid Mechanics'. When fluid is at rest it is called ‘fluid statics’ while when the
fluid is in motion it is termed as ‘fluid dynamics. The fluid dynamics can be studied
either by applying the forces responsible for the motion (fluid dynamics) or without
applying these forces (fluid kinematics) on the similar lines of solid mechanics. To
understand fluid mechanics, it is first necessary to study the properties of fluids and
their interrelationships which are discussed in the present unit.
Fluid Mechanics has a wide range of applications in almost all hardcore engineering
branches like Civil, Mechanical, Chemical and Electrical Engineering. The
applications include design of water supply schemes, design of hydraulic structures,
design of hydraulic machines, design of chemical industries, power generation,
design of lubricating systems, design of aeroplanes, submarines, design of ships, the
list is unending.
3
FLUID MECHANICS
2 Occupy the definite volume in the Occupy the entire volume of the
container container
3 Incompressible compared to gases Highly compressible
4 Exhibit free surface as molecules Do not have a free surface as
are kept together due to relatively molecules travel away from each
5 higher attractive
Liquids forces.
can easily other due
change their Gases do tonot
lessconvert
attractive forces.
from gas to
phase from liquid to gas state liquid state easily (except water
vapour)
The standards used for measurement of physical quantities like length, mass, volume,
acceleration etc. are called as units. In fluid mechanics units of measurement are
based on Newton's second law viz.
F = ma
4
FLUID MECHANICS
1.4.1 Mass:
The quantity of matter present in the system is expressed by mass. Mass is an indication of
the amount of effort required to start or stop the motion, as effort required is directly
proportional to mass.
5
FLUID MECHANICS
Unit of measurement: kg
1.4.2 Mass Density:
It is a measure of compactness of the matter present in a fluid. The mass density is
expressed as mass per unit volume of the fluid denoted by symbol ‘ρ’ (Rho). Thus,
more mass density means more matter present per unit volume.
Mass
ρ=
Volume
The mass density depends upon the temperature and pressure as volume is a function of
Equation should be centrally placed, it is right justified at present temperature and
function. The standard value of mass density of water at 200 C and 1 atmospheric
pressure is 998 kg/m3 and that of air is 1.205 kg/m3.
i.e.
W m x g
γ= = = ρ.g
V V
m x g kg . m/s2 N
= =
V m3 m3
Specific weight of water at 200 C is 9810 N/m3 and that of air is 11.81 N/m3. The specific
weight is the product of mass density and gravitational acceleration (γ = ρ.g)
6
FLUID MECHANICS
1.4.6 Viscosity:
Consider a case, when water is dropped on floor and oil is dropped on floor. It can be
observed that water flows easily and quickly than oil. This is due to the influence of
a property called viscosity. It can be easily understood from the above example that
the resistance to flow in oil is greater than that of water. Viscosity is the measure of
this resistance to flow.
7
FLUID MECHANICS
Viscosity is the property of fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to movement of one
layer of the fluid over the other.
Consider two parallel plates separated by a distance Y apart. The space between the plates
is filled with fluid. The upper plate is moving with velocity 'U' due to application of
force F. (Refer Fig. 1.l). The lower plate is stationary.
Consider fluid layers at a distance ‘y’ and ‘y + dy’ from the stationary plate. The velocity
of the flow at these levels is ‘u’ and ‘u + du’ respectively setting up a velocity gradient
du
of . This happens due to the shear resistance offered by both the plates to the
dy
8
FLUID MECHANICS
relative motion between them. According Newton’s law of viscosity the shear stress
between two straight parallel lines of non-turbulent flow is proportional to the rate of
change of velocity with respect to y (velocity gradient).
du
τ α (1.1)
dy
du
∴ τ = μ (1.2)
dy
du
Where τ is the shear stress, dy is the velocity gradient and μ (mue), the constant of
τ
μ = du⁄dy
(1.5)
du
where can be also considered as angular deformation.
dy
The coefficient of dynamic viscosity can therefore be defined as the shear stress required
to produce a unit angular deformation.
Unit of viscosity μ is N-s /m2 or Pa-s or kg/ms.
In C.G.S, system unit of viscosity is poise i.e. dyne-s / cm2
1 poise = 0.1 Ns/m2
1
1 centipoise = poise = 0.01 poise
100
The ratio of dynamic viscosity ‘μ’ to mass density 'p' is termed as coefficient of kinematic
viscosity ‘ν’ (nue).
9
FLUID MECHANICS
μ
ν= (1.6)
ρ
Unit of measurement: m2 /s
In C.G.S. system stokes i.e. cm2/s is used to measure kinematic viscosity
1 stokes = 10-4 m2 /s
1
1 centistoke = stokes
100
The dynamic viscosity depends on the temperature on account of the density which in turn
depends upon the temperature. However, the kinematics viscosity is independent of
the temperature as it does not involve the density as seen in equation 1.6. When fluids
are at rest there is no relative movement between lateral layers, as a result there is no
shear stress. Therefore, viscosity is not important in study of fluids at rest.
The fluids which possess viscosity are called real fluids. For example, milk, blood, oil,
water etc. The fluids which do not possess viscosity are Ideal fluids. As the name
indicates these fluids are Ideal and therefore such fluids do not exist in reality. Only
if viscosity is very less then effect of viscosity can be neglected and the flow can be
considered as inviscid flow. The property is viscosity can be further used to classify
the fluids.
Newtonian fluids:
These are the fluids which obey Newton's law of viscosity which means the constant of
proportionality μ (coefficient of dynamic viscosity) remains constant. Relationship
between shear stress and angular deformation is a straight line.
Example: air, water, kerosene, glycerine etc.
Non-Newtonian fluids:
10
FLUID MECHANICS
These fluids do not obey Newton's law of viscosity. Non-Newtonian fluids are further
classified depending upon the yield stress.
Those non-Newtonian fluid which does not possess a yield stress are governed by the
following non-linear relationship between the shear stress and angular deformation.
du n
τ = μ ( ) (1.7)
dy
If n < 1, the fluids are called 'pseudoplastics'. Liquids such as milk, blood, paper pulp
behave as pseudoplastics.
If n > 1, the fluids are called 'Dilatants'. At low shear stress they behave as fluids but at
high values of shear they behave as solids. Concentrated sugar solution, butter are
examples of dilatants.
Some non-Newtonian fluids possess a definite yield stress beyond which the shear stress
varies linearly with angular deformation i.e.
du
τ = constant + μ ( ) (1.8)
dy
11
FLUID MECHANICS
These fluids are called as ideal plastics or Bingham plastics. Sewage sludge, tooth
paste, oil paints, drilling mud are examples of ideal plastics.
Those fluids which possess a definite yield stress while relationship between shear
stress and angular deformation is nonlinear are called as Thixotropic fluids.
𝑑𝑢 𝑛
τ = constant + μ ( ) (1.9)
𝑑𝑦
1.4.7 Compressibility:
It is the measure of elasticity in fluids. Fluids are compressed under pressure due to
change in their mass density i.e. more mass can be accommodated in the unit
volume. When the pressure is removed the fluid regains its original volume.
The change in the pressure is directly proportional to the ratio of change in
volume per original volume and there is decrease in volume with increase in
pressure which is why change in volume is negative (-dV).
𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑝 𝛼 −
𝑉
𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑝 = 𝐾 ( − )
𝑉
𝑑𝑝
∴ 𝐾 = − (𝑑𝑉⁄ (1.10)
𝑉)
13
FLUID MECHANICS
The molecule 'x' will be stable as it will be attracted equally by cohesive forces of
neighbouring water molecules from all the directions. However, 'y' will
always experience resultant unbalanced downward force (F) acting
perpendicular to the surface as it will not experience the cohesive force of
water molecules from top due to interface of water and air.
As a result, the surface will be pulled down showing a curvature. This in turn develops
a tension (F) in the surface (as shown in figure. This property of liquid to exert
tension is called as surface tension.
Surface tension is a result of pressure difference created at the interface of two fluids,
due to cohesive forces of different magnitude acting on the molecules near
the free surface. The surface tension coefficient (σ), therefore is defined as
the force per unit length required to hold that surface together at that line.
𝐹
Coefficient of surface tension 𝜎 = 𝐿 (1.11)
∴ unit = N/m
14
FLUID MECHANICS
𝜋
Force due to excess pressure = p x x d2
4
𝜋
For equilibrium, σxπxd=px x d2
4
4𝜎
∴ p= (1.12)
d
Thus, pressure intensity inside a droplet varies inversely with the diameter.
15
FLUID MECHANICS
Unlike droplet, soap bubble has two surfaces in contact with air, one inside and one outside
because of the small thickness. Fig.1.5 shows the free body diagram of half of soap
bubble. Thickness of soap bubble is δd.
𝜋
Force due to excess pressure = 𝑝 . (𝑑 − 𝛿. 𝑑)2
4
𝜋 2
=𝑝 . 𝑑 (neglecting δd term as it is very small)
4
16
FLUID MECHANICS
17
FLUID MECHANICS
In such a situation the angle made by surface tension with the vertical, θ (theta) is less than
900.If cohesive forces predominate (mercury) the liquid level inside the tube
(meniscus)will become convex upwards. In this situation, the angle ‘θ’ is greater than
900. (Figure:1.7 (b)).
Let 'h' be the capillary rise or fall in a tube of diameter 'd'. Under equilibrium the weight of
liquid column will be balanced by vertical component of surface tension force ‘σ cos
θ’.
𝜋
weight of liquid column = Volume x specific weight =[ d2 h] 𝛾
4
where ‘𝛾’ is specific weight of liquid.
Surface tension force = (π .d ).σ cos θ
𝜋
[ d2 h] 𝛾 = (π .d ) σ cos θ
4
4 𝜎 cos 𝜃
∴ h = (1.15)
𝛾d
For pure water in contact with clean glass and air, θ = 0
4𝜎 𝜎
∴ h = =
𝛾𝑤 d 𝛾𝑤 r
For Mercury and glass, θ = 1400
18
FLUID MECHANICS
In the above derivation it is assumed that meniscus or curved liquid surface is section of a
sphere with radius less than 2.5 mm with liquid and tube surfaces extremely clean.
Therefore actual 'h' is generally less than calculated value.
For glass tubes having diameter more than 6 mm, effect of capillarity is negligible due to
gravity forces become more appreciable and meniscus becoming less spherical in
shape. Therefore, for pressure measurement the glass tubes are of diameter more than
6 mm.
19
FLUID MECHANICS
carried away by the flowing liquid in the high-pressure region where they collapse
giving rise to high impact pressure.
This phenomenon is known as cavitation which is disastrous due to its destructive nature
as material from adjoining structures is eroded. Therefore, every attempt is made in
design of hydraulic structures to maintain total pressure over the liquids well above
the vapour pressure.
Ex.1.1 Eight litres of liquid of specific gravity 0.8 is mixed with ten litre liquid of
specific gravity 1.3. If the bulk of the combined liquid shrinks by one percent on
mixing, determine the specific gravity, the volume and the weight of the mixture.
Solution:
20
FLUID MECHANICS
190.314
Specific weight of mixture = = 10679.8 N / m3
0.01782
10679.8
Specific gravity of mixture = = 1.088
9810
Ex.1.2 Shear stress at a point is 0.6 Pa where velocity gradient is 1.5/s. If kinematic
viscosity of the flowing liquid is 4.65 stokes determine relative density of the
liquid
Solution:
du
τ = μ ∴ 0.6 = μ x 1.5 , ∴ μ = 0.4 Pa. s
dy
μ
ν= , ∴ ρ = 0.4 / (4.65 x 10-4) = 860.22 kg/ m3
ρ
ρ 860.22
∴ Relative density = = = 0.86
ρwater 1000
Ex.1.3 A Newtonian fluid of kinematic viscosity 2.528 stokes flows over a flat horizontal
plate of surface area 0.8 m2. Velocity at y meters from plate is given as,
u = 2y —2y3 m/s.
If shear force acting on the plate is 0.352 N, find specific weight and specific
gravity of liquid.
21
FLUID MECHANICS
Solution:
du
As, u = 2y —2y3, Velocity gradient = = 2 − 6y 2
dy
du
∴ At the start of plate ( y = 0), = 2
dy
F du du
Also, τ = , F = τ .A = μ . A = ν. ρ. .A
A dy dy
∴ ρ = 870.253 kg/ m3
8531.18
Specific Gravity = S = = 0.87
9810
Solution:
Plot the graph of Viscosity versus Temperature as below.
22
FLUID MECHANICS
From the above graph, the required values of viscosity can be achieved,
∴ μ at 1100 C = 0.0023
Force required to move the piston at 400C = F1
du du
∴ F1 = μ . A = 0.0053 . .A
dy dy
Force required to move the piston at 1000C = F2
du du
∴ F2 = μ . A = 0.0023 . .A
dy dy
du
As , ( . A) remains same in both the above forces, percentage change
dy
F1 − F2 0.0053 − 0.0023
(decrease) in the force = x 100 = x 100 = 56.6%
F1 0.0053
Ex.1.5 There are two parallel plates 0.6 mm apart with the gap is filled by an oil of
viscosity 1.5 Ns-m2. The upper plate is moving with 3 m/s to the right while the
23
FLUID MECHANICS
lower plate is moving with 3 m/s to the left. Determine the shear stress on both
the plates if the velocity varies linearly from one plate to another.
Ex.1.6 A square metal plate of 1.5 m side and 1.5 mm thick weighs 50 N. It is to be lifted
through a vertical gap of 25 mm of infinite extent. The oil in the gap has a specific
gravity of 0.95 and viscosity of 2.5 pascal. If the metal plate is to be lifted at a
constant speed of 0.1 m/s, determine the force and power required.
Solution:
24
FLUID MECHANICS
du
FL = τ . A = μ . A = 2.5 x 0.1 / ((12.5-0.75) x 10-3) x 1.5 x 1.5 =
dy
47.87 N
By symmetry shear force on right hand side of the plate will be same as left hand
side. ∴ FR = 47.87 N
25
FLUID MECHANICS
Ex.1.7 A space of 2.5 cm width, between two large plane surfaces is filled with
glycerine. Determine the force required to drag a very thin plate of surface area
0.75 m2 between the surfaces at a speed of 0.5 m/s.
(i) If the plate remains equidistant from the two surfaces.
(ii) If it is at a distance of 1 cm from one of the surfaces.
Take dynamic viscosity = 0.705 Ns/ m2.
Solution:
(i) If the plate remains equidistant from the two surfaces.
26
FLUID MECHANICS
Ex.1.8 Through a narrow gap of large extent, a thin plate is pulled with constant speed.
Liquids of velocities μ and 1.25 μ are filled in the gap below and above
respectively. Assume the gap and plate are horizontal. Find distance of plate from
lower surface of gap such that shear force either side of plate is the same, in terms
of h.
Solution:
Let ‘y’ be the distance of the plate from lower surface and the plate moves with
constant speed u
27
FLUID MECHANICS
Ex.1.9 Through a very narrow gap of thickness 'h' a thin flat plate of very large extent is
being pulled at a constant velocity V. On one side of the plate lies oil of viscosity
μ and on the other side is oil of viscosity kμ. Calculate the position of the plate
so that the drag force on it is minimum.
28
FLUID MECHANICS
V
Shear stress on top of the plate = τ2 = μ x
h−y
k 1
Total Drag force acting F on the plate = A (τ1 + τ2 )= V A μ ( + )
y h−y
dF
For minimum drag, = 0
dy
k 1
∴ − + = 0
y2 (h − y)2
y2 y
∴ = k, ∴ = √k,
(h − y)2 h−y
29
FLUID MECHANICS
moving plate is 0.5 mm and filled with a fluid of specific gravity 0.8. Determine
the dynamic and kinematic viscosity of the fluid in poise and stokes respectively.
Solution:
F 4
Shear stress = τ = = = 2 N/m2
A 2
du du
Also, τ = μ , ∴ 2 = μ = μ ((0.25-0) x 10-2) / (0.5 x 10-3)
dy dy
∴ μ = 0.4 Ns /m2
1 poise = 0.1 Ns /m2 , ∴ μ = 4 poise
𝜇
(2) For kinematic Viscosity , ν =
𝜌
ρliquid
Specific gravity = Relative density =
ρwater
∴ ρliquid = 0.8 x 1000 = 800
0.4
∴ ν = = 5 x10−4 m2 /s
800
1 stokes = 1 x 10-4 m2/s, ν = 5 stokes
Ex.1.11 A glass plate of 30 cm2 rest on another plate with a film of oil 0.05 cm between
them. A weight of half a kilogram is kept on the top plate. If the top plate starts
sliding with a velocity of 1.5 cm/sec when both the plates are tilted at an angle
20° with the horizontal what is the viscosity of the liquid?
Solution:
30
FLUID MECHANICS
The viscous shear force will be balanced by component of weight responsible for
motion.
x.1.12 A large plate moves with speed of VO over a stationary plate on oil. If the velocity
profile is that of a parabola, with the oil at the plates having the same velocity as
that of the plates, determine the shear stress on the moving plate from the oil. If
a linear profile is assumed, what will be the shear stress on the upper plate?
Solution:
31
FLUID MECHANICS
Consider the parabolic velocity profile has vertex at the moving plate.
Then the velocity profile can be given by,
u = ay2 + by + c, ------------------------(1)
where a, b, and c are constants.
(a) at y = 0, u= 0
(b) at y = y, u = V0 m/s
du
(c) at y = y, = 0
dy
du
∴ shear stress = τ = μ = μ (2ay + b)
dy
if the variation is linear,
i. e u = ay + b − − − − − − − − − (4)
(d) at y = 0, u= 0
(e) at y = y, u = V0 m/s
substituting in equation (4),
32
FLUID MECHANICS
b=0 and u = ay
du
V0 = ay and thus, = a
dy
∴ shear stress = τ = μa
Ex.1.13 A shaft 6.0 cm in diameter is being pushed axially through a bearing sleeve of
diameter 6.02 cm and 40 cm long. The clearance, assumed uniform is filled with
oil whose properties are kinematic viscosityν = 0.003 m2 / s and specific gravity
(g) = 0.88. Estimate the force required to pull the shaft at steady velocity of 0.4
m/s.
Solution:
du
Shear Stress = τ = μ
dy
μ = ν x ρ = 0.003 x 0.88 x 1000 = 2.64 Ns/ m2
𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑔 𝑥 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
0.4
τ = 2.64 x = 10560 N / m2
0.01 x 10−2
33
FLUID MECHANICS
Ex.1.14 Lateral stability of a long shaft 150 mm in diameter is obtained by means of 250
mm stationary bearing having an internal diameter of 150.25 mm. If the space
between the bearing and shaft is filled with lubricant having viscosity 0.245 N-s
/ m2, what power will be required to overcome the viscous resistance when the
shaft is rotated at 180 rpm.
Solution:
πDN
Tangential velocity of shaft = V = 60
π x 0.150 x 180
∴ V = = 1.41 m/s
60
As, du = V-0 = 1.41 m/s and
150.25−150
dy = change in distance in vertical plane = = 0.125 mm
2
34
FLUID MECHANICS
1.41
∴ τ = 0.245 x = 2763.6 N/ m2
0.125 x 10−3
Shear force acting on the shaft
F = 2763.6 x π x D x L = 2763.6 x π x 0.15 x 0.25 = 325.58 N
D 0.15
Torque = T = F x = 325.58 x = 24.42 N
2 2
2πN T 2π x 180 x 24.42
Power lost = = = 460.27 watt.
60 60
Solution:
35
FLUID MECHANICS
du u
shear stress = τ = μ = 0.2 x 0.1 x
dy y
πDN π x 0.03 x 1200
u = = =1.885 m/s
60 60
1.885
τ = 0.2 x 0.1 x = 753.98 N/m2
0.05 x 10−3
shear force acting on shaft
F = τ x A = 753.98 x π x d x L = 753.98 x 3.14 x 3 x 10−2x6 x 10−2
F = 4.26 N
Torque = T = F x r = 4.26 x 15 x 10-3 = 0.064 Nm
But T = I x α (α is the retardation)
And I = m k2 = 50 x (0.2)2 = 2 kg-m2
∴ 0.064 = 2 x α (assume α is in radian / sec2)
∴ α = 0.032 rad/ sec2
Ex.1.16 At a depth of 9 km in the ocean the pressure is 9.5 x 104 kN/m2. The specific
weight of the ocean water at the surface is 10.2 kN/m3 and its average bulk
modulus is 2.4 x 106 kN/m2. Determine (1) The change in specific volumeand
(2) The specific volume at 9 km depth and (3) The specific weight at 9 km depth
Solution:
1 1
Specific volume at surface = Vs = γ = 3 = 9.804 x10-5 m3/ N
10.2 x 10
dp
K =− dV
(V)
36
FLUID MECHANICS
1
Specific weight at 9 km depth = = 10620.302 N/m3
9.416x 10−5
Solution:
Ex.1.18 If bulk modulus of water is 2.2 x 109 Pa, what pressure is required to reduce the
volume of water by 6%.
Solution:
37
FLUID MECHANICS
dp dV 6
K =− dV , ( ) =
( ) V 100
V
dp
∴ 2.2 x 109 = 6
, ∴ dp = 132 x 106 Pa = 132 MPa
(100)
Ex.1.20 Determine the pressure inside soap bubble of 25 mm diameter if the tension in
the film is 0.5 N/m.
Solution:
8σ 8 x 0.5
p = = = 160 N/m2
d 25 x 10−3
Ex.1.21 Calculate the capillarity rise or fall in a glass tube of 4 mm diameter when
immersed in (a) water and(b) mercury.
The temperature of the liquid is 2000C and the surface tension of water and
mercury at 200C in contact with air is 0.0075 kg/m and 0.05 kg/m respectively.
The contact angle for water and mercury may be taken as 00 and
1300respectively. Derive any equations used.
38
FLUID MECHANICS
Solution:
4σcosθ 4 x 0.0075 x 9.81 x cos 0
hwater = = = 7.5 x 10−3 m
γd 9810 x 4 x 10−3
∴ Capillary rise of water = 6.495 mm
4 x 0.05 x 9.81 x cos 130
hmercury = = − 2.36 x 10−3 m
13.6 x 9810 x 4 x 10−3
∴ Capillary rise of mercury = 2.36 mm
Ex.1.22 The diameters of two glass limbs of a differential U tube manometer were found
to be 5 mm and 8 mm respectively. In an experiment the differential pressure
readings of 50, 100, 250, 400 and 500 mm were indicated by the manometer.
Determine the percentage error caused by the capillary effect. Surface tension of
water σ = 0.0736 N/m and angle of contact θ=0°
Solution: As,
4σcosθ 4σ
hwater = = − − − − − (θ = 0 for water)
γd γd
4 x 0.0736
hwater = = 6 x 10−3 m = 6 mm
9810 x 0.005
Therefore, new readings will be 44, 94, 244, 394 and 494 respectively.
∴ percentage error,
100 x 6
for 50 mm , = = 12 %
50
for 100 mm , = 6 %
for 250 mm , = 2.4 %
for 400 mm , = 1.5 %
for 500 mm , = 1.2 %
39
FLUID MECHANICS
Ex.1.23 A capillary tube of 0.5 mm bore stands vertically in a vessel containing a liquid
of specific gravity 0.8 and surface tension 30 dynes/cm. The angle of contact of
the liquid with the tube is zero. Find rise of liquid in the tube.
Solution: σ = 30 dyne / cm = 30 x 10−5 x 100 = 30 x 10−3 N/m
4σcosθ 4 x 30 x cos 0 x 10−3
Capillary rise = h = = 0.8 x 9810 x 0.5 x 10−3 = 0.03058 m =
γd
30.58 mm
UNIT SUMMARY
The unit gave information of properties of fluids which is essential to understand the future
topics in fluid mechanics. The difference between liquids and gases, classification of
fluids and units of measurements were also discussed. As discussed in the
“Introduction” the next unit is devoted to fluid statics.
1.6 Exercise
2. Mass of 6 m3 of water at 200 C and 1 atm., pressure is 6000 Kg and viscosity under
similar condition is 1 centipoise then kinematic viscosity of water is
a) 10-3 m2/s b) 10-4 m2/s c) 10-5 m2/s d) 10-6 m2/s
Ans: d
40
FLUID MECHANICS
5. The gauge pressure inside 2 mm diameter raindrop, taking surface tension of water
-air interface as 0.07 N/ m is
a) 0.14 N/m2 b) 140 N/m2 c) 70 N/m2 d) 280 N/m2
Ans: b
6. The gauge pressure inside a droplet of water of certain diameter is 70 N/m 2. The
gauge pressure inside a droplet of twice the diameter under similar conditions is
a) 35 N/m2 b) 140 N/m2 c) 17.5 N/m2 d) 280 N/m2
Ans: a
7. Toothpaste is
(a) Bingham Plastic
(b) Pseudo Plastic
(c) Newtonian Fluid
(d) Dilatants
Ans: a
8. The capillary rise in 1.5 mm tube immersed in liquid is 12mm. The capillary rise
in 2 mm diameter tube immersed in the same liquid will be
a) 9 mm b) 16 mm c) 20 mm d) 24 mm
Ans: a
41
FLUID MECHANICS
10. The mass density of water on earth (g = 9.81 m/ s2) is 1000 Kg/ m3. Its mass density
on the moon where the gravitational acceleration is 1/6th that of the earth , will be
a) 166.67 Kg / m3 b) 1000 Kg / m3 c) 6000 Kg / m3 d) none of these
Ans: b
11. The mass of an object is 10 kg. The gravitational acceleration at a location is 5 m/s2.
The specific weight is
(a) 2 N (b) 15 N (c) 5 N (d) 50 N
Ans: d
13. The dynamic viscosity is 1.2 × 10–4 Ns/m2. The density is 600 kg/m3. The kinematic
viscosity in m2/s is
(a) 72 × 10–3 (b) 20 × 10–8 (c) 7.2 × 103 (d) 70 × 106
Ans: b
14. The velocity gradient is 1000/s. The viscosity is 1.2 × 10–4 Ns/m2. The shear stress
is
(a) 1.2 × 10–1 N/m (b) 1.2 × 10–7 N/m2 (c) 1.2 × 102 N/m2 (d) 1.2 × 10–10 N/m2
Ans: a
15. If the specific weight of water is taken as 9.81 KN/m3 and the specific gravity of
mercury is 13.56, then the density of water will be
42
FLUID MECHANICS
(a)1000kg/m3 (b) 1080 kg/m3 (c) 981 kg/m3 (d) 9810 kg/m3
Ans: a
43
FLUID MECHANICS
8. Explain why viscosity of liquids decreases with rise in temperature while gases
increases with rise in temperature.
9. What is kinematic viscosity? Why is it so called? Give it's units and
dimensions,
10. State and explain Newton's law of viscosity.
11. What is cohesion and adhesion in fluids?
12. What is capillarity? What is it due to? Derive an expression for the capillary
rise
13. Derive an expression between pressure 'P' inside a free jet of liquid and surface
tension 'σ'.
14. Derive expression for pressure P' inside the soap bubble, droplet and surface
tension
15. 'σ'.
16. Distinguish between gases and liquids.
17. Distinguish between Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids.
18. Distinguish between Kinematic and dynamic viscosity.
19. Explain compressibility in fluid flow.
20. Discuss why water shows capillary rise and mercury shows capillary
depression
21. Explain the terms: Vapour pressure, Bulk Modulus
22. Explain the two applications of the following properties -one advantageous
and other disadvantageous: Vapour Pressure, surface tension, Capillarity
1.6.3 Problems:
1. Three liters of liquid 23.7 N. Calculate its mass density, specific wight, specific
gravity.
(Ans: 805 kg/m3, 7.9 KN/m3, 1.242 x 10-3 m3/Kg)
2. A plate 0.05mm distant apart from a fixed plate moves at 1.2m/s and requires
a shear stress of 2.2 N/m2 to maintain its viscosity. Find the viscosity of the
fluid between the plates.
(Ans: 9.16 x 10-5 N-s/ m2)
44
FLUID MECHANICS
3. An oil of kinematic viscosity having 1.25 x10-4 m2/s and a specific gravity of
0.80. What is its dynamic viscosity in Kg/m-sec?
(Ans: 0.10 Kg/m-sec)
4. The space between two parallel pates kept 3 mm apart is filled with an oil of
dynamic viscosity 0.2 poise. Determine the shear tresses on the fixed plate, if
the upper one is moving with a velocity of 90 m/min.
(Ans: 10 N/m2)
5. What is the pressure within a 1 mm diameter spherical droplet of water relative
to it’s outside atmospheric pressure? Assume surface tension for pure water to
be 0.073 N/m.
(Ans: 292 N/m2)
8. In the Fig., if the fluid is glycerine at 20°C and the width between plates is 6
mm, what shear stress (in Pa) is required to move the upper plate at Velocity
of 5.5 m/s? Note that glycerine viscosity =1.5 N- s/m2.
(Ans: 1380 Pa)
10. A space 16 mm wide between two large plane surfaces is filled with SAE 30
Western lubricating oil at 35°C . What force F is required to drag a very thin
plate of 0.4 m2 area
45
FLUID MECHANICS
11. Between the surfaces at a speed v 0.25 m/s . (a) if the plate is equally spaced
between The two surfaces, and (b) if t 5 mm?
(Ans:7.25 N, 8.436 N)
46
FLUID MECHANICS
Objective:
Apparatus:
47
FLUID MECHANICS
water bath which can be electrically heated. The cylinder is filled with the liquid, the
viscosity of which is to be determined and time required to pass 50 cc of that liquid
at desired temperature is measured which in turn is used to calculate the viscosity.
Hagen-Poiseuille equation for a steady laminar through circular pipe can be written as
Q = (∆pπ D4)/128 μ L -------------------------(1)
Put, Q=Discharge = Volume /time = V / t
D=Diameter of tube
∆p= pressure drop in tube =ρgh
μ=dynamic viscosity
ρ= density of fluid
g = gravitational acceleration
h= head under which liquid flows through a tube
ν=kinematic viscosity
Hence equation (1) is modified as
μ/ρ= ν = [( π hgD4)/(128 LV)] ----------------------(2)
All quantities in equation (2) can be measured in redwood viscometer to determine
kinematic viscosity. In equation 2 though the head is varying during test, its variation
is over same range for each test, since constant volume of liquid is allowed to flow
for each test. Let ‘ t’ be the time in seconds required for flow of constant volume of
liquid then all terms on RHS of equation (2) may be considered as constant and
grouped to provide a constant to particular viscometer, then equation (2 ) can be
modified as
ν= c1t (3)
Equation (3) shows that kinematic viscosity varies directly with time. As the capillary rise
is quite short, steady laminar flow condition will usually not exist in the capillary
pipe provided in the viscometer. Thus, a correction factor will have to be incorporated
in equation (3) in order to compensate terms of Hagen-Poiseuille equation in the
analysis to obtain the correct value of ν of the liquid. The correction is (C2/t). Then,
equation (3) becomes,
48
FLUID MECHANICS
For I.S.I marked viscometers (values can be different for different equipment)
C1 = 0.0026
C2 = 1.175
Observations:
49
FLUID MECHANICS
Graph: Plot the graph between ‘Kinematic viscosity’ on Y axis and ‘temperature’ on X
axis and study the variation in Kinematic viscosity with respect to change in
temperature.
1. Hydraulics & Fluid Mechanics by Modi and Seth, Standard Book House
2. Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics—K. Subramanya- Tata McGraw
3. Fluid Mechanics by R.J. Garde, A.J Mirajgaonkar, SCITECH Publication
4. Fluid Mechanics by Streeter & Wylie, Tata McGraw Hill.
5. https://archive.nptel.ac.in/noc/courses/noc19/SEM2/noc19-ce28.
50
FLUID MECHANICS
2 FLUID STATICS
UNIT SPECIFICS
Through this unit we have discussed the following aspects:
Introduction of fluid statics, pressure at a point, variation of pressure in fluid statics.
Measurement of pressure, various pressure measuring devices.
Hydrostatic forces on surfaces
Total pressure on horizontal, vertical, inclined, curved surfaces.
This is followed by large number of solved examples. The students are encouraged to solve the
objective questions, long answer questions and numerical problems to judge ones
understanding. A demonstration kind of practical (study experiment) on pressure measuring
devices is included at the end followed by a list of references for additional reading.
RATIONALE
This unit introduces fluid statics considering basic concept of pressure, variation of pressure in
fluid statics. To understood measurement of pressure in fluid statics, one must know various
pressure measuring devices and the process of measurement of pressure using these devices
and hence introduction of these devices is included here in this unit. Knowing the concept of
pressure and its measurement, hydrostatic forces on surfaces, total pressure on horizontal
as well as vertical, inclined and curved surfaces can be determined.
PRE-REQUISITES
Mathematics: Derivatives (Class XII)
Physics: Mechanics (Class XII)
Properties of fluids
51
FLUID MECHANICS
UNIT OUTCOMES
List of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
(At the end of this unit, students will understand...)
U2-O1: Fluid statics, pressure at a point, variation of pressure in fluid statics.
U2-O2: Measurement of pressure, various pressure measuring devices
U2-O3: Hydrostatic forces on surfaces
U2-O4: Total pressure on horizontal, vertical, inclined, curved surfaces.
2.1 Introduction:
Fluid static deals with study of action of forces on fluids at rest. When fluids are at rest,
there is no relative motion between adjacent layers of fluid and thus no shear stress.
The only forces which act on fluid at rest are the external pressure forces and the
self-weight.
This chapter describes in detail fluid pressure, its measurement and hydro-static forces
due to pressure acting on plain and curved surfaces
If an infinitesimally small area is considered inside a large fluid mass, the surrounding
fluid exerts a force on that area. This force will always be normal to that area if the
fluid is in static condition. The limiting ratio of this force with area is termed as
‘Intensity of pressure’ i.e.
52
FLUID MECHANICS
𝑑𝐹
P = lim (2.1)
𝑑𝐴→0 𝑑𝐴
However, the pressure is assumed to act uniformly all over the area. (This is similar to
the concept of uniform normal stress distribution on solids)
𝐹
∴ P= (2.2)
𝐴
Where F is total force acting on Area A. It can also be seen that pressure is inversely
proportional to the area. It means more pressure will act on less area keeping the force
constant
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
In case of stationary fluid in equilibrium, the pressure at a point acts equally in all the
directions. This is Pascal’s law of pressure.
Let Px, Py be the intensities of pressure along X and Y directions and Ps be the intensity
normal to the slopping side. The free body diagram is shown in Fig, 2.1. As the
element is in equilibrium, sum of forces in all directions must be zero.
53
FLUID MECHANICS
∴ ∑ Fx = 0
∴ Px 𝜕y 𝜕z – Ps cos α 𝛿s 𝛿z = 0
But 𝛿s cos α = 𝛿y
∴ Px 𝛿y 𝛿z = 0
∴ Px = Ps (2.3)
Similarly, ∑ Fy = 0
1
∴ Py 𝛿x 𝛿z – Ps sin α 𝛿s 𝛿z – γ 𝛿x 𝛿y 𝛿z = 0
2
1
where 𝛾 𝛿x 𝛿y 𝛿z is the weight of fluid element which will be neglected being of higher
2
order than the other 2 terms. Also, 𝛿s sin α = 𝛿x
∴ Py x 𝛿z = Ps 𝛿x 𝛿z = 0
∴ Py = Ps (2.4)
From Equations (2.3) and (2.4),
Px = P y = Ps
54
FLUID MECHANICS
This proves that intensity of pressure, at a point, is equal in all directions. This principle is
used to develop large forces by application of very small forces in equipment like
hydraulic ram, hydraulic lift, etc.
As mentioned earlier the only forces acting on fluid at rest are pressure force and gravity
force. The gravity force expressed as weight of the fluid is constant and acts through
the centre of gravity.
The pressure is same at a point in all directions as per Pascal’s law. The variation of
pressure with respect of height or depth of fluid mass can be found out using
principles of static equilibrium.
55
FLUID MECHANICS
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑋
∴ The force acting on left face = [𝑃 − (𝜕𝑋) . ] . 𝛿y 𝛿z and
2
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑋
the force acting on right face = [𝑝 + (𝜕𝑥 ) . ] 𝛿y 𝛿z
2
Similarly forces acting on remaining 4 faces are calculated and shown in Fig. 2.2. Using
equations of static equilibrium.
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑥
[𝑝− ( ) ]𝛿y 𝛿z – [ 𝑝 + ( ) ] 𝛿y 𝛿z = 0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝑝
∴ (𝜕𝑥 ) 𝛿x 𝛿y 𝛿z = 0
𝜕𝑝
∴ = 0 (as 𝛿x 𝛿y 𝛿z ≠ 0) (2.5)
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑦
[𝑝− ( ) ]𝛿x 𝛿z – [ 𝑝 + ( ) ] 𝛿x 𝛿z = 0
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕𝑝
∴ =0 (2.6)
𝜕𝑦
Equations (2.5) and (2.6) indicate that the pressure does not vary in ‘x’ and ‘y’ direction.
This confirms the already proved Pascal’s law (section 2.3).
In ‘z’ direction.
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑧
[𝑝 − . ] 𝛿x . 𝛿y – [𝑝 + . ] 𝛿x . 𝛿y - 𝛾 𝛿x 𝛿y 𝛿z = 0
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕𝑝
∴ = -γ
𝜕𝑧
56
FLUID MECHANICS
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
i.e. = -γ (as = = 0. p ⇒ f(z) only (2.7)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Equation (2.6) proves that pressure varies in vertical direction. For incompressible fluids,
specific weight ‘γ’ is constant. Therefore Equation (2.7) can be integrated between two
points.
𝑝2 𝑧2
∫ 𝑑𝑝 = −𝛾 ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝑝1 𝑧1
∴ p2 – p1 = −𝛾 (z2 – z1)
𝑝2 𝑝1
∴ + z2 = + z1 (2.8)
𝛶 𝛶
𝑃
The term + 𝑧 is known as the piezometric head. Thus for incompressible fluids
𝛾
piezometric head is constant.
Consider free surface of liquid in figure 2.3 along which pressure is constant and equal to
the atmospheric pressure Pa. The free surface is at ‘H’ above the datum. At a point
‘p’ located ‘h’ below free surface or ‘z’ above datum (i.e. z + h = H) integrating
Equation (2.8)
Z
(H-Z) h
H
Z
p = -𝛾z +c
at z = H, p = pa
57
FLUID MECHANICS
∴ pa = 𝛾H + c
∴ c = pa - 𝛾H
∴ p = -𝛾z + pa - 𝛾H
∴ p = pa + 𝛾 (H – z)
∴ p = pa + 𝛾h
Equation (2.9) is known as ‘Law of Hydrostatics’. Equation (2.9) can also be written as,
𝑝
h=
𝛾
Thus pressure can also expressed as equivalent pressure head ‘h’ of the liquid. In simple
terms it can be said that due to pressure ‘p’ at a point, there is a rise ‘h’ of liquid or
the rise ‘h’ of liquid is balancing the pressure ‘p’. This concept of equivalent pressure
head will be made explained more in the section on Piezometers and manometers.
Equation (3.8) also indicates that pressure varies linearly with the depth of flow below
liquid surface or height of free liquid surface above the point and is independent of
shape and size of the container. Figure 2.4 illustrates this point, wherein the rise of
liquid in all containers is ‘h’ showing a pressure p = 𝛾h at the centre of the pipe
irrespective of their shapes
58
FLUID MECHANICS
If the same pressure is measured with kerosene of specific gravity 0.8, the rise of kerosene
column will be more than water. On the other hand, if an oil of specific gravity 1.6 is
used to measure the same pressure, the rise of oil column will be less than that of
water. This can explained as follow:
As pressure is same.
P = γw hw = γk hk = γo ho
γk γo
hw = γw hk = γw ho where ‘k stans for kerosene and ‘o’ stands for oil.
γfluid
hw = Sk hk = So ho (𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = γwater)
1 = 0.8 hk = 1.6 ho
hk = 1.25 m and ho = 0.625 ‘m’
59
FLUID MECHANICS
Thus lighter liquid will show higher rise than heavier liquids.
In general
hwater = Sfluid 𝗑 hfluid (2.10)
This concept of equivalent liquid column is very useful in pressure measuring devices like
manometers. Equation (2.10) helps to express pressures measured by any fluid in
terms of a common fluid say ‘water’.
Pressure is measured with respect to some datum. The datum can be local atmospheric
pressure or absolute zero pressure (complete vacuum). The atmospheric pressure
considered as a reference is 760 mm of Mercury i.e., 10336 mm of water or 101.33
kN/m2. When the fluid pressure is measured with respect to atmospheric pressure as
datum then it is known as gauge pressure. If the pressure is above atmospheric
pressure, then it is called positive pressure. If the pressure is below atmospheric
pressure, then it is called negative pressure or vacuum pressure. The pressure
measured with respect to absolute zero or complete vacuum as datum is called
absolute pressure. Thus, absolute pressure will always be positive. The atmospheric
pressure is therefore one atmosphere absolute or zero gauge.
Figure 2.6 depicts the gauge pressure and absolute pressure measurement.
60
FLUID MECHANICS
In this era of advanced equipment pressure transducers are also used to measure pressure
very accurately. However, the scope of present article is limited to first two types
only.
2.6.1 Manometer:
Manometers measures the fluid pressure by balancing it against a column of liquid in static
equilibrium. These are generally glass tubes or tubes of any transparent material of
diameter more than 6 mm, to avoid capillary effect as explained in unit 1. The liquid
used to balance the fluid pressure is called as Manometric fluid. The manometric fluid
should be immiscible with the fluid of which pressure is measured. Also the
manometric fluid should have low vapour pressure, otherwise it will evaporate very
quickly. Standard manometric liquids therefore are mercury, water, air, carbon-tetra-
chloride. The choice of manometric liquid depends upon the magnitude of pressure,
type of manometer, desired accuracy. Manometers are classified into i) Simple
manometers ii) Differential manometers. Simple manometers measure pressure at a
61
FLUID MECHANICS
point, with one end connected to the point and other end open to atmosphere. Simple
manometers are further sub-divided into piezometers, U-tube manometers.
Differential manometers measure pressure difference between two points either in
the same pipe or different pipes at same or different level. Both ends of differential
manometers are connected to the points, of which pressure difference is required.
(a) Piezometer:
It consists of a glass tube, one end of which is open to atmosphere while the other end is
connected to the point, the pressure at which is to be measured. The piezometer can
be used to measure positive pressure or negative pressure as shown in figure 2.7. Due
to pressure at the point, the liquid level rises or falls in the piezometer till the
equilibrium is reached. If h is the rise in liquid level in the piezometer above the
centre of pipe carrying liquid, M then pressure P at point M.
P = 𝛾. H
where 𝛾 is specific weight of the liquid flowing through pipe.
Similarly, the negative pressure
p = - 𝛾. h
The piezometer cannot be used for high pressures as well as gas pressure cannot be
measured.
+M
-ve pressure
Fig. 2.7 Piezometer
62
FLUID MECHANICS
A tube bent in the shape of English letter ‘U’ is used to measure pressure at a
point. One end of manometer is open to the atmosphere while the other end is connected
to the point at which pressure is measured (Generally, centre of circular pipe). The rise or
fall of manometric liquid with respect to point M gives the positive or negative pressure.
For small pressures, same liquid which is flowing in the pipe can be used as manometric
liquid. However, for large pressures heavier liquid like mercury is used as ‘Manometric
Liquid’. Fig. 2.8(a) shows arrangement of simple U tube manometer for measurement of
positive pressure using the same liquid as in pipe.
Fig. 2.8 (b) shows negative pressure measurement using U tube manometer using the same
liquid as in pipe.
63
FLUID MECHANICS
hM = S2h2 – S1h1 m of water (+ve pressure) hN = -S2h2 – S1h1 m of water (-ve pressure)
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.9 Simple U tube manometer with manometric fluid different than that of pipe
Figures 2.9 (a) and 2.9 (b) show positive and negative pressure measurement using a
manometric liquid different than the one which is flowing in pipe.
where S1 is specific gravity of liquid flowing in the pipe and S2 is specific gravity of
manometric liquid.
Let hm and hn be the pressure heads at 2 points m and n respectively in terms of water
column. Then 1,
hm + S1 h1 + S1 h2 + S1 h – S2 h – S1 h2 = hn
∴ hm – hn = h(S2 – S1) – S1 h1 meter of water column. (2.15)
64
FLUID MECHANICS
It may be noted that the above derived formulae for differential manometers are based on
a simple procedure outlined below. There is no need to remember any formula. It can
be derived as and when required very easily.
1. Draw a neat sketch of the system showing different liquid levels with their specific
gravities.
2. In case of simple U tube manometer, start from open end (atmospheric pressure
end) and in case of differential manometer, start from any end. Then go from level
to level till the other end is reached. For decrease in the elevation, add the pressure
head. For increase in the elevation, subtract the pressure head.
hm – S1 h1 – S1 h2 – S1 h + S2 h + S1 h2 = hn
65
FLUID MECHANICS
66
FLUID MECHANICS
In this type of manometer, a large reservoir, whose area is about 100 times of the area of
the tube is introduced in one of the limbs of the manometer. Due to large area, the
deflection in this limb is negligible as compared to the other limb of smaller area,
through the volume of liquid displaced is same (direct application of Pascal’s law)
67
FLUID MECHANICS
As a result, only one reading of pressure head in smaller area limb is considered enough
for pressure measurement, thus making manometer a quick instrument. However, by
considering the small deflection in large reservoir, pressure measurement can be done
more accurately. Figure 2.13 shows such a single tube manometer.
0 + S2 h2 + S2 ∆h – S1 ∆h – S1 h1 = hm
𝑎
∴ hm = S2 h2 + (S2 – S1) x 𝐴 h2 – S1 h1
𝑎
∴ hm = [S2 + (S2 – S1) 𝐴] h2 – S1 h1 meter of water column (2.20)
(c) Micromanometer:
By introducing large reservoirs in both the limbs of the manometer, the reading are
magnified and the accuracy is increased. This type of manometer which is used to
measure pressure difference between two points with greater accuracy is called
micromanometer.
Consider a micromanometer with two manometric fluids of specific gravity S 2 and S3 as
shown in figure 2.14.
68
FLUID MECHANICS
Initial level of heavier manometric liquid (S3) is OO, while that of lighter liquid (S2) is XX.
The portion above XX is occupied by liquid (S1) whose pressure is to be measured.
Let ‘A’ be the area of reservoir and ‘a’ be the area of tube.
𝐴
= 100
𝑎
Volume displaced in tank = Volume displaced in tube
ℎ
∴ A ∆h = a.
2
𝑎ℎ
∴ ∆h =
𝐴2
𝑎
∴ 2 ∆h = h
𝐴
ℎ
(Fall of ∆h in left limb reservoir and rise of ∆h in right limb reservoir will cause fall of
2
ℎ
in left tube and rise of in right tube)
2
69
FLUID MECHANICS
ℎ ℎ
hA + S1 h1 + S1 ∆h + (h2 - ∆h) S2 + S2 – S3 h – (h2 - ) S2 – S2 ∆h – S1 ( h1 - ∆h ) = hB
2 2
𝑎 𝑎
hA – hB = h {𝑆3 − 𝑆2 (1 − ) − 𝑆1 } meter of water column (2.21)
𝐴 𝐴
Mechanical gauges are compact, robust and simple devices used to measure pressure
at a point by using elastic property of the metal. Bourdon’s pressure gauge is widely
used gauge of this type, though its accuracy is questionable due to its larger least count.
The Bourdon’s gauge comprises of a metallic tube of elliptic cross-section bent in the
form of a question mark. The free end of the tube is closed while the fixed end is in
contact with the pressure tapping. When fluid enters the tube from pressure tapping,
the closed end moves due to change in the cross-section of the tube from elliptical to
circular. The movement of the closed end is transferred to the rack and pinion
arrangement ‘R’ through a link ‘L’ which ultimately moves the pointer on the calibrated
dial D (Refer figure 2.15). This arrangement can measure positive or negative pressure.
70
FLUID MECHANICS
The pointer will move clockwise for positive pressure and anticlockwise for negative
pressure. Different material of tube can be used for different pressure range. The
gauge used to measure negative pressure is known as vacuum gauge. The calibration
is generally made in kg/cm2 or ‘mm’ of Hg.
When a fluid comes in contact with any surface either plane or curved, it exerts a
force on it. Obviously, this force is due to the pressure acting on the surface, which varies
with depth of flow as explained in earlier sections. The total force acting on surface in
contact of fluid is therefore termed as total pressure. When the fluid is at rest tangential
forces (shear) are absent. As a result of which the total pressure acts normal to the surface
on which it acts. Any force is described by three parameters, magnitude, direction and point
of application. The magnitude of hydrostatic force or total pressure is governed by law of
hydrostatics and direction is normal as explained previously. The point of application of
the total pressure on the surface in contact is termed as centre of pressure. As explained
earlier the pressure force varies with depth, the resultant of all such forces at different levels
is the total pressure. The point of application i.e centre of pressure is found out using
Varignon’s theorem of moments which states that ‘sum of moments of all the forces about
a point is same as moment of the resultant about the same point’. In case of centre of
pressure ‘resultant moment’ is total pressure and ‘all the forces’ are forces due to pressure
71
FLUID MECHANICS
at different levels. Thus, the concept of total pressure passing through centre of pressure is
analogous with concept of weight of the body passing through centre of gravity.
Figure 2.16 shows a horizontal plane surface of area A is submerged in water at a depth
‘h’ below free water surface. The pressure intensity at all the points on this surface is
constant as all points are at same depth below free water surface.
Figure 2.17 shows a vertical plane surface of area A completely submerged in water.
72
FLUID MECHANICS
The centroid of plane surface is at a distance of 𝑋̅ from free water surface OO.
Pressure intensity varies over the plane surface (along the depth below the free
water surface), therefore a rectangular strip of very small thickness ‘d𝑥’ is
considered at a distance ‘𝑥’ from free water surface on which pressure intensity can
be assumed to be constant.
dp = (γ𝑥) (bd𝑥)
= Moment of the resultant area (total area) about free water surface.
73
FLUID MECHANICS
= A 𝑥̅ (Varignon’s theorem)
∴ P = γ A𝑥̅ (2.23)
Where P is total pressure, γ is specific weight of water, ‘A’ is area of plane surface and 𝑥̅
is distance of the centroid of plane lamina from free water surface.
For vertical plane surface the intensity of pressure increases with depth. Let ℎ̅ be the centre
of pressure through which the total pressure P acts.
γ ∫ 𝑥2 (bd𝑥) = P ℎ̅
∴ P ℎ̅ = γ Io
γ Io
∴ ℎ̅ =
𝑃
γIo Io
∴ ℎ̅ = γ 2 = 2 (2.24)
𝐴𝑥̅ 𝐴𝑥̅
̅2
𝐼𝑜 = 𝐼𝐺 + 𝐴𝑥
74
FLUID MECHANICS
i.e. moment of inertia about an is equal to sum of moment of inertia about a centroidal
parallel axis in the same plane (IG) and product of area and square of the distance between
the two parallel axes (𝐴𝑥̅ 2 )
𝐼𝐺 +𝐴𝑥̅ 2
∴ ℎ̅ =
𝐴𝑥̅
𝐼𝐺
∴ ℎ̅ = 𝑥̅ + (2.25)
𝐴𝑥̅
𝐼𝐺
As > 0, ℎ̅ > 𝑥̅ i.e. centre of pressure (ℎ̅) will always lie below centre of gravity (𝑥̅ ).
𝐴𝑥̅
𝐼𝐺
For greater depths, centre of pressure approaches centre of gravity as 𝑥̅ is large and
𝑥̅
becomes small.
Figure 2.18 shows an inclined plane surface of area A completely submerged in water. The
angle of inclination of the place surface with the free liquid surface is θ. The plane of
lamina when extended meets an axis ‘OO’ passing through O and perpendicular to
the plane of paper.
Let 𝑥̅ be the distance of centroid of plane surface vertically below free liquid surface. 𝑦̅ be
75
FLUID MECHANICS
𝑥̅
the inclined distance of centroid from OO along the inclined plane =
sin 𝜃
Let ℎ̅ be the depth of centre of pressure vertically below free liquid surface and yp be the
̅
ℎ
inclined distance of centre of pressure from OO =
sin 𝜃
∴ dp = γ y sin θ. dA
= A 𝑦̅
∴ P = γ sin θ A 𝑦̅
∴ P = γ A 𝑥̅ (∵ 𝑥̅ = 𝑦̅ sin θ)
Thus, the total pressure acting on inclined plane surface is same as total pressure on vertical
surface or total pressure on inclined plane surface is independent of angle of
inclination θ.
76
FLUID MECHANICS
Figure 2.19 shows a completely submerged curved surface under water. In case of
curved surface, the total pressure is a vector sum of horizontal and vertical components PH
and PV respectively as the elementary forces do not form a parallel force system as in plane
surfaces. Consider an elementary area dA situated at a depth h below free water surface.
the elementary area is magnified in Fig. 3.11.2.
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.19 Total pressure on curved surface
77
FLUID MECHANICS
Area dA
dp = γ.h dA
dFx = dp sinθ
dFx
θ
dA sinθ
dA cosθ
dFy = dp cosθ
∴ Total pressure P = ∫ 𝛾 h dA
Component of dp in horizontal direction = dpH = dp sinθ = p . dA sinθ.
And vertical component of dp = dpV = dp cos θ = p dA . cos θ
78
FLUID MECHANICS
Thus, the vertical component of total pressure is the weight of liquid lying in the portion
extending above curved surface up to free surface and acting through centroid of area
ABCDEFA. PV will act in vertically downward direction if supported liquid is real
otherwise it will act vertically upwards.
= tan-1 PV (2.28)
PH
Point of application of total pressure P on curved surface may be determined by extending
the line of action of force P to meet the surface.
Solution:
Pressure at top P = 𝛾 h
𝑘𝑁
= 96.06 or kPa
𝑚2
P = 𝛾h (for air)
h = 1046.87 m
79
FLUID MECHANICS
Ex. 2.2 : Mass density (kg/m3) of a liquid varies as p = (1000 + 0.008 h) where ‘h’ is
depth (m) below free surface of liquid. Determine depth at which gauge
pressure would be 100 kPa.
Solution :
p = 1000 + 0.008 h
∴ 𝛾 = 9810 + 0.07848 h
𝑑𝑝
=𝛾
𝑑ℎ
ℎ
2 2 ℎ
∴ ∫ℎ P1 − P2 = ∫ℎ ydh = ∫ (9810 + 0.07848 h) dh
1 1
Surface = 0 (atmp)
∴ h2 + 250000 h – 2548420 = 0
H = 10.193 m
Ex. 2.3 : What depth of oil, sp. Gravity 0.8 will produce a pressure of 120 kN/m2 ?
What would be corresponding depth of water?
Solution :
P=𝛾h
80
FLUID MECHANICS
H𝜔 = Soil 𝗑 hoil
= 0.8 𝗑 15.29
𝑃 120 𝑥 10
(Alternatively h𝜔 = = = 12.23 ‘m’ of water)
ℎ𝜔 9810
Ex. 2.4 : A bourdon tube is connected to a tank in which the pressure is 276 kPa above
atmospheric at the gauge connection. If the pressure in the tank remains
unchanged but the gauge is placed in a chamber where the air pressure is
reduced to a vacuum of 635 mm of mercury. What gauge reading will be
expected? (The gauge connection is not shifted)
Solution:
276
= 28.134 m of water
9.81
= 0.635 𝗑 13.6
= 8.363 of water
Ex. 2.5 : Two pressure tanks are built one inside the other. A bourdon gauge M
connected to the inner tank reads 20 kPa. Another bourdon gauge ‘N’
connected to the outer tank reads 35 kPa. An aneroid barometer reads 750
mm of Hg. Calculate the absolute pressure recorded at M and N in mm of
mercury.
Solution:
81
FLUID MECHANICS
55,000
Pressure recorded at M = = 0.412 m mercury
9810 𝑥 13.6
750
Absolute pressure recorded by M = + 0.412
1000
= 1.162 m of mercury
= 116.22 cm of mercury
35,000
Pressure recorded by N = = 0.262 m mercury
9810 𝑥 13.6
750
Absolute pressure recorded at N = + 0.262 = 1.012 m of Hg
1000
= 101.2 cm of Hg.
Ex. 2.6 : A U-tube manometer Fig. Ex. 2.6 measures the pressure difference between
points A and B on a liquid of density 𝜌1. The U-tube contains mercury of
density 𝜌2. Calculate the difference of pressure if a = 1.5, b = 0.75 m and h =
0.5 m if the liquid in A and B is water and 𝜌2 = 13.6 𝜌1.
82
FLUID MECHANICS
Solution :
HA + 1.5 – 13.6 𝗑 0.5 – 0.25 = HB
Solution :
83
FLUID MECHANICS
ℎ
sin 30 =
0.03
∴ h = 0.03 sin 30
Pressure due to air column will be negligible, as Relative density of air is very
small.
Ex. 2.8 : Calculate intensity of pressure at points A, B, C and D as shown in Fig. Ex.
2.8.
= 19.62 kN/m2
84
FLUID MECHANICS
= 77 kN/m2
Ex. 2.9 : The diameter of two limbs A and B of a U-tube manometer are 16 mm and 4
mm respectively. A is filled with a liquid of specific gravity of 1.25 and B
with another liquid of specific gravity 0.8. The two liquids do not mix.
Determine the pressure to be applied to the surface of the heavier liquid in
order to raise the level in the other limb by 10 mm.
Solution :
Pressure applied on left limb (S = 1.25) is same as pressure on right limb
(S = 0.8)
∴ p = 𝛾1h1 = 𝛾2h2
Let the level of liquid of specific gravity 1.25 decreases by h1 m i.e. pressure
head
Due to this liquid level in the other limb rises by 10 mm, above original level
and by h2m above new level of liquid in the first limb (s = 1.25). As pressure
applied on first limb is balanced by adjustment of liquid level in the second
limb.
85
FLUID MECHANICS
P = 𝛾1h1 = 𝛾2h2
but, h2 = h1 + 0.01
0.008
∴ h1 = = 0.0177 ‘m’ of liquid of specific gravity
0.45
1.25
Ex. 2.10 : A closed rectangular tank of cross sectional area 1m 𝗑 0.6 m has 1 m height.
It contains water upto depth of 0.6 m and remaining space above contains
air under such a pressure that total load on the bottom of tank is 9.532 kN.
Determine pressure of air.
Solution :
Ptotal = Pa + Pw
9.532
Pbottom = = 15.89 kN/m2
1 𝗑 0.6
86
FLUID MECHANICS
Ex. 2.11 : A vessel of 5 cm2 cross sectional area and 1.5 m height is filled with water
upto a height of 1 m and remaining with oil of specific gravity 0.8. The
vessel is open to atmosphere. Calculate the gauge and absolute pressure on
the base of vessel in terms of water head, oil head and N/m2 given the
atmosphere as 1.013 bar. Also calculate net force exerted at the base of
vessel.
Solution :
Pbase = Poil + Pwater = 0.5 𝗑 0.8 𝗑 9.81 + 1
𝗑 9.81
= 101.3 kN/m2
Hw = sw hw + soil hoil
= 1 𝗑 1 + 0.5 𝗑 0.8
∴ 𝛾w hw = soil hoil
1
∴ hoil 𝗑 soil = hw ∴ hoil = = 1.25
0.8
87
FLUID MECHANICS
ℎ𝑤
∴ Total head, hoil = + hoil
𝑆𝑜
Ex. 2.12 : A square plate of diagonal 1.5 m is immersed in water with its diagonal
vertical and upper corner 0.5 m below the free surface of water. Calculate
the depth of C.P. on the plate from free surface of water and hydrostatic
force resulting on the plate in kN.
Solution :
1.5
Side of square = = 1.06 m
√2
Area = 1.125m2
𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃
ℎ̅ = 𝑥̅ + 𝐺 𝐴 𝑥̅
1.5 × 0.753
×1
12
= 1025 + (∵ 𝜃 = 900)
1.125 ×1.25
ℎ̅ = 1.325 m
88
FLUID MECHANICS
Ex. 2.13 : A triangular plate of 1 m base of 1.5 m latitude is immersed in water. The
plane of plate is inclined at 300 with free water surface and base is parallel
to and at a depth of 2 m from water surface. Find T.P. and C.P.
Solution :
T.P. = 𝛾 A 𝑥̅
1
= 9.81 𝗑 𝗑 1 𝗑 1.5 𝗑 1.75
2
= 12.88 kN
𝐼𝐺 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
C.P. = 𝑥̅ +
𝐴 𝑥̅
1 × 1.53
36
× 0.52
= 1.75 + 1
×1.5 ×1.5
2
= 1.77 m
89
FLUID MECHANICS
Ex. 2.14 : A circular plate 1.2 m diameter is placed vertically in water so that the
centre of plate is 2 m below free surface. Determine the total pressure on
the plate and depth of C.P.
Solution :
л
p = 9.81 𝗑 𝗑 1.22 𝗑 2 = 22.19 kN
4
𝜋
64
× 1.24
ℎ̅ = 2 + 𝜋 = 2.045 ‘m’
4
× 1.22 ×2
Ex. 2.15 : A plate 4 m long and 2 m wide has a circular hole of 1 m diameter at its
centre. The plate is completely immersed in water making an angle of 450
with free surface. Determine the hydrostatic load on one face of plate and
C.P.
Solution :
P1 = Total pressure with hole = γ A ℎ̅ (ℎ̅ = 2 sin45 = 1.41m)
= 9.81 𝗑 8 𝗑1.41
= 110.66
90
FLUID MECHANICS
2 × 43 1
12
×2
Centre of pressure h1 = 1.41 +
8 ×1.41
= 1.88 m
(a) (b)
𝜋 1
64
× 14 × 2
Centre of pressure h2 = 1.41 + 𝜋 = 1.47 m
4
×1 ×1.41
∴ P = P1 – P2 = 110.66 – 10.86
(Distance of centre of pressure along the plate are shown in Fig. Ex.
2.15(b))
91
FLUID MECHANICS
1.88 1.47 ̅
ℎ
110.66 𝗑 ‒ 10.86 𝗑 = 99.8 𝗑
0.707 0.707 0.707
Ex. 2.16: The bottom of a 1 m diameter cylindrical tank is of the shape of an inverted
hemispherical bowl. If the depth of water at the centre is 3 m, find the
resultant pressure on the bottom of the tank.
Solution :
92
FLUID MECHANICS
2
= 9.81 𝗑 [л 𝗑 0.52 𝗑 3.5 - 𝗑 л 𝗑 0.53]
3
= 24.39 kN/m2
Ex. 2.17: A 1 m wide and 1.5 m deep rectangular plane surface lies in water in such a
way that its plane makes an angle of 300 with the free water surface.
Determine the total pressure and position of centre of pressure when the
upper edge is 0.75 m below the free water surface.
Solution :
= 9.81 𝗑 1 𝗑 1.5 𝗑 1
= 14.715 kN/m2
𝐼𝐺 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
ℎ̅ = 𝑥̅ +
𝐴 𝑥̅
1 × 1.53
36
× 0.52
=1+
1 ×1.5 ×1
93
FLUID MECHANICS
ℎ̅ = 1.046825 m
Ex. 2.18: A circular plate of 4 m diameter is immerged in water such that its greatest
and least depth below free surface of water is 5 m and 2 m respectively.
Determine total pressure on one side of plate and position of centre of
pressure.
Solution :
𝜋
p = γ A 𝑋̅ = 9.81 𝗑 4 𝗑 16 𝗑 3.5
= 431.47 kN
𝜋
𝐼𝐺 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 64
× 44 × 0.561
ℎ̅ = 𝑥̅ + = 3.5 + 𝜋
𝐴 𝑥̅ ×16 ×3.5
4
= 3.66 ‘m’
Ex. 2.19: A tank contains water upto a height of 0.5 m above the base. An immiscible
liquid of specific gravity 0.85 is filled on the top of water upto 1 m height.
94
FLUID MECHANICS
Calculate :
(ii) The position of centre of pressure for one side of the tank, 2 m wide.
Solution :
= 8.3385 kN/m2
1
= 𝗑 8.3385 𝗑 1 𝗑 2 = 8.3385
2
2
∴ ℎ̅1 = 𝗑 1 from ‘A’
3
95
FLUID MECHANICS
1
P3 = 𝗑 4.905 𝗑 0.5 𝗑 2
2
2
= 2.4525 at [ 1 + 𝗑 0.5] = 1.335 from A
3
2
19.1295 ℎ̅ = 8.3385 𝗑 +8.3385 𝘹 1.25 + 2.4525 𝘹 1.335
3
Ex. 2.20: A tank contains water upto a height of 1 m above the base. An immiscible
liquid of specific gravity 0.8 is filled on the top of water upto a height of 0.5
m. Calculate the total pressure on one side of tank and locate position of
centre of pressure for one side of the tank which is 2 m wide. Also plot
pressure diagram.
Solution :
96
FLUID MECHANICS
2
= 1.962 acting at 𝗑 0.5 = 0.355 m from a
3
1
Pressure force P2 = ∆ ced = 𝗑 9.81 𝗑 1 𝗑 2
2
2
= 9.81 actng at 0.5 + 𝗑 1 = 1.17 m from a
3
ℎ̅ = 1.0185 m
97
FLUID MECHANICS
UNIT SUMMARY
Hydrostatics law p = 𝛾h
𝑃
Piezometric head = +z
𝛾
𝑃𝑉
Total pressure on an curved surface p = √ 𝑃𝐻2 + 𝑃𝑉2 α = tan-1 (Derivation)
𝑃𝐻
98
FLUID MECHANICS
2.13 Exercise
Ans: (d)
The atmospheric pressure with rise in altitude decreases…
(a) Linearly
(b) first slowly and then steeply
(c) first steeply and then gradually
(d) unpredictable.
Ans: (b)
2. Mercury is often used in barometer because…
Ans: (d)
Ans: (b)
4. Barometer is used to measure…
(a) Pressure in pipes, channels etc
(b) Atmospheric pressure
(c) Very low pressure
(d) Difference of pressure between two points.
Ans: (b)
5. Which of the following manometer has highest sensitivity?
Ans: (d)
Ans: (c)
Ans: (b)
8. The specific weight of a fluid is 20,000 N/m3. The pressure (above atmosphere)
in a tank bottom containing the fluid to a height of 0.2 m is
100
FLUID MECHANICS
(a) 40,000 N/m2 (b) 2000 N/m2 (c) 4000 N/m2 (d) 20,000 N/m2
Ans: (c)
Ans: (a)
11. If the density varies linearly with height the pressure will vary ________ with
height.
Ans: (d)
12. In micromanometer, the density difference between the filler fluid and the
manometer fluid should be ________
Ans: (a)
13. The pressure on the base of a liquid column will depend upon the shape of the
column.
Ans: (b)
14. For low pressure measurement a manometric fluid with low density will be
better.
Ans: (a)
15. The vacuum gauge reading will increase as the absolute pressure decreases.
101
FLUID MECHANICS
Ans: (a)
102
FLUID MECHANICS
Q. 22 A triangular plate of 1 m base and 1.5 m altitude is immersed in water. The plane
of the plate is inclined at 300 with free water surface and the base is parallel to and
at a depth of 2 m from water surface. Find the total pressure on the plate and the
position of the centre of pressure.
1. In a U tube differential manometer three different liquids are there as shown in the
figure. Water is marked with dotted lines, mercury in silver/grey and oil is marked
with slanting lines. Assuming that the gage pressure is p kPa 1 10 kPa, Find the
height “d” of the mercury on the unconstrained side.
i. (Ans: 0.075 m )
103
FLUID MECHANICS
3. In the given figure, the tank contains water and immiscible oil at 20°C. What is “h”
in centimetres if the density of the oil is 898 kg/m3?
(Ans: h = 8 cm )
4. In the given figure, water (20°C) and gasoline are open to the atmosphere and are
at the same elevation. What is the height h in the third liquid?
(Ans: h = 1.52 m)
104
FLUID MECHANICS
5. In the given figure, both fluids are at 20°C. If surface tension effects are negligible,
what is the density of the oil, in kg/m3?
(Ans: h = 1.52 m)
5. A manometer is used to measure the pressure in a tank. The fluid used has a specific
gravity of 0.85, and the manometer column height is 55 cm, as shown in Fig. 3–12.
If the local atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa, determine the absolute pressure within
the tank.
(Ans: P = 100 kPa)
105
FLUID MECHANICS
106
FLUID MECHANICS
Objective:
Theory:
Normal stress on any plane through a fluid element at rest is equal to a unique value called
the fluid pressure P. It is expressed in N/m2 or Pascal as pressure intensity or in terms
ofpressure head as ‘m’. It can be measured by devices like piezometer, manometer,
mechanical gauge or pressure transducer.
Manometer:
Manometer is a device used to measure the fluid pressure by balancing pressure against
the column of liquid in static equilibrium. The different types of manometers are listed
below.
1. Simple Manometer
Piezometer
Simple U tube manometer
Well type U tube manometer
2. Differential Manometers
Inverted U tube manometer
Upright U tube Manometer
Micromanometer
1. Simple Manometer:
This measures pressure at a point.
107
FLUID MECHANICS
b) Simple U Tube Manometer: A ‘U’ tube manometer consists of two tubes joined at
one end to form a U – shaped tube. A ‘U’ tube manometer can be used to measure
pressure in any fluid; liquid and gas. Pressure above and below atmospheric can be
measured with it. U- tube may used upright , inclined or inverted. Normally the one end
of manometer is connected to the gauge point and other is open to the atmosphere. The
pressure in the pipe is measured by recording the difference in the level of manometric
liquid in two limbs.
c) Well Type U Tube Manometer: In the two limb U -tube manometer it is necessary
to read the levels of manometric liquid in both tubes to find difference in the levels. In
well type manometer a well or basin or reservoir of large cross sectional area is provided
on one limb. The fluctuation in the level of the well are very small as compared to the
fluctuation in the other limb hence any change in levels of well may be neglected.
Fluctuations in the levels of the well may acts as a reference level for other limb. The
limb of small cross section area may be upright or inclined depending upon accuracy
required. The well side limb is connected to the gauge point and neglecting the change
in the level of liquid in the well, the change in the level of liquid in the other limb is
noted, which is pressure head at the gauge point.
2 Differential Manometer:
These manometers are used to measure pressure difference between two points.
108
FLUID MECHANICS
109
FLUID MECHANICS
The pressure responsive element in the gauge is a tube of steel or bronze, which is of
elliptical cross section and curved in the form of a circular arch. The tube is closed at
its outer end of the tube through which the fluid enters is rigidly fixed to frame. When
gauge is connected to the gauge point, fluid enters the tube which increases internal
pressure making elliptical section circular thus causing tube to straighten out slightly.
This outward movement is indicated as pressure on a circular dial through an
arrangement of link pinion and indicator. The dial gauge is so calibrated that it reads
zero when the pressure inside the tube equals the local atmospheric pressure. When
a vacuum gauge is connected to partial vacuum, the tube tends to close there by
moving the pointed in anticlockwise direction, indicating the negative or vacuum
pressure.
hM = S2h2 - h1S1 hN = -S2h2 - S1h1
110
FLUID MECHANICS
𝒉
l= hM = S2h2-S1h1
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉
a a
hA - hB = h {S3 − S2 (1 − ) − S1 ( )}
A A
111
FLUID MECHANICS
Exercise:
1) Recognize the type of simple manometer and measure the pressure head at a point.
Type of Simple manometer:
Pressure at point M =
Type of Simple manometer:
Pressure at point N =
3) Measure the pressure / vacuum using both the types of mechanical gauges
4) Name of Gauge:
Pressure at M :
Name of Gauge :
Pressure at N : mm of Hg =
112
FLUID MECHANICS
Pressure Difference =
Conclusion: Student should write the conclusion by his own based upon the above study.
1. Hydraulics & Fluid Mechanics by Modi and Seth, Standard Book House
https://archive.nptel.ac.in/noc/courses/noc19/SEM2/noc19-ce28.
113
FLUID MECHANICS
3 C
BUOYANCY AND FLOTATION
UNIT SPECIFICS
This is followed by large number of solved examples. The students are encouraged to solve the
objective questions, long answer questions and numerical problems to judge ones
understanding. A list of references for additional reading is provided at the end.
RATIONALE
This unit introduces concept of buoyancy which is important is stability analysis of floating and
submerged bodies. The metacentre and its role in stability of floating and submerged bodies
gives basic information to Civil Engineering students who are further interested in studying
Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering
PRE-REQUISITES
Mathematics: Derivatives (Class XII)
Physics: Mechanics (Class XII)
114
FLUID MECHANICS
UNIT OUTCOMES
List of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
(At the end of this unit, students will understand..)
U3-O1: Concept of buoyancy and Archimedes Principle
U3-O2: Stability of floating and submerged bodies
U3-O3: Procedure to determine metacentre analytically and experimentally
3.1 Buoyancy:
When a body is immersed partially or fully in a fluid it is acted upon by a vertical force in
the upward direction opposite to the self-weight of the body. This force by virtue of
which the body ‘buoys’ or ‘floats’ is called the buoyant force and its point of
application is known as the ‘centre of buoyancy’.
It is very clear that if the buoyant force is less than weight of the body, the body will sink
otherwise it will float. This is the reason why some solids float and some sink in a
liquid.
The wave height measuring instrument ‘wave rider buoy’ works on the principle of
buoyancy. Buoyancy plays a major role in design on ships, submarines, torpedoes.
The buoyant force can be calculated either by using laws of hydrostatics or by using
the Archimedes Principle.
115
FLUID MECHANICS
Consider a body submerged in a fluid of constant mass density as shown in figure 3.1. The
body is divided into elementary cylinders like ‘AB’ of area dA as shown in figure 3.1
∴ F= ∫ γ h dA = γ ∫ h dA
∴ F=γV (3.1)
where V is the volume of fluid displaced by the body and γ V is the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body. Thus, buoyant force is equal to weight of the fluid displaced
by the body.
If a horizontal cylinder AC is considered, then as A and C are at the same level
Pa = P c (3.2)
Horizontal force on cylinder = (Pa – Pc) dA = 0
116
FLUID MECHANICS
Thus, a buoyant force has only vertical component. It is also evident that as the buoyant
force is equal to weight of the fluid displaced by the body, it will pass through centre
of gravity of displaced fluid. The point of application of buoyant force is known as
centre of buoyancy
Thus, a buoyant force is equal to weight of the fluid displaced by the body acting in
vertically upward direction and passing through centre of gravity of displaced fluid.
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.2 (a) Principle of floatation
Whether the body will sink or float in the liquid will depend upon weight of the body and
buoyant force F i.e specific gravity of the body and specific gravity of the liquid
(because specific weight can be determined if specific gravity is known). It is obvious
that weight of the body ‘W’ and buoyant force F should lie along same line to avoid
rotation.
Consider specific gravity of body is greater than that of liquid. We know,
Weight of fluid displaced by body = Buoyant force F
∴ Buoyant force F < Weight of the body W and body will sink.
If specific gravity of body is same as that of liquid and the entire body is submerged, the
centre of buoyancy B which is centroid of displaced volume of fluid and centre of
gravity G will coincide as shown in figure 3.2 and body will remain stable anywhere
in the liquid.
117
FLUID MECHANICS
If specific gravity of body is less than that of liquid weight of the fluid displaced by the
body i.e. buoyant force will be greater than that of weight of fluid and hence body
will start rising. The rise will continue till weight of the body and buoyant force attain
an equilibrium. That is weight of fluid displaced by body is equal to weight of body.
As displaced volume of fluid will be reduced to reduce the weight of fluid displaced
by the body to attain equilibrium ‘B’ will be shifted downwards and body will float.
Thus, in floating condition
Weight of the body = Weight of fluid displaced by the body = Buoyant force
This is known as principle of floatation.
118
FLUID MECHANICS
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.4 Metacentric height
120
FLUID MECHANICS
121
FLUID MECHANICS
122
FLUID MECHANICS
The anticlockwise moment caused due to shifting of centre of buoyancy from B to B1 about
axis of ship
= F . B B1 = F . BM . tan θ = F . BM . θ (tan θ ⋍θ for small θ) (3.3)
As weight of the ship will remain same and portion a O a1 (coming out immersion) is same
as b O b1.
123
FLUID MECHANICS
𝛾𝐼 𝛾𝐼
∴ BM = =
𝐹 𝛾𝑉
𝐼
∴ BM = (3.5)
𝑉
where ‘V’ the volume of liquid displaced by the body.
Fig. 3.9 The stable and unstable equilibrium due to relative positions of M and G
𝑑 𝑑
OB = = depth of immersion OB = = depth of immersion
2 2
BG = OG – OB BG = OG – OB
GM = BM – BG = positive GM = BM – BG = negative
i.e. BM > BG i.e. BM < BG
Thus if BM > BG, GM is positive and body will float in stable equilibrium and vice-versa.
124
FLUID MECHANICS
125
FLUID MECHANICS
surfers in sea water wherein the buoyant force is more owing to higher density of sea
water than fresh water.
The naval architecture, ship building, marine engineering which involve design and
operation of commercial vessels, war ships, frigates, submarines require knowledge
of buoyancy and floatation to both designers and pilots and sea men. One must
understand why the ballast is filled when a submarine wants to dive deep in sea and
why it is released when it wants to surface. Similarly, one must understand that the
engine room is situated in the lower part of the ship so that the metacentre would
never fall below the centre of gravity for stability of the ship. One can say that the
shipping industry is served the most by the Archimedes Principle.
Let us not forget the aviation industry where though lighter compared to water, ‘air’ is a
fluid and the laws of buoyancy must be obeyed by balloons, air planes, helicopters
which comes naturally to ‘birds’.
The instruments such as wave rider buoy which measures the wave height or hygrometer
(used in measurement of density) or lactometer (used for measurement of purity of
milk called as “degree”). The inverter which is a source of uninterrupted power
supply for domestic as well as industrial use has “the distilled water” the level of
which can easily be understood by using a “float” kind of indicator. The rain gauges
having a floating mechanism installed in it were very common before the advent of
automatic rain gauges and digital measurements. The principle of buoyancy was used
for design of automatic gates by Bharatranta M. Vishwesaraiya for while designing
Bhatghar dam in Pune district of Maharashtra commissioned in 1927 are still
operative. All the above examples prove that the phenomenon of buoyancy and
floatation must be understood thoroughly who are in any kind of business related to
“fluids”.
126
FLUID MECHANICS
Ex. 3.1 : A cube of sides ‘a’ floats in water. Compute ranges of specific gravity of
cube material so that cube will float with axis vertical. Will the range change
for other liquids? Justify.
Solution :
Weight of liquid displaced = weight of body
Volume x 𝛾 = S 𝛾 a3
∴ Volume of liquid = S a3
𝑆 𝑎3
∴ depth of immersion h =
𝑎2
h = Sa
𝑑 𝑎
OG = =
2 2
𝑆𝑎
OB =
2
𝑎
∴ BG = (1 – S)
2
𝐼 𝑎4 𝑎
BM = = =
𝑉 12 𝑆 𝑎3 12 𝑆
For stable equilibrium
BM > BG
𝑎 𝑎
> (1– S)
12 𝑆 2
1
> S (1 – S)
6
1
S2 – S + >0
6
(S – 0.789) (S – 0.211) > 0
∴ S > 0.789 or S < 0.211
127
FLUID MECHANICS
Ex. 3.2: A cylindrical buoy is 2 m in diameter and 2.5 m long and weights 22 kN.
The specific weight of sea water is 10.25 kN/m3 show that buoy does not
float with its axis vertical
Solution:
Weight of liquid displaced = Weight of solid
Volume of liquid displaced x specific weight = 22
22
∴ Volume of liquid displaced = = 2.15 m3
10.25
2.15 2.15
∴ depth of immersion = = л = 0.68 ‘m’
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝗑4
4
BM < BG ∴ GM is negative
∴ buoy does not float with axis vertical.
128
FLUID MECHANICS
Ex. 3.3: Find the percent volume of an ice berg above the water surface if it floats
in sea water. Assume density of sea water 1010 kg/m3 and density of ice
berg 920 kg/m3.
Solution :
γ = ρg
Weight of water displaced = Weight of ice berg
∴ Volume of water displaced 𝗑 Sp. Wt. of water
= Vol. of ice berg 𝗑 Sp. Wt. of ice berg
∴ Volume of water displaced 𝗑 ρW 𝗑 g
= Vol. of ice berg 𝗑 ρice 𝗑 g
920
Volume of water displaced = Volume of ice berg 𝗑
1010
∴ Volume of water displaced = 0.9109 volume of ice berg
Ex. 3.4 : A wooden cylinder of specific gravity 0.66 is required to float in oil of
specific gravity 0.88. If diameter of cylinder is D and length L, calculate
the limiting ratio between L and D for cylinder to float in stable equilibrium
vertically.
129
FLUID MECHANICS
Solution :
Weight of oil displaced = Weight of cone
130
FLUID MECHANICS
131
FLUID MECHANICS
Ex. 3.6 : A wooden block 50 cm long, 25 cm wide and 18 cm deep has its shorter
axis vertical with the depth of immersion 15 cm. Calculate the position of
metacentre and comment on the stability of the block.
Solution :
GM = BM – BG = 0.0197 positive
∴ block is stable
132
FLUID MECHANICS
whose specific gravity is 0.5. Find the maximum height of the composite
cylinder for stable equilibrium in the water.
Solution:
ℎ
0.5 ℎ (3+ 2 ) + 3.60 𝗑 10−3
OG =
0.5 ℎ + 0.24
Let ‘d’ be depth of immersion :
Weight of cylinder = Weight of water displaced
л
𝗑 (0.2)2 𝗑 h 𝗑 0.5 𝗑 9810
4
л л
= 𝗑 (0.2)2 𝗑 d 𝗑 9810 + 𝗑 (0.2)2 𝗑 0.03 𝗑 8 𝗑 9810
4 4
133
FLUID MECHANICS
0.5 h + 0.24 = d
𝑑
OB = = 0.25 h + 0.12
2
1.5 ℎ + 0.25 ℎ2 + 3.6 𝗑 10−3
∴ BG = OG – OB = – 0.25 h – 0.12
0.5 ℎ + 0.24
𝐼
BM =
𝑉
л л
I = 𝗑 D4 = 𝗑 (0.2)4
4 4
л л
𝗑 D2 𝗑 d = 𝗑 (0.2)2 𝗑 (0.5 h + 0.24)
4 4
л
𝐼 4
𝗑 (0.2)4 0.04
∴ = л =
𝑉 𝗑 (0.2)2 𝗑 (0.5 ℎ + 0.24) 0.5 ℎ + 0.24
4
Ex. 3.8:
A cylindrical buoy is 2 m in diameter and 2.5 m long and weights 21.6 kN.
The density of sea water is 10055 N/m3. Show that the buoy does not float
with its axis vertical. What minimum pull should be applied to a chain
attached to the centre of the base to keep it vertical?
134
FLUID MECHANICS
Solution :
135
FLUID MECHANICS
Let an additional pull of ‘T’ kN be applied at the base to keep the buoy
vertical:
∴ Total weight causing displacement W᾿ = W + T
𝑊+𝑇
Volume of water displaced V᾿ =
10.055
𝑊+𝑇
V᾿ 10.055
Depth of immersion d’ = = 𝜋
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛
4
𝗑 22
𝑑 𝑊+𝑇 𝑊+𝑇
OB᾿ = = =
2 31.58 𝘹 2 63.17
As the additional weight is increased, the combined specific gravity G᾿
starts moving towards new metacentre M᾿ and finally they both coincide
and the cylinder treats in neutral equilibrium.
Combined weight (W + T) and buoyant force (W + T) acting upwards is
shown in Fig. Ex. 3.42(a).
W . OG = (W + T) OG᾿
𝑊.𝑂𝐺 𝑊 𝗑 1.25
∴ OG᾿ = =
𝑊+𝑇 𝑊+𝑇
B᾿G᾿ = OG᾿ - OB᾿
1.25 𝑊 𝑊+𝑇
= –
𝑊+𝑇 63.17
136
FLUID MECHANICS
𝐼᾿ л 10.055 7.897
B᾿M᾿ = = 𝗑 24 𝗑 =
𝑉᾿ 64 𝑊+𝑇 𝑊+𝑇
For neutral equilibrium
B᾿M᾿ = B’ G’
7.897 1.25 𝑊 𝑊+𝑇
= –
𝑊+𝑇 𝑊+𝑇 63.17
7.897 27 𝑊+𝑇
∴ = –
𝑊+𝑇 𝑊+𝑇 63.17
7.897 1705.59 − (𝑊+𝑇)2
∴ =
𝑊+𝑇 63.17 (𝑊+𝑇)
∴ 498.85 = 170.59 – (W + T)2
∴ (W + T)2 = 1206.73
∴ W + T = 34.738
∴ T = 34.738 – 21.6
∴ T = 13.13 kN
Ex. 3.9 : A solid cone made of a material of 0.8 specific gravity floats in water with
its apex downwards. Determine the least open angle if the cone is in stable
equilibrium.
137
FLUID MECHANICS
Solution :
138
FLUID MECHANICS
𝐻 3 1
∴ (ℎ ) = where ‘h’ is depth of immersion.
0.8
3ℎ 3𝐻
OB = OG =
4 4
∴ BG = OG – OB
3
∴ BG = (H – h)
4
𝐼
BM =
𝑉
л
I = d4
64
3
BM = h tan2 θ
4
For stable equilibrium BM = BG :
3 3
∴ h (tan2θ) = (H – h)
4 4
∴ h tan2θ = H – h
139
FLUID MECHANICS
∴ h (1 + tan2θ) = H
𝐻
∴ 1 + tan2θ =
ℎ
3 1
∴ 1 + tan2θ = √
0.8
∴ tan2θ = 0.0772
∴ tan θ = 0.27788
∴ θ = 15.520
∴ apex angle of cone = 2θ = 31.05
Ex. 3.10 : An equilateral triangular prism having axis 0.8 m long and sides of base
0.5 m floats in water with axis hz and has specific gravity of material 0.8.
Calculate water force exerted on vertical and inclined faces of the prism.
Also calculate CP in each case w.r.f. water surface.
Solution :
140
FLUID MECHANICS
0.06928
= 1 2ℎ
𝗑ℎ𝗑 𝗑 0.8
2 √3
Width of prism at the level of immersion = 0.45 m (using similar triangles)
Total pressure on vertical face.
1
PI = 9.81 𝗑 𝗑 0.39 𝗑 0.45 𝗑 0.13 = 0.11 kN
2
0.45 𝗑 0.393
36
Centre of pressure ℎ̅1 = 0.13 + 1
2
𝗑 0.39 𝗑 0.45 𝗑 0.13
Ex. 3.11: A weight 100 𝗑 103 N is moved through a distance of 6 m across the deck
of a vessel of 10 𝗑 106 N is moved through a distance of 6 m across the
deck of a vessel of 10 𝗑 106N displacement floating in water. This makes a
pendulum of 2.5 m swing through a distance 12.5 cm horizontally.
Calculate metacentric height of the vessel.
Solution:
141
FLUID MECHANICS
12.5
tan θ = = 0.05
250
Ex. 3.12 : A wooden cylinder of diameter ‘d’ and length ‘2d’ floats in water with its
axis vertical. Is the equilibrium stable? Take specific gravity of wood =
0.6.
Solution :
Ex. 3.13 : A cube of side ‘b’ floats with one of the its axes vertical in the liquid of
specific gravity SL. If the specific gravity of the cube material is SC, find
ratio of SL / SC for the metal centric height to be zero.
Solution :
144
FLUID MECHANICS
UNIT SUMMARY
3.10 Exercise :
3.10.1 Objective Questions:
1. When a body floats in water the buoyancy force equals _____
(a) The weight of volume of water displaced
(b) The weight of volume of water which is not displaced
(c) The weight of volume of total water in which the body floats
(d) None of the above
Ans: a
3. The horizontal force on a curved surface immersed in a liquid is equal to the force on-
(a) The vertical projected area,
(b) The horizontal projected area
(c) Curved surface
(d) None of the above
Ans: b
145
FLUID MECHANICS
(b) Width,
(c) Length
(d) None of the above
Ans: a
6. A basketball floats in a bathtub of water. The ball has a mass of 0.5 kg and a diameter
of 22 cm. What is the buoyant force?
(a) 3.7 N
(b) 2.4 N
(c) 1.8 N
(d) 4.9 N
Ans: d
146
FLUID MECHANICS
147
FLUID MECHANICS
12. When a block of ice floating in water in a container begins to melt the water level
in the container
(a) will rise
(b) will fall
(c) will remains constant
(d) will depend on the shape of the ice block.
Ans: b
13. An object with specific gravity 4 weighs 100N in air. When it is fully immersed in
water its weight will be
(a) 25 N
(b) 75 N
(c) 50 N
(d) None of the above.
Ans: b
14. A solid with a specific weight 9020 N/m3 floats in a fluid with a specific weight
10250 N/m3. The percentage of volume submerged will be
(a) 90%
(b) 92%
(c) 88%
(d) 78%.
Ans: c
15. An object weighs 50 N in water. Its volume is 15.3 l. Its weight when fully immersed
in oil of specific gravity 0.8 will be
(a) 40 N
(b) 62.5 N
(c) 80 N
148
FLUID MECHANICS
(d) 65 N.
Ans: c
16. When a small tilt is given to a body floating in stable equilibrium it will ____.
(a) not return to the original position
(b) return to the original position
(c) achieve the new position
(d) None of the above
Ans: b
Q. 3 Explain the term ‘meta-centre’ of a floating body. Derive an expression for the
distance between the meta-centre and the centre of buoyancy of a floating body.
Q. 4 Define metacentric height for a floating body and prove that it is given by –
𝐼𝑦𝑦
GM = 𝑉 = BG
𝑑
Vd is the volume of liquid displaced by the floating body and BG is the distance
between the centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy.
Q. 5 Derive an expression for the total pressure acting on plane surface kept in liquid at
angle ‘θ’ with the free liquid surface. Also determine the location of centre of
pressure.
149
FLUID MECHANICS
Q. 7 Prove that the centre of pressure of a plane surface is always below the centre of
gravity. What is the limiting position of the centre of pressure and when does it
occur?
Q. 9 Derive the expression for determining the centre of pressure for an inclined
triangular plane immersed in water.
3.10.3 Problems:
1. A cylindrical buoy is 2 m in diameter and 2.5 m long and weights 22 kN. The specific
weight of sea water is 10.25 kN/m3. Show that buoy does not float with its axis vertical.
Ans : BG = 0.9085 m, BM = 0.366 m, GM is negative, The cylinder will not float
with its axis vertical.
2. A solid cube of sides 0.5 m each is made of a material of relative density 0.5. The cube
floats in a liquid of relative density 0.95 with two of its faces horizontal. Examine its
stability.
Ans: GM = -0.03922 m , Negative sign means meta-centre (m) is below the centre
of gravity (G). Thus cube is in unstable equilibrium.
3. A solid cylinder of 200 mm diameter and 800 mm length has its base 20 mm thick and
of specific gravity 6. The remaining part of the cylinder is of specific gravity 0.6.
Ans: GM = -0.03014 m, metacentric height is negative. It means that metacentre
is below the C.G. (G). Thus the cylinder is in unstable equilibrium and so it cannot
float vertically in water.
4. A frog in a hemispherical pod finds that he just floats without sinking into a sea of
blue-green ooze with density 1.35 g/cm3. If the pod has radius 6 cm and negligible
mass, what is the mass of the frog?
Ans: 610 gm.
150
FLUID MECHANICS
5. A rectangular boat made out of concrete with a mass of 3000 kg floats on a freshwater
lake (ρ=1000 kg/m3). If the bottom area of the boat is 6 m2, how much of the boat is
submerged?
Ans: 0.5 m
6. The rock weighs 2.25 newtons when suspended in air. What will be the Buoyant
force In water, if weighs 1.8 newtons?
Ans: 0.45
151
FLUID MECHANICS
4 FLUID KINEMATICS
UNIT SPECIFICS
Through this unit we have discussed the following aspects:
Fluid flow classification
Streamlines, path lines, streak lines and stream tubes followed by derivation of continuity
equation.
Introduction to velocity and acceleration of fluid particles
Rotational and irrotational motion
Concept of velocity potential, stream function and flow net.
This is followed by large number of solved examples. The students are encouraged to
solve the objective questions, long answer questions and numerical problems to judge ones
understanding.
RATIONALE
This unit presents kinematical method to determine position, velocity and
acceleration of fluid particle at certain time. This is done by using the concept of
velocity potential, stream function and flow net. For this one should know the flow
classification and flow visualization which is introduced in the initial articles of the
unit followed by deriving the continuity equation
152
FLUID MECHANICS
PRE-REQUISITES
Mathematics: Derivatives (Class XII)
Physics: Mechanics (Class XII)
UNIT OUTCOMES
List of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
U4-O1: Fluid flow classification
U4-O2: Streamlines, path lines, streak lines, stream tubes
U4-O3: Continuity equation
U4-O4: Rotational and irrotational motion
U4-O5: velocity potential, stream function, flow net
4.1 Introduction:
Kinematics deals with space-time relationship problems of fluids without referring to the
forces responsible for this motion. kinematics is solely concerned with the effects of
motion on displacement, time, velocity, acceleration or any other quantity derivable
from displacement and time (and not the force). Before undertaking the study of
forces responsible for motion of fluids, let us first understand the space-time
relationship problems.
153
FLUID MECHANICS
154
FLUID MECHANICS
Unsteady flow is defined as the type of flow in which the velocity, pressure or density etc.
at a given point changes with respect to time. Thus,
∂p ∂p
( ∂t ) ≠ 0, ( ) ≠ 0 etc. (4.2)
x0 ,y0 ,z0 ∂t x0 ,y0 ,z0
However, it must be remembered that as velocity is a vector quantity, the change in its
magnitude or direction can make the flow steady.
∂V
( ∂S ) =0 (4.3)
t= constant
Where ∂𝑉 is change in velocity and ∂𝑆 is length of flow in the direction ' 𝑆 '.
Non-uniform flow is the flow in which the fluid characteristics at any given time
change with respect to space. Thus,
∂V
( ∂S ) ≠0 (4.4)
t= constant
155
FLUID MECHANICS
characteristic dimension (diameter in case of flow through circular pipe) and ν is the
coefficient of kinematic viscosity of fluid. It is established that if the Reynolds
Number is less than 2000 the flow is said to be laminar while the flow is turbulent for
Reynolds Number greater than 4000. If the Reynolds Number lies between 2000 to
4000 the flow is in transition state which is very unstable. It may be noted for flow to
be classified as Laminar or turbulent the characteristics of flow as explained are
important rather than merely the Reynolds number. It has been shown that for
Reynolds number greater than 2000 the flow can still exhibit the properties of the
laminar flow
In case of irrotational flows, fluid particles do not rotate about their mass center. A well-
known example of irrotational motion is of carriages of the Big (Ferris) wheel in a
fair ground. In that big wheel, although each carriage follows a circular path as the
wheel revolves, it does not rotate with respect to the earth center, the passenger
remains upright and continue to face same direction. Figure 4.1(a) and 4.1(b)
represent the irrotational and rotational flow respectively.
156
FLUID MECHANICS
Streamline is an imaginary curve drawn in space such that tangent to it any point gives the
direction of velocity at that point. The series of stream lines drawn in this manner
will represent the flow pattern at that instant. If the flow is unsteady, the streamline
pattern
(a) (b)
Fig.4.3 Stream line flow
Consider a two-dimensional flow (figure 4.3b). At any point along a stream line, u and v
are the components of tangential velocity V along x and y directions respectively.
The slope of the stream line at that point is dy/dx.
mathematically,
𝑑𝑦 𝑣
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 } (4.7)
𝑢𝑑𝑦 − 𝑣𝑑𝑥 = 0
Equation (4.7) is the differential equation of a stream line. If the velocity components are
known as functions of space co-ordinates, equation (4.1) can be integrated to give the
velocity of the fluid at that instant kinematically without referring to the force
responsible for the motion.
Path line is the line of motion traced by an individual fluid particle in a finite time.
The path line is defined by integration of the relation between velocity and
displacement in the equation,
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑑𝑡, 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑣𝑑𝑡, 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑤𝑑𝑡 (4.8)
158
FLUID MECHANICS
For steady flow, the particle velocity at any point in the flow field will not depend on time
and all particles that pass through this point will follow the same trajectories. Thus
path lines are identical to stream lines for steady flow (refer figure 4.5)
A streak line is the locus of particles which have passed through a fixed point. In other
words, a streak line is an instantaneous locus of all fluid particles that have passed
through a given point, i.e .streak lines give the spread of the fluid particles in the
space. In experimental work, streak lines are obtained by injecting dye or smoke into
the flowing fluid. The resulting-colored lines are the streak lines.
For steady flow path lines, stream lines and streak lines coincide with each other.
Stream tube can be defined as a group of stream lines. The bound surface of the stream
tube is made up of several stream lines. The property of stream line makes the concept
of stream tube very useful. Since at any point along the stream-line the velocity is
tangential to the stream line; the component of velocity at right angles to the stream
line is always zero. Therefore, there is no flow across the stream line. As the surface
of stream tube is made up of numerous stream lines, one can conclude that there is
no flow across the surface of a stream tube.
It may be understood that the streamline, path line, streak line, stream tube are imaginary
and do not exist physically in any flow.
159
FLUID MECHANICS
There are three basic principles for analyzing the problems in mechanics of solids.
These are:
i) Principle of conservation of mass
ii) Principle of conservation of energy
iii) Principle of conservation of momentum.
The modified forms of above principles in fluid mechanics are the Continuity equation,
Energy equation and Momentum equation respectively. Out of these three are
continuity equation is derived here. The other two will be dealt with in Fluid
Dynamics.
Continuity equation expresses the fact that mass can neither be created nor be destroyed.
In fluid mechanics mass is always expressed as mass per time for obvious reasons.
The mass is the product of volume and density. Volume per time is called as discharge
(Q=V/A, defined later) making the product of density and discharge as mass per time.
(mass= ρ Q). The discharge in turn will be calculated as product of velocity and area
160
FLUID MECHANICS
(Q = v A explained later). The conservation of mass thus takes the form of continuity
of discharge in fluid mechanics
Consider an elementary parallelopiped with sides 𝜕𝑥, 𝜕𝑦 and 𝜕𝑧 respectively. Refer figure
4.6.
Let P(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be the centre of parallelopiped and let 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝑤 represent velocities in 𝑥, 𝑦,
𝑧 directions respectively at point P. Let 𝜌 represents the mass density of the fluid.
Then the mass of fluid passing through area (δyδz) through point P is (𝜌𝑢𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧). Let
us assume that (𝜌𝑢) varies along x axis as u is velocity component along x axis.
The mass flowing through face PQRS per unit time will be
∂ 𝛿𝑥
= {𝜌𝑢 − (𝜌𝑢) }δyδz (4.9)
∂𝑥 2
Here it is to be understood that the mass (ρuδyδz) is varying (decreasing) along x axis for
a distance equal to half the length
∂ 𝛿𝑥
( (ρuδyδz) ∙ )
∂𝑥 2
on the left hand side of point P while on the right hand side it increases. Therefore, the
mass flowing out through face P´Q´R´S´ per unit time will be
∂ 𝛿𝑥
= 𝜌𝑢𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 + (𝜌𝑢𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧) ⋅
∂𝑥 2
∂ 𝛿𝑥
= {𝜌𝑢 + (𝜌𝑢) } δyδz (4.10)
∂𝑥 2
The net inflow of mass through faces PQRS and P´Q´R´S´ is obtained by subtracting
Equation (4.3) from Equation (4.4) i.e.
∂ 𝛿𝑥 ∂ 𝛿𝑥
= {(𝜌𝑢) − (𝜌𝑢) − (𝜌𝑢) − (𝜌𝑢) } 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑥 2
∂
=⎼ (𝜌𝑢) 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 (4.11)
∂𝑥
161
FLUID MECHANICS
Similarly, the net mass inflow through other two pairs of faces can be written as:
∂
=− (𝜌𝑣)𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
∂𝑦
∂
=⎼ (𝜌𝑤) 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 (4.12)
∂𝑧
Therefore, net mass inflow in the parallelopiped is summation of Equations (4.11) and
(4.12).
∂𝜌
For steady flow =0 (4.17)
∂t
162
FLUID MECHANICS
∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑤
+ + =0 (4.19)
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
For two dimensional flow,
∂𝑢 ∂𝑣
+ =0 (4.20)
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
Consider an elementary tubular shaped control volume of fluid along a stream tube. Refer
Fig. 4.7.
The flow takes place through the ends of the element and not through the surface of the
control volume (refer stream-tube). Let A, V and 𝜌 be the area of cross section, velocity
and mass density of fluid at the central section of the element respectively, and A, V
and 𝜌 are function of s only.
∂(𝜌AV) 𝛿𝑠
= 𝜌AV ⎼ . (4.21)
∂s 2
Rate of fluid flowing out of the element through 𝑅 ′ 𝑄 ′
∂(𝜌AV) 𝛿𝑠
= 𝜌AV + . (4.22)
∂s 2
Therefore,
163
FLUID MECHANICS
∂𝜌𝐴
∴ =0 (4.28)
∂𝑡
∂
(𝜌A𝑉) = 0 or 𝜌A𝑉 = Constant (4.29)
∂𝑠
or for different cross-sections of stream tube
⍴1 A1V1 = ⍴2 A2V2 = ⍴3 A3V3 = ⍴nAnVn (4.30)
This is the continuity equation for steady flow in one dimension applicable to compressible
as well as incompressible flow. For incompressible fluid 𝜌 is constant.
Therefore, continuity equation for steady, one-dimensional flow of an incompressible fluid
can be written as,
164
FLUID MECHANICS
∂
(AV) = 0
∂s
∴ AV = Constant
or A1V1 = A2V2 = A3V3 (4.31)
The product AV represents the volume of fluid passing the control volume per second and
is called as discharge and is denoted by Q.
Q = AV is discharge having dimensions [L3T-J].
Velocity is always tangential to the path of the fluid particle and is a function of space and
time. V = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡). It can be resolved in three components 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 along three
coordinates axes X,Y,Z axes respectively. It is defined as the distance traveled per
time V = ds/dt where ds is distance travelled by fluid in time dt.
The general expression for acceleration can be obtained by taking total differentials of
expressions for 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝑤. Since 𝑢 = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡), one can write the expression for
total change in 𝑢 as,
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
= 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑𝑡 (4.32)
∂𝑥 ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
∴ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑤 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡 (4.33)
∂𝑥 ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
∴ 𝑎𝑥 = =𝑢 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑤 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡 (4.34)
∂t ∂𝑥 ∂y ∂z ∂t
Here, 𝑎𝑥 is the Total acceleration in 𝑥 direction. Similarly the expression obtained for 𝑎𝑦
and 𝑎𝑧.
𝑑𝑣 ∂𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
∴ 𝑎𝑦 = =𝑢 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑤 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡 (4.34)
𝑑𝑡 ∂𝑥 ∂y ∂z ∂t
165
FLUID MECHANICS
𝑑𝑣 ∂𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
∴ 𝑎𝑦 = =𝑢 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑤 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡 (4.35)
𝑑𝑡 ∂𝑥 ∂y ∂z ∂t
The first three terms in Equations (4.33), (4.34) and (4.35) are called as convective
acceleration while last term represents local acceleration. The above equations can
be reduced to 2 - D or 1 - D form as the flow case may be.
During course of movement in the direction of flow, a fluid particle may undergo any one
or combination of following types of motion
(i) Linear translation or pure translation
(ii) Linear deformation
(iii) Angular deformation
(iv) Rotation
Linear translation is defined as the movement of a fluid element in such a way that it moves
bodily from one position to another position and the two axes ab and 𝑐𝑑 represented
in new positions by a′ b′ and c ′ d′ are parallel as shown in figure 4.8 (a).
(a) (b)
Fig.4.8 (a) and (b) Rotational and irrotational motion
Linear deformation is defined as the deformation of a fluid element in linear direction when
the element moves. The axes of the element in the deformed position and undeformed
position are parallel but their lengths change as shown in figure 4.8 (b).
166
FLUID MECHANICS
Angular deformation or shear deformation is defined as the average change in the angle
contained by two adjacent sides. Let Δ𝜃1 and Δ𝜃2 is the change in angle between two
adjacent sides of a fluid element as shown in figure 4.9(a), then, angular deformation
or
(a) (b)
Fig.4.9 (a and b) Rotational motion
1
shear strain rate = [Δ𝜃1 + Δ𝜃2 ] (4.36)
2
∂𝑣 Δ𝑥 ∂𝑣 ∂u Δ𝑦 ∂u
Δ𝜃1 = ⋅ = and Δ𝜃2 = ⋅ = (4.37)
∂𝑥 Δ𝑥 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 Δ𝑦 ∂𝑦
1
Angular deformation = [Δ𝜃1 + Δ𝜃2 ]
2
1 ∂𝑣 ∂u
or shear strain rate = [ + ] (4.38)
2 ∂𝑥 ∂y
Rotation is defined as the movement of a fluid element in such a way that both of its
horizontal as well as vertical axes rotate in the same direction as shown in figure 4.9
1 ∂𝑣 ∂u
(b). It is equal to ( − ∂y) for a two-dimensional element in 𝑥-𝑦 plane. The
2 ∂𝑥
rotational components are
1 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑢
𝜔𝑥 = ( − )
2 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
1 ∂𝜔 ∂𝑣
𝜔𝑦 = ( − ) (4.39)
2 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
1 ∂𝑢 ∂𝜔
𝜔𝑧 = ( − )}
2 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥
167
FLUID MECHANICS
Vorticity is defined as the value twice of the rotation and hence it is given as 2𝜔.
∂ ∂𝜙 ∂ ∂𝜙
(− )+ (− )= 0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑦
∂2 𝜙 ∂2 𝜙
+ =0 (4.41)
∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑦 2
Thus, any value of 𝜙 that satisfies Laplace's equation will correspond to some case of fluid
flow. Similarly substituting of 𝑢 and 𝑣 in expressions of rotational component.
168
FLUID MECHANICS
1 ∂v ∂u
𝜔𝑥 = ( ⎼ ) (4.42)
2 ∂𝑥 ∂y
1 ∂u ∂ω
𝜔𝑦 = ( ⎼ )
2 ∂𝑧 ∂y
We get,
1 ∂ ∂𝜙 ∂ ∂𝜙 1 ∂2 𝜙 2
∂ 𝜙
𝜔𝑥 = [ (− )⎼ (− )] = [− +
∂y ∂𝑥
] (4.43)
2 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑥 ∂y ∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑥 ∂y
1 ∂ ∂𝜙 ∂ ∂𝜙 1 ∂2 𝜙 ∂2 𝜙
𝜔𝑥 = [ (− )⎼ (− )] = [− + ] (4.43)
2 ∂z ∂𝑥 ∂𝑥 ∂z 2 ∂z ∂𝑥 ∂𝑥 ∂z
∂2 𝜙 ∂2 𝜙 ∂2 𝜙 ∂2 𝜙
= ; = (4.44)
∂𝑥 ∂y ∂y ∂𝑥 ∂z ∂𝑥 ∂𝑥 ∂z
∴ ω𝑥 = ω 𝑦 = 0
Thus, if the rotational components are zero then that flow is called as irrotational flow.
Hence the properties of a potential functions are as follows:
(i) If velocity potential (𝜙) exist, the flow is irrotational. (ii) If velocity potential (𝜙)
satisfies the Laplace’s equation, it represents the possible case of steady
incompressible irrotational flow.
It is defined as the scalar function of space and time, such that its partial derivative with
respect to any direction gives the velocity component at right angles to that direction
(in anticlockwise sense). It is denoted by 𝜓 (Psi) and is defined only for two-
dimensional flow. Mathematically, for steady flow 𝜓 = 𝑓(𝜓𝑥,𝑦) is defined as,
169
FLUID MECHANICS
∂𝜓
=𝑣
∂𝑥
∂𝜓 } (4.45)
= −𝑢
∂𝑦
∂u ∂v
+ =0 (4.46)
∂𝑥 ∂y
∂ ∂𝜓 ∂ ∂𝜓
(− )+ ( )= 0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥
∂2 𝜓 ∂2 𝜓
Or ⎼ + =0 (4.47)
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
Hence existence of 𝜓 also means a possible case of fluid flow. The flow may be rotational
or irrotational. The rotational component ωZ is given by,
1 ∂v ∂u
ωZ = ( ⎼ )
2 ∂𝑥 ∂y
Substituting the values of 𝑢 and 𝑣 from the Equation (4.33) in the above equation
1 ∂ ∂𝜓 ∂ ∂𝜓
ωZ = [ ( )⎼ (− )]
2 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑥 ∂y ∂y
1 ∂2 𝜓 ∂2 𝜓
= [ + ] (4.48)
2 ∂𝑥 2 ∂y2
170
FLUID MECHANICS
(i) If stream function (𝜓) exists, it is a possible case of fluid flow which may be rotational
or irrotational.
(ii) If stream function (𝜓) satisfies the Laplace equation, it is a possible case of irrotational
flow.
A line along which the velocity potential 𝜙 is constant, is called as equipotential line.
For equipotential line 𝜙=constant.
∴ d𝜙 = 0 (4.49)
But 𝜙 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) for steady flow
∂𝜙 ∂𝜙
∴ d𝜙 = d𝑥 + d𝑦
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
∂𝜙 ∂𝜙
= ⎼𝑢d𝑥 ⎼ 𝑣d𝑦 {∵ = −u = −v}
∂x ∂y
The line along which the value of stream function is constant is called as streamline.
i.e. 𝜓 = constant
∴ d𝜓 = 0
∂𝜓 ∂𝜓
d𝜓 = d𝑥 + d𝑦 as 𝜓 = 𝑓(𝑥,𝑦) (4.52)
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
171
FLUID MECHANICS
∂𝜓 ∂𝜓
= 𝑣d𝑥 – 𝑢d𝑦 ∵ = 𝑣; =⎼𝑢
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
For a line of constant stream function
d𝜓 = 0 or 𝑣d𝑥 – 𝑢d𝑦 = 0
∂𝑦 𝑣
∴ = (4.53)
∂𝑥 𝑢
∂𝑦
Equation 4.53 is equation of a streamline wherein represents slope of the line for which
∂𝑥
stream function is constant.
From Equations (4.51) and (4.53) it is clear that the product of the slope of the equipotential
line and the slope of the streamline at the point of intersection is equal to −1. Thus
the equipotential lines are orthogonal to streamlines at all points of intersection.
Considering the definitions and velocity potential and stream function and equations 4.39
and 4.42
∂𝜙
𝑢=− ∂𝜓
∂𝑥
∂𝜙
=𝑣
∂𝑥
𝑣=− and ∂𝜓
∂𝑦
= −𝑢
∂𝜙 ∂𝑦
𝑤=−
∂𝑧 }
172
FLUID MECHANICS
A grid obtained by drawing a series of streamlines and equipotential lines is known as flow
net. Obtaining a flow pattern or flow net for steady two-dimensional irrotational flow
involves solution of Laplace equation with given boundary conditions.
For any potential flow field, a flow net can be drawn that consists of family of streamlines
and equipotential lines. The flow net is useful in visualizing flow patterns and can be
used to obtain graphical solution by sketching the streamlines and equipotential lines
and adjusting the lines until the lines are approximately orthogonal at all points where
they intersect. Figure 4.10 shows a network of mutually perpendicular streamlines
and equipotential lines.
The streamlines which show the direction of flow at any point are so spaced that there is
an equal rate of flow dq discharging through each tube. The discharge dq is equal to
the change in 𝜓 from one streamline to the next. The equipotential lines are then
drawn everywhere normal to the streamlines.
173
FLUID MECHANICS
174
FLUID MECHANICS
175
FLUID MECHANICS
Solution :
𝑢 = 3𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑣 = 2𝑧 + 3𝑥2 , 𝑤 = 2𝑡 ⎼ 3𝑧, at (1,1,1)
𝑢=3+2=5
𝑣=2+3=5
𝑤 = 2𝑡 - 3
∴ |V| = √u2 + v 2 + w 2
= √25 + 25 + (2𝑡 − 3)2
= √50 + 4𝑡 2 − 12𝑡 + 9
at 𝑡 = 2 and 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 2, 𝑧 = 1
𝑢 = 6 + 4 = 10
𝑣 = 2 + 12 = 14
𝑤=1
∴ |V| = √u2 + v 2 + w 2
= √100 + 156 + 1 = √297
176
FLUID MECHANICS
= 18.89 units
As V depends on t the flow is unsteady.
The velocity changes in 𝑥 direction at given 𝑡. Therefore, flow is non-
uniform and 𝑉 depends on 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧. Therefore, it is three dimensional.
Ex. 4.2: In a three-dimensional fluid flow two velocity components 𝑢' and 𝑣 are 𝑢' =
2𝑥2 and 𝑣= 2𝑥𝑦𝑧. Find the third component 𝑤 such that the continuity
equation is satisfied.
Sol Solution:
3D continuity equation for steady flow is,
∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑤
+ + =0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝑤
4𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑧 + =0
∂𝑧
∂𝑤
= ⎼ (4𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑧)
∂𝑧
Integrate Equation (1) w.r.t. to 𝑧,
𝑤 = ⎼ [4𝑥𝑧 + 𝑥𝑧2] + C where, C =𝑓(𝑥,𝑦)
177
FLUID MECHANICS
𝑣 = 42 units 𝑢 = 4 units
|𝑉 | = √𝑣 2 + 𝑢2 = √1780 = 42.19 units
𝑣 42
𝜃 = tan⎼1 = tan⎼1
u 4
2 2
Equation 𝜓 = 𝑥 - 𝑦 represents a hyperbola.
The table gives values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 for some fixed values of 𝜓.
𝜓 𝑦 𝑥 = ±√𝑦 2 + 𝜓
1 0 ±1
1 ±√2
2 0 ±√5
1 ±√2
2 ±√6
178
FLUID MECHANICS
Ex. 4.4: A flow has a potential function 𝜙 given by 𝜙 = (𝑥3 - 3𝑥𝑦2). Derive the
corresponding stream function 𝜓 and evaluate magnitude and direction of
velocity at any arbitrary point 𝑥, 𝑦.
Solution. :
𝜙 = (𝑥3 - 3𝑥𝑦2)
∂𝜙
= 3𝑥2 ⎼ 3𝑦2 = 3(𝑥2 ⎼ 𝑦2) = ⎼𝑢
∂𝑥
∂𝜙
= 6𝑥𝑦 = ⎼𝑣
∂𝑦
∂𝜓
but = 𝑣 from definition of 𝜓
∂𝑥
∂𝜓
= 6𝑥𝑦
∂𝑥
Integrating, with respect to 𝑥
𝑥2
𝜓 = 6𝑦 + 𝑓(𝑦)
2
= 3𝑥2 𝑦 + 𝑓'(𝑦)
∂𝜓
∴ = 3𝑥2 + 𝑓'(𝑦)
∂𝑦
∂𝜓 ∂𝜙
but = -𝑢 by definition which is equal to
∂y ∂x
∂𝜓
∴ = -𝑢 = 3(𝑥2 - 𝑦2)
∂𝑦
= 3(𝑥2 - 𝑦2)
Comparing Equation (1) and Equation (2)
𝑓'(𝑦) = -3𝑦2
179
FLUID MECHANICS
Integrating
𝑓(𝑦) = -𝑦3 + 𝑐
∴ 𝜓 = 3𝑥2𝑦 - 𝑦3 + 𝑐
⟹ 𝜓 = 𝑦(3𝑥2 - 𝑦2 )+ 𝑐
as passing through origin, ∴ c = 0.
𝜓 = 𝑦(3𝑥2 - 𝑦2 )
𝑢 = 3(𝑦2 - 𝑥2)
𝑣 = 6𝑥𝑦
= √9(𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 )2 + 36𝑥 2 𝑦 2
= √9𝑥 4 + 9𝑦 4 + 18𝑥 2 𝑦 2
= 3√𝑥 4 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2
= 3(𝑥2 + 𝑦2)
6𝑥𝑦
Direction = 𝜃 = tan⎼1[ ]
3(𝑦2 −𝑥 2 )
2𝑥𝑦
= tan⎼1[ ]
𝑦 2 −𝑥 2
Ex. 4.5: A flow field is characterized by the stream function 𝜓 = 3𝑥2𝑦 - 𝑦3. Check
whether this is a possible case of fluid flow. Is this flow irrotational? If not,
calculate the velocity. Show that the magnitude of velocity at any point in
the flow field depends only on its distance from the origin.
Solution. :
To find out velocity components,
180
FLUID MECHANICS
∂𝜓 ∂𝜓
𝑢=⎼ 𝑣=
∂𝑦 ∂𝑥
𝑢 = ⎼ 3𝑥2 + 3𝑦2 𝑣 = 6𝑥𝑦
To check whether the flow is continuous,
∂𝑢 ∂𝑣
+ =0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
⎼6𝑥 + 6𝑥 = 0
∴ The flow is continuous.
To decide whether flow is irrotational.
∂𝑣 ∂𝑢
𝜔𝑧 = ⎼
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
1
∴ 𝜔𝑧 = (6𝑦 ⎼ 6 𝑦) = 0
2
∴ The flow is irrotational.
For Magnitude of velocity,
|𝑉| = √𝑢2 + 𝑣 2
= √+9(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )2 + 36𝑥 2 𝑦 2
= √9𝑥 4 + 18𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 9𝑦 4
|𝑉| = 3(𝑥2 + 𝑦2)
It proves that magnitude of velocity depends on distance from origin.
Ex. 4.6 : In a two dimensional fluid motion the stream function is given by 𝜓 = 4𝑥𝑦.
1 Sketch the stream lines.
2 Determine the potential function and sketch equipotential lines.
181
FLUID MECHANICS
𝑣 = 4𝑦 𝑢 = ⎼4𝑥
For Velocity at (3,1)
𝑢 = ⎼12 𝑣=4
|𝑉− | = √𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = √144 + 16 = 12.64
4
tan 𝜃 = ⎼
12
𝜃 = ⎼tan⎼1(0.33) = 18∘ 26′
∂𝜙
= ⎼𝑢 = 4𝑥
∂𝑥
Integrating w.r.t. 𝑥
𝜙 = 2𝑥2 + 𝑓(𝑦)
∂𝜙
∴ = 𝑓᾿(𝑦)
∂y
∂𝜙
But = ⎼𝑣 which is ⎼4y
∂y
∴ 𝑓᾿(𝑦) = ⎼4y
𝑓(𝑦) = ⎼2y2 + c
Substituting value of 𝑓(𝑦) in Equation (1)
𝜙 = 2𝑥2 ⎼ 2𝑦2 + c
182
FLUID MECHANICS
𝜙 = 2(𝑥2 ⎼ 𝑦2)+ c
Fig. Ex.4.6
∂𝑢 ∂𝑢
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑢 +𝑣 = (⎼4𝑥)( ⎼4) + 4𝑦(0) = +16𝑥
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
∂𝑣 ∂𝑣
𝑎𝑦 = 𝑢 +𝑣 = (⎼4𝑥)(0) + (4𝑦)(4) = 16𝑦
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
Ex. 4.7 : The stream function for two dimensional flow is given by 𝜓 = 2𝑥𝑦 in the
range of values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 between 0 to 5. Plot stream lines passing through
the points (1,1), (1,2), (2,2). The drawing need not be to the scale. Determine
the velocity in magnitude and direction at (1,2).
Solution :
∂𝜓 ∂𝜓
𝑢=⎼ = ⎼2𝑥; 𝑣 = = 2𝑦
∂𝑦 ∂𝑥
183
FLUID MECHANICS
𝑣
tan 𝜃 = = ⎼2 ∴ tan⎼1(⎼2) = ⎼63.43 (In second quadrant)
u
= 116.5660
Now, 𝑥 1 2 3 4 5 1
y 1 2 3 4 5 2
𝜓 2 8 18 32 50 4
Ex. 4.8 : For an incompressible flow represented by 𝜓 = 𝑥2 - 𝑦2, calculate the total
acceleration vector and show that it is proportional to the radius vector.
Solution :
∂𝜓 ∂𝜓
𝑢=− = 2y; 𝑣 = = 2𝑥
∂𝑦 ∂𝑥
184
FLUID MECHANICS
∂𝑢 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑣
= 0; = 2; = 2; =0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
∂𝑢 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑣
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑢 +𝑣 and 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑢 +𝑣
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
∴ 𝑎𝑥 = 0 + 2𝑥 (2) = 4𝑥
𝑎𝑦 = 2(2𝑦) + 0 = 4𝑦
and
∴ 𝑎 = √𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑦2 = 4 √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑎 = 4√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4r
Since acceleration a = 4r, it is proportional to radius r.
Ex. 4.9: If 𝜙 = 3𝑥𝑦, find 𝑥 and 𝑦 components of velocity at (1,3) and (3,3). Determine the
discharge passing between stream lines passing through these points.
Solution :
∂𝜙 ∂𝜙
𝑢= ; 𝑣=⎼
∂𝑥 ∂y
∴ 𝑢 = ⎼3𝑦; 𝑣 = ⎼3𝑥
Velocity component for (1,3)
185
FLUID MECHANICS
∂𝜓 ∂𝜓
but = 𝑣; = ⎼𝑢
∂𝑥 ∂𝑥
3𝑥 2 3𝑦 2
𝜓=⎼ + +c
2 2
Where c is constant of integration.
Discharge between the stream lines through (1,3) and (3,3).
3 27 27 27
𝜓(1,3) ⎼ 𝜓(3,3) = (⎼
2
+ ) ⎼ (⎼ + ) = 12 units
2 2 2
Solution :
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑤
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= =
−𝑥 2𝑦 5−𝑧
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
=
−𝑥 2𝑦
186
FLUID MECHANICS
Integrate
1
⎼ log 𝑥 = log 𝑦 + 𝐶1
2
1 1
⎼ [log 𝑥 + log y] = c1
1 2
∴ 𝑥√𝑦 = c
Now
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
⎼ =
𝑥 5−𝑧
⎼log 𝑥 = ⎼ log (5 ⎼ 𝑧) + c4
5−𝑧
log ( ) = c5
𝑥
5−𝑧
∴ ( ) = c6
𝑥
5−𝑧
at (2,1,1) ( )=2
𝑥
5−𝑧
∴ 𝑥√𝑦 = ( )=2
𝑥
187
FLUID MECHANICS
𝑦3 ∂𝜓
𝑢= + 2𝑥 ⎼ 𝑥2𝑦 = ⎼ by definition.
3 ∂𝑦
∴ Integrating w.r.t. 𝑦
𝑦4 𝑥 2𝑦2
𝜓=⎼ ⎼ 2𝑥𝑦 + + 𝑓(𝑥)
12 2
Differentiating w.r.t. 𝑥
∂𝜓
= ⎼ 2𝑦 + 𝑥2𝑦 + 𝑓´(𝑥)
∂𝑦
∂𝜓
But =𝑉
∂𝑥
∂𝜓 𝑥2
∴ = 𝑥2𝑦 ⎼ 2𝑦 ⎼ (∴ by given data)
∂𝑥 3
Comparing Equation (1) and (2)
2 2
𝑥2
⎼ 2𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑓´(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑦 ⎼ 2𝑦 ⎼
3
𝑥2
∴ 𝑓´(𝑥) = ⎼
3
𝑥3
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = ⎼ +c
9
Substituting value of 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑦4 𝑥 2𝑦2 𝑥3
𝜓=⎼ + ⎼ 2𝑥𝑦 ⎼ +c
12 2 9
Ex. 4.12 : A uniform steady incompressible flow field has a horizontal component of
velocity 4 m/s and a vertical component of velocity 3 m/s. Determine
expressions for velocity potential and stream function. Sketch the lines of
velocity potential and stream function.
188
FLUID MECHANICS
Solution :
∂𝜙
= ⎼𝑢 = ⎼4
∂𝑥
Integrating w.r.t. 𝑥 𝜙 = ⎼4𝑥 + 𝑓(𝑦)
∂𝜙
Differentiating w.r.t. 𝑦 = 𝑓´(𝑦)
∂𝑥
∂𝜙
But by definition = ⎼𝑣
∂𝑦
∂𝜙
= ⎼3
∂𝑦
∂𝜙
Comparing values of from steps 2 and 3.
∂𝑦
𝑓´(𝑦) = ⎼3
∴ 𝑓(𝑦) = ⎼3𝑦 + c
∴ 𝜙 = ⎼4𝑥 ⎼3𝑦 + c
∂𝜓
Now =𝑣=3
∂𝑥
∂𝜓
But = ⎼𝑢 = ⎼4 by definition.
∂𝑦
𝑓´(𝑦) = ⎼4
∴ 𝑓(𝑦) = ⎼4𝑦 + c
∴ 𝜓 = 3𝑥 ⎼4𝑦 + c
189
FLUID MECHANICS
Fig. Ex.4.12
Ex. 4.13: Determine whether following specified flows are rotational or otherwise.
Determine the expression for velocity potential in case of irrotational flow.
3
(i) 𝑢 = 𝑦, 𝑣=⎼ 𝑥
2
(ii) 𝑢 = 𝑥𝑦2 𝑣 = 𝑥2𝑦
Solution:
∂𝑣 3 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑢
(i) =⎼ , = 1, ≠
∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
∴ 𝜔𝑧 ≠ 0 ∴ Flow is rotational
∂𝑣 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑢
= 2𝑥𝑦, = 2𝑥𝑦, ≠
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
∴ 𝜔𝑧 = 0 ∴ Flow is irrotational
For (ii) to find out 𝜙; by definition.
190
FLUID MECHANICS
∂𝜙
= ⎼ 𝑢 = ⎼ 𝑥𝑦2
∂𝑥
Integrating w.r.t. 𝑥
−𝑥 2 𝑦 2
𝜙= + 𝑓(𝑦)
2
Differentiating w.r.t. y
∂𝜙
= ⎼ 𝑥2𝑦 + 𝑓´(𝑦)
∂𝑥
∂𝜙
But =⎼𝑣 by definition.
∂𝑦
∂𝜙
∴ = ⎼ 𝑥2𝑦
∂𝑦
∂𝜙
Comparing two values of
∂𝑦
191
FLUID MECHANICS
𝑢 = 4𝑥3, 𝑣 = -10𝑥2𝑦, 𝑤 = 2𝑡
∂𝑢 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑤
=12𝑥2, = =0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝑣 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑤
= -20𝑥𝑦, = - 10𝑥2, =0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
32 𝗑 (-40) + (-40)(-40) + 0 = 0
𝑎𝑦 = 320 units
∂𝑤 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑤
𝑎z = 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 +
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑡
∂𝑤 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑤
= 2, = = =0
∂𝑡 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
𝑎z = 2 units
𝑎a = 1536𝑖 + 320𝑗 + 2𝑘
192
FLUID MECHANICS
Solution :
𝑢 = 5𝑥3, 𝑣 = -15𝑥2𝑦, 𝑤 = 𝑇
∂𝑢 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑢
= 15𝑥2, =0= = =0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑡
∂𝑣 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑣
= ⎼30𝑥𝑦, = 15𝑥2, = 0, =0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑡
∂𝑤 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑤
= = = 0, =1
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑡
at (1,2,3), 𝑢 = 5, 𝑣 = -30, 𝑤 = 1
∴ |𝑉 | = √25 + 900 + 1
= 30.43 units m/s
∂𝑢 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑢
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 +
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑡
= 5(15)
𝑎𝑥 = 75
∂𝑣 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑣
𝑎𝑦 = 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 +𝑤 +
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑡
= 5(-60) + (-30)(-15) + 0 + 0
= 150
∂𝑤 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑤
𝑎z = 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 +
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑡
193
FLUID MECHANICS
=1
UNIT SUMMARY
1 If the fluid characteristics like velocity, pressure density etc. do not change at a
point with respect to time, the fluid flow is called as steady flow. If they change
with respect to time, the fluid flow is called as unsteady flow.
∂v ∂v
( ∂t ) = 0for steady flow. ( ∂t ) ≠ 0 for unsteady flow
x0 ,y0 ,z0 x0 ,y0 ,z0
2 If the velocity in a fluid flow does not change with respect to space, the flow is said
to be uniform flow otherwise non- uniform flow.
∂𝑉 ∂𝑉
( ∂𝑆 ) = 0for uniform flow. ( ∂𝑆 ) ≠ 0 for non-uniform flow
𝑡=𝑡1 𝑡=𝑡1
3 If Reynolds number in a pipe is less than 2000 the flow is said to be laminar, if it
is more than 4000 the flow is turbulent.
4 Differential equation of a stream line is 𝑢d𝑦 - 𝑣d𝑥 = 0.
5 For steady flow, path lines, stream lines and streak lines coincide with each other.
∂𝑢 ∂𝑣
6 Continuity equation in differential form is, + = 0 for a two dimensional flow.
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
7 Continuity equation can also be written as 𝑄 = 𝐴1𝑉1 = 𝐴2𝑉2 = constant.
8 The components of acceleration in 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧 directions are
∂𝑢 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑢
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 +
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑡
194
FLUID MECHANICS
∂𝑣 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑣
𝑎𝑦 = 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 +
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑡
∂𝑤 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑤
𝑎𝑧 = 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 +
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑡
9 The tangential and normal components of acceleration are :
∂𝑉𝑠 ∂𝑉𝑠
𝑎𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠 +
∂𝑠 ∂𝑡
∂𝑉𝑛 𝑉𝑠2
a𝑛 = +
∂𝑡 𝑅
10 Angular deformation or shear strain rate is given by,
1 ∂𝑣 ∂u
Shear strain rate = ( + )
2 ∂𝑥 ∂y
11 Rotational components of a fluid particle are :
1 ∂𝑣 ∂u 1 ∂w ∂𝑣 1 ∂𝑣 ∂u
𝜔𝑥 = ( ⎼ ) ; 𝜔𝑦 = ( ⎼ ); 𝜔𝑧 = ( ⎼ )
2 ∂𝑥 ∂y 2 ∂y ∂z 2 ∂𝑥 ∂y
195
FLUID MECHANICS
4.11: Exercise
3. The continuity equation is the result of application of the following law to the flow
field
(a) First law of thermodynamics
(b) Conservation of energy
(c) Newton’s second law of motion
(d) Conservation of mass.
Ans: (d)
6. A potential function
(a) is constant along a stream line
(b) is definable if a stream function is available for the flow
(c) describes the flow if it is rotational
(d) describes the flow if it is irrotational.
Ans: (d)
Ans: (a)
Ans: (b)
197
FLUID MECHANICS
10. The stream lines and equipotential lines for a flow field are
(a) Parallel to each other
(b) Orthogonal to each other
(c) Inclined with each other
(d) Parabolic
Ans: (b)
13. For a flow the velocity vector is expressed as V = 3xi -3yj, then the equation of the
streamline passing through the point (1,1) is
(a) xy = 1
(b) x2y = 1
(c) x2y2 = 1
(d) xy2 = 1
Ans: (a)
198
FLUID MECHANICS
14. Flow of liquid under pressure through long pipe lines of varying diameter is
(a) Steady flow
(b) Unsteady flow
(c) Uniform flow
(d) Non uniform flow
Ans: (d)
Q.4 What is the difference between Lagrangian and Eulerian methods of studying a
fluid flow ?
Q.5 Define : (i) Path line, (ii) Stream line, (iii) Stream tube and (iv) Streak line. What
is the special feature of concept of stream tube?
Q.6 Derive equation for stream line, 𝑢𝑑𝑦 − 𝑣𝑑𝑥 = 0, for a plane flow in 𝑥 - y plane.
Q.9 How are the flows classified? Give their governing conditions.
Q.10 Define :
(i) Steady flow and Unsteady flow
(ii) Uniform and non-uniform flow
What combinations of above flows are possible? Give one example of each
such combination.
Q.11 Distinguish between Rotational and Irrotational flow.
Q.12 Define 1 - D, 2 - D and 3 - D flows and give one example of each.
Q.13 Prove that in a two dimensional flow field, rotation of the element is given by the
expression.
1 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑢
𝜔= ( ⎼ )
2 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
Q.18 Explain the concept of stream function and velocity potential. Establish the
condition that the lines of constant stream function and velocity potential are
mutually perpendicular.
Q.19 What is a flow net? What are its uses? What are the methods of drawing a flow
net?
Q.20 Explain electrical analogy method of drawing a flow net.
Q.21 Distinguish clearly between Laminar flow and Turbulent flow.
Q.22 Classify the following flows as steady, unsteady, uniform and non-uniform.
(i) Constant discharge through converging pipe under constant temperature.
200
FLUID MECHANICS
4.11.3: Problems:
1. State whether the flow of liquid given by u = 4𝑥 and v = -4y is
(i) continuous (ii) irrotational
201
FLUID MECHANICS
2. For the above mentioned flow (u = 4𝑥 and v = -4y), determine the stream function if
the flow is possible.
(Ans: the flow is possible. 𝜓 = -2𝑥2 -2y2 +C)
3. Determine whether the following specified flows are rotational or otherwise.
3
Determine velocity potential (1) u = y, v = (- )𝑥 (2) u = 𝑥y2 , v = 𝑥2y
2
(Ans: (1) the flow is rotational, Velocity potential does not exist,
−𝑥 2 𝑦 2
(2) the flow is irrotational and ∅ = +𝐶 )
2
4. Velocity vector in a 2-D flow field is given by 𝑉‾ = 𝑥2𝑦𝑖 - 𝑥𝑦2𝑗 check whether flow is
possible. Also find whether the flow is irrotational. If so find magnitude of rotation at
a point (1,1).
(Ans : Flow is possible and rotational. 𝑤𝑧 = -1 unit)
5. For a two-dimensional potential flow, velocity potential 𝜙 = 𝑥(2𝑦 -1) find (b) whether
flow is possible and expression for stream function.
(Ans : flow is continuous, 𝜓 = - 𝑥 2 + y2 -y +c)
202
FLUID MECHANICS
5 FLUID DYNAMICS
UNIT SPECIFICS
Through this unit we have discussed the following aspects:
Forces acting on fluid in motion
Euler’s equation, Bernoulli’s equation and Momentum equation
Working of Venturimeter, orifice meter and pitot tube and use of these
equipment to measure discharge and velocity
Forces exerted by fluid flow on pipe bend
Experimental determination of coefficient of discharge of Venturimeter and
orifice meter
This is followed by large number of solved examples. The students are encouraged to
solve the objective questions, long answer questions and numerical problems to
judge ones understanding. The practical on determination of coefficient of
discharge of Venturimeter and orifice meter is included followed by a list of
references for additional reading.
RATIONALE
This unit introduces concept of fluid dynamics in which forces responsible for motion
are considered for analysis. The Euler’s equation followed by Bernoulli’s are then
derived which form the working principle of many discharge and velocity
equipment. Working of the Venturimeter, Orificemeter and pitot tube is therefore
discussed followed by applying Bernoulli’s equation to this equipment. The
momentum equation needs to be discussed when one is studying fluid dynamics
owing to its many applications in fluid dynamics
203
FLUID MECHANICS
PRE-REQUISITES
Mathematics: Derivatives (Class XII)
Physics: Mechanics (Class XII)
Fluid Mechanics: Unit I and II
UNIT OUTCOMES
List of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
(At the end of this unit, students will understand..)
U5-O1: Forces acting on fluid in motion
U5-O2: Euler’s equation
U5-O3: Bernoulli’s equation
U5-04: Momentum equation
U5-05 Working of Venturimeter, orifice meter and pitot tube
U5-06 Experimental procedure to determine coefficient of discharge of
Venturimeter and
orifice meter
5.1 Introduction:
In kinematics the space-time relationships of the fluid motion have been discussed
without considering the ‘forces’ responsible for the motion. In the present
unit the forces responsible for fluid motion are considered to determine the
204
FLUID MECHANICS
resulting accelerations and the energy change involved in the flow
phenomenon. This aspect of fluid motion is known as the Dynamics of fluid
flow. Similar to the mechanics of solids, the mechanics of fluids is governed
by Newton's second law of motion which states that Force = Mass ×
Acceleration. The fluid is assumed to be incompressible and non-viscous.
According to Newton's second law of motion, the net force Fx acting on a fluid
element in the X direction is equal to mass 𝑚 of the fluid element multiplied
by the acceleration ax in the x-direction. Thus,
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚. 𝑎𝑥 (5.1)
In the fluid flow various forces influence the fluid motion namely force due to
gravity (Fg), pressure (Fp), viscosity (Fv), surface tension (Fs) compressibility
(Fe) and turbulence (Ft). Out of these some are body forces and some are
surface forces. By body forces we mean the forces which act on the body like
weight of the body, pressure acting on the body. While the forces which are
acting along the body surface like shear forces or surface tension are termed
as surface forces. It is to be understood that all the forces may not act on the
fluid at the same time as well as all are not equally dominant as discussed in
the next section.
Thus, as mentioned in the earlier section, in Equation (5.1) the net force along X
axis,
205
FLUID MECHANICS
For flow where force due to turbulence Ft is negligible, the resulting equations of
motion are known as Navier-Stokes Equation
𝐹𝑥 = (𝐹𝑔 )𝑥 + (𝐹𝑃 )𝑥 + (𝐹𝑣 )𝑥 (5.4)
If the flow is assumed to be ideal, viscous force Fv is zero and equation of motion
are known as Euler's equation of motion which will have the force due to
gravity and pressure acting on the fluid
𝐹𝑥 = (𝐹𝑔 )𝑥 + (𝐹𝑃 )𝑥 (5.5)
Considering the first course on Fluid Mechanics, the present text deals with Euler’s
equation of motion only and thus other equations are out of scope of the
present syllabus.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.1
206
FLUID MECHANICS
The length ds is so small that curvature of the streamlines over this distance may
be neglected. The external forces which act on the chosen fluid element
causing the acceleration of flow are as follows:
1 The resultant force due to pressure acting on the end surfaces in the direction of
flow is,
∂𝑝 ∂𝑝
p dA ‒ (𝑝 + 𝑑𝑠) dA = ‒ ds dA (5.6)
∂𝑠 ∂𝑠
2 The component of gravity force of the fluid element in the direction of motion
is,
dz
‒𝜌 g dA ds sin𝜃 = ‒𝜌 g dA ds (refer Fig 5.1b) (5.7)
ds
The resultant external force acting on the free body in the direction of flow is sum
of the pressure force and gravitational force
∂𝑝 𝑑𝑧
∑ Fs = ‒ ds dA ‒ 𝜌 g dA ds (5.8)
∂s 𝑑𝑠
The sum of these forces is equal to mass multiplied by acceleration (Newton’s
second law of motion).
mass = m 𝜌 dA ds
∂V ∂S ∂V ∂V
as = = · =V
∂t ∂𝑡 ∂s ∂s
∂V
∴ m as = 𝜌 dA ds · V (5.9)
∂s
According to Newton's law of motion, using Equations (5.8) and (5.9)
∂𝑝 𝑑𝑧 ∂V
‒ ds dA ‒ 𝜌 g dA ds = 𝜌 dA ds V (5.10)
∂s 𝑑𝑠 ∂s
or
Dividing by dA ds
1 ∂𝑝 𝑑𝑧 ∂V
‒ ‒g =V (5.11)
𝜌 ∂s 𝑑𝑠 ∂s
207
FLUID MECHANICS
1 ∂𝑝 𝑑𝑧 ∂V
or +g +V =0 (5.12)
𝜌 ∂s 𝑑𝑠 ∂s
𝜕𝑝
+ g dz + V dv = 0 (5.13)
𝜌
Figure (5.2) depicts the relationship among the types of energy. It is to be noted
that because of the assumption that no energy is lost or added, the total head
remains constant and height of each head term varies as predicted by
Bernoulli's equation.
The Equation (5.15) can be applied for a single streamline. The sum of the three
terms is constant along any streamline, but the value of the constant may be
different for different streamlines in a given stream. If the equation is
integrated along the streamline between any two points indicated by suffixes
1 and 2.
𝑝1 𝑣12 𝑝2 𝑣22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2 (5.16)
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
209
FLUID MECHANICS
5.5.1 Limitations on Bernoulli's Equation:
Although Bernoulli's equation is applicable to a large number of practical
problems, there are several limitations that must be understood in order to
apply it properly.
1 There can be no energy lost due to friction.
2 There can be no heat transferred into or out of the fluid.
3 The equation is only applicable for flow of incompressible fluids.
4 There can be no mechanical devices between the two sections of interest
which would add or remove energy from the system, since the equation
states that the total energy in the fluid is constant.
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2 + losses (5.17)
𝜌g 2g 𝜌g 2g
In which the losses are also ‘Nm/N’ or in ‘m’ head of the fluid concerned. A further
modification can be made to take into account an addition or subtraction of
energy between the two sections.
Pumps, which convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy and turbines which
perform the reverse function are typical examples of this type of energy.
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + Z1 + HP = + + Z2 (5.18)
𝜌g 2g 𝜌g 2g
Where Hp is the head supplied by the device. Similarly,
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + Z1 ‒ HT = + + Z2 (5.19)
𝜌g 2g 𝜌g 2g
210
FLUID MECHANICS
Where HT is the head extracted by the device.
The term velocity head in the energy equation considers the velocity to be uniform
over a cross-section of the conduit which is seldom true in real fluids. In any
cross-section, velocities of particles will be different and therefore it is
necessary to integrate the kinetic energies of all portions of the stream to
obtain its total value.
If ‘v’ is the local velocity through an elementary area da (which is at right angles
to v) the mass flow per unit time will be (v da) and the kinetic energy of that
mass will be (ρ v da) v2/2
The total kinetic energy across the entire cross- section
ρ𝑣 3 𝜌
A=∫
𝐴 2
da =
2 𝐴
∫ v3da (5.20)
If the exact velocity profile over a cross section is known, the true kinetic energy
can be determined by using Equation (5.20).
It is convenient to use average velocity V and an energy correction factor ‘α’; hence
the kinetic energy at a section can be written as α (𝜌/2)AV3.
Thus the value of the energy correction factor 𝛼 can be obtained as
𝜌 𝜌
2
∫𝐴
V3 da = α AV3
2
1 𝑣 3
α= ∫ ( ) da (5.21)
𝐴 𝐴 𝑉
In which v is the local velocity over the area da and V is the average velocity over
the cross sectional area A.
The value of ‘α’ depends on the velocity variation across the area which in turn
depends on effects of the viscous shear. Hence ‘α’ is a measure of effects of
the viscous shear on a flow pattern. While applying the energy equation
between two sections, one must see whether the velocities at the two sections
are uniform or nonuniform.
211
FLUID MECHANICS
If the velocity varies over the cross section, the kinetic energy term needs
correction and therefore the energy equation takes the form in which 𝛼1 and
𝛼2 are the energy correction factors at sections 1 and 2 respectively.
𝑝1 𝛼1 𝑣12 𝑝2 𝛼2 𝑣22
+ Z1 + = + Z2 + (5.22)
𝛾 2g 𝛾 2g
The value of ‘α’ is greater than unity. The greater the variation in the velocity over
a cross section, the greater will be the value of ‘α’. For laminar flow in circular
pipes, in which the velocity profile is parabolic, the energy correction factor
a has a value of 2.0. For turbulent flow, the value of a varies between 1.01 to
1.15, the nomual values being between 1.03 and 1.06. Most fluid flow
problems are in the turbulent range of flow for which the value of ‘α’ is
slightly greater than unity. Assuming ‘α’ to be unity will not, therefore, result
in any appreciable error.
For the compressible fluids the Bernoulli's equation takes a different form because
of the fact that the mass density does not remain constant but varies with the
pressure. The details of this modifications can be referred in Streeter and
Wylie.
212
FLUID MECHANICS
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.3 Head variation in a tube
𝑑
F= (mV)
𝑑𝑡
F · dt = d (mV) (5.23)
F · dt = m · dV
V2 −V1
or F=m( )
t
𝑚
F= (V2 ‒ V1) (5.24)
𝑡
m
is known as mass flow rate.
𝑡
mass Volurne
= Density ⨯
time time
mass
= Density ⨯ Volume rate of flow
time
mass
= Density ⨯ Discharge = 𝜌 Q
time
214
FLUID MECHANICS
5.6.2 Momentum Equation for Two Dimensional Flow along a
Stream Tube:
It is assumed that fluid is incompressible, the velocity changes uniformly and pipe
material is non-elastic.
Fig. 5.4 shows a two dimensional problem in which V1 makes an angle α1 with 𝑥-
axis while V2 makes an angle a2.
Similarly
215
FLUID MECHANICS
Fy
tan 𝜃 = (5.29)
Fx
The momentum theorem is used especially for solving problems related to forces
on bends, elbows etc. in a pipeline, forces on stationary and moving plates or
vanes in hydraulic machines, jet propulsion, propellers, in finding out loss of
head due transitions in cross sectional areas, in finding out loss of energy in
hydraulic jump in open channels.
= ∫𝐴 𝜌(𝑣 ⋅ 𝑑𝐴) ⋅ 𝑣 = ∫𝐴 𝜌𝑣 2 𝑑𝐴
Momentum of fluid passing the section with area 'A' per second based on average
velocity
‘V’ = 𝜌 AV2
∫𝐴 𝜌𝑣 2 dA
∴ β=
𝜌𝐴v2
1 𝑣 2
β = ∫ ( ) dA (5.30)
𝐴 𝐴
𝑉
For Laminar flow through circular pipe β = 1.33. Since for turbulent flow velocity
distribution is more or less uniform β for turbulent flow is 1.01 to 1.05. In
general, α > β > 1
217
FLUID MECHANICS
(2) Flows with free surface.
Such a classification of problems does not necessarily change the method of
application of Bernoulli's theorem.
There are various devices for measuring the fluid flow which work on the principle
of Bernoulli’s equation, the discussions on which is beyond the scope of this
book. Keeping in view the first course in fluid mechanics Venturimeter,
Orifice meter are presented here followed by discussion on pitot tube which
is based on Bernoulli’s principle and used to measure velocity of flow.
5.8 Venturimeter:
Venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid flowing
through a closed conduit. It consists of five parts as shown in figure 5.6
i) Inlet section:
It is a starting portion of Venturimeter having same diameter as that of a pipe.
There is a pressure ring provided with a pressure tapping for measurement of
pressure head at the inlet section.
ii) Converging cone:
It is a conical section converging in the direction of flow which reduces the
area of flow. The angle between the converging walls of the upstream cone is
about 20∘ .
iii) Throat:
It is small tubular portion with uniform cross-section. The diameter of the
throat section ranges between 1/3rd to 3/4th of the diameter of inlet. It is
1
generally 2 of the diameter of inlet. Length of the throut section is equal to its
diameter. A pressure ring with pressure tapping is provided at the throat.
iv) Diverging cone:
It is a conical tube which diverges gradually in the direction of the flow
increasing the area of flow. The angle between diverging walls of this
downstream cone is about 6∘ . The angle of this cone is much smaller than
converging cone so that the length of the diverging cone increases. This
increased dimension provides sufficient length for the flow to diverge. This
avoids eddy formation and in tum the energy losses.
218
FLUID MECHANICS
v) Outlet section:
It is the end portion of Venturimeter and has the same diameter as that of the
pipe.
219
FLUID MECHANICS
5.8.1 Expression for Discharge Measurement Through
Venturimeter:
Let 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 be the cross-sectional areas at inlet section and throet section
respectively, Refer figure 5.7. Let P1 , P2 and V1 , V2 be pressures and velocities
at sections 1 and 2 respectively. Considering the flow is incompressible, if
the losses in venturimeter are neglected, applying the Bernoulli's equation
between sections 1 and 2.
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2
ρg 2g 𝜌g 2g
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
∴ + = +
ρg 2g 𝜌g 2g
𝑃1 −𝑃2
where = h = Difference in piezometric heads at sections 1 and 2 .
𝜌g
220
FLUID MECHANICS
Applying equation of continuity between sections 1 and 2.
Q = a1V1 = a2V2
𝑎2
or V1 = ( ) V2 (5.32)
𝑎1
𝑎 2
𝑉22 ‒(𝑎2 ) 𝑉22
1
=h
2g
𝑉22 𝑎22
∴ [1 − ]=h
2g 𝑎12
𝑎12 (2gℎ)
∴ 𝑉22 = (5.33)
𝑎12 − 𝑎22
𝑎1 √2gℎ
∴ 𝑉2 =
√𝑎12 − 𝑎12
Since losses are not considered the velocity 𝑉2 in Equation (5.33) gives theoretical
value.
𝑎1 𝑎2 √2gℎ
∴ Qth = (5.34)
√𝑎12 − 𝑎12
Qth = k √ℎ (5.35)
221
FLUID MECHANICS
𝑎1 𝑎2 √2g
Where k= (5.36)
√𝑎12 −𝑎22
Therefore,
𝑎1 𝑎2 √2gℎ
Qact = Cd · Qth ‒ Cd (5.38)
√𝑎12 −𝑎22
It is to be noted that ‘h’ is the difference of piezometric head of the fluid in the
meter. The Cd also accounts for effects of non-uniformity of velocity over
sections 1 and 2. Although Cd varies somewhat with flow rate, viscosity of
fluid and surface roughness, a value of about 0.98 is usual with fluids of low
viscosity.
A Venturimeter can also be used for measuring the flow rate through a pipe which
is held in either vertical or in an inclined position. A Venturimeter connected
to an inclined pipe is shown in figure 5.8
222
FLUID MECHANICS
Applying Bernoulli's theorem between section 1 and section 2 for no loss of energy.
We get,
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑣22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2
𝜌g 2g 𝜌g 2g
𝑣22 −𝑉12 𝑃1 𝑃2
∴ =( + 𝑧1 ) ‒ ( + 𝑧2 )
2g 𝑃g 𝑃g
V22 −V21
∴ =h (5.39)
2g
The same expression which we obtained in equation (5.30), except the difference
of elevation is included in equation (5.31). In figure 5.8 U-tube manometer is
used. The value of h is calculated with the help of a fomula
𝑆𝑚
h=𝑥( − 1) Here Sm > S (5.40)
𝑆
223
FLUID MECHANICS
𝑆𝑚
h = 𝑥 (1 − ) Here S > Sm (5.41)
𝑆
It is to be observed that the section at which the stream lines come closest together
is not at the Orifice plate but at a section approximately at a distance equal to
half of the diameter of the plate (d/2) downstream from it. This minimum
cross-section of the stream tube is known as vena contracta. Pressure tappings
are made at sections 1and 2; wherein section 1 is at a distance of pipe diameter
D from the orifice and section 2 is at vena contracta. The pressure at point 2
224
FLUID MECHANICS
is minimum and velocity maximum, as the area of vena contracta is
minimum.
Downstream of section 2 the flow lines break down into a highly turbulent area
wherein the flow regains its original diameter. The area of vena contracta 𝑎𝑐
is less than area of orifice a.
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑣22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2 [where Z1 = Z2]
𝜌g 2g 𝜌g 2g
where ℎ is the pressure head difference between sections 1 ‒ 1 and 2 ‒ 2 in terms of liquid
flowing through the pipe and can be determined using a piezometers or U-tube manometer.
By continuity equation we can write,
aV1 = acV2 (5.43)
where a is area of orifice and Cc is called as coefficient of contraction for the orifice.
ac = a · Cc
∴ aV1 = a · Cc · V2 (5.45)
𝑎
∴ V1 = Cc · · V2
𝐴
Substituting value of V1 in Equation 5.34
2
2 𝑎
𝑣2 ‒ 𝐶𝑐 ( ) 𝑣22
2
= 2gh
𝐴
225
FLUID MECHANICS
2gℎ
V2 = √ 𝑎 2
(5.46)
1−𝐶𝑐2 (𝐴)
This is the theoretical velocity at vena contracta since losses have not been taken
into account. To account for losses, coefficient of velocity Cv is introduced.
actual velocity
Cc = (5.47)
theoretical velocity
∴ V2 actual = Cv · V2 theoretical
2gℎ
V2 actual = Cv √ 𝑎 2
(5.48)
1−𝑐𝑐2 (𝐴)
Actual discharge Q = Ce · a · V2
𝐶𝑐 𝐶𝑣
∴ Q= 2
· a · √2gℎ (5.49)
√1−𝐶𝑐2 ( 𝑎)
𝐴
But Cc · Cv = Cd (5.50)
𝐶𝑑
∴ Q= 2
· a · √2gℎ (5.51)
√1−𝐶𝑐2 ( 𝑎)
𝐴
1
C= 2
(5.52)
√1−𝐶𝑐2 ( 𝑎)
𝐴
Q = Cd · C · a√2gh (5.53)
226
FLUID MECHANICS
In general, for high values of discharge the coefficient of discharge is
approximately 0.62 to 0.65 indicating that losses are fairly high. This
endorses the earlier stamen that Venturimeter is a better equipment as far as
accuracy is concerned in that it has coefficient of discharge greater than 0.9
meaning losses are less.
Refer figure 5.10. The point 2 is called as stagnation point as velocity of fluid at
that point is zero.
227
FLUID MECHANICS
𝜌𝑉12 𝜌𝑉22
P1 + = P2 + (Z1 = Z2)
2 2
At point 2, V2 = 0
ρv21
∴ P2 = P1 + (5.55)
2
Hence pressure at stagnation point (2) is greater than the static pressure at point (1)
𝜌𝑉12
by an amount , the dynamic pressure which is also evident from
2
Bernoulli’s equation.
If the elevation effects are neglected, the stagnation pressure is the largest pressure
obtainable along a stream line. It represents the conversion of all the kinetic
energy into a pressure rise. This principle is used in construction of pitot tube
(Fig. 5.11). Pitot tube provides one of the most accurate means of measuring
the velocity of fluid flow. For an open stream of liquid only single tube is
necessary as shown in figure 5.11. Applying Bernoulli's equation we get,
228
FLUID MECHANICS
V1 = √2gh (5.56)
In practice, it is difficult to measure the height ‘h’ above the surface of the moving
liquid. The tubes in 5.11 (b) may be connected to a differential U-tube
manometer as shown in figure 5.11(c) to result in a more convenient system.
The ‘h’ is obtained very easily as in case of Venturimeter.
𝑆𝑚
ℎ = 𝑥( − 1)
𝑆
∴ (5.57)
s
𝑉 = √2gx ( − 1)
s
Sometimes, both static pressure measuring tube and the stagnation pressure
measuring tube are combined in one device called pitot static tube as shown
in figure 5.12 (a) and (b).
229
FLUID MECHANICS
230
FLUID MECHANICS
5.11 Solved Examples:
Ex. 5.1 : A reducing bend is placed in A pipeline such that the direction of
flow of water is turned through 60∘ in the horizontal plane and the
pipe diameter is reduced from 0.25 m to 0.15 m. The velocity and
pressure at the entry to the bend are 1.5 m/s and 300 kN/m2 gauge
respectively. At the exit the pressure is 287.2 KN/m2 gauge.
i) Determine the force exerted by the bend on the water.
ii) What would be the force of the water on the bend?
Solution:
Angle of bead = 𝜃 = 60∘
Bend is in horizontal plane i.e. 𝑍1 = 𝑍2
A1V1 = A2V2
𝜋𝑑12 𝜋𝑑22
⨯ V1 = ⨯ V2
4 4
𝜋×0.252 𝜋×0.152
⨯ V1 = ⨯ V2
4 4
0.0491 V1 = 0.0177 V2
231
FLUID MECHANICS
∴ V1 = 0.3599 V2
But V1 = 1.5 m/sec
∴ V2 = 4.17 m/sec
∴ Q = A1V1 ‒ 0.0491 ⨯ 1.5
= 0.07365 m3/sec
The momentum equation in 𝑥-direction is given by equation
P1 A1 ‒ P2 A2 cos 𝜃 + Fx = Q (V2 cos 𝜃 ‒ V1)
300 𝗑 103 𝗑 0.0491 ‒ 287.2 𝗑 103 𝗑 0.0177 cos 600 + Fx
= 1000 𝗑 0.07365 (4.17 cos 600 – 1.5)
∴ Fx = ‒ 12145.19 N
Similarly, the momentum equation in y-direction is given by
equation
‒ P2 A2 cos 𝜃 + Fy = 𝜌 Q (V2 sin 𝜃 ‒ 0)
287.2 𝗑 103 𝗑 0.0177 cos 600 + Fy
= 1000 𝗑 0.07365 (4.17 sin 600 ‒ 0)
∴ 2541.72 + Fy = 265.974
∴ Fy = ‒ 2275.745
Force exerted by bend on fluid
= F = √F𝑥2 + Fy2
= √(−12145.19)2 + (−2275.745)2
= 12356.56 N
An equivalent force would be acted on by water on bend.
Ex. 5.2 : A 900 bend in a 15 cm diameter pipe carries oil of specific gravity
0.8 at 110 lit/sec under a pressure of 0.8 m of oil at the entrance.
Find the force on the bend.
232
FLUID MECHANICS
Solution:
Angle of bend = angle through which water get deflected = 𝜃 = 900
d1 = d2 = 15 cm = 0.15 m
S0 = 0.8
Q = 110 lit/sec = 110 𝗑 10‒3 m3/sec = 0.110 m3/sec
P1 = 0.8 m of oil
Fig. Ex. 5.2
Q = A1V1 ‒ A2V2
∴ A1 = A2 ⟶ V1 = V2
𝜋𝑑12
∴ Q= 𝗑 V1
4
233
FLUID MECHANICS
𝜋×0.152
0.110 = 𝗑 V1
4
∴ 0.110 = 0.0177 V1
∴ V1 = 6.22 m/sec
Applying Bernoulli's equation at 1 and 2 :
𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2
𝛾 2g 𝛾 2g
∴ V1 = V2 Z1 – Z2
P1 = P2
The momentum equation in 𝑥-direction :
P1 A1 + Fx = 𝜌Q (0 ‒ V1)
0.8 𝗑 0.0177 + Fx = ‒1000 𝗑 0.110 𝗑 6.22
∴ Fx = ‒684.2 ‒ 0.01416
= ‒684.2142 N
The momentum equation in 𝑦-direction
‒P2 A2 + Fy = 𝜌Q (V2 ‒ 0)
‒0.8 𝗑 0.0177 + Fy = +1000 𝗑 0.110 𝗑 6.22
∴ Fy = 684.2142 N
∴ Force on fluid = √𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑦2
=
√(684.2142)2 + (+6842142)2
= 967.62 N
∴ Force exerted on the bend will have the same magnitude but
opposite direction to F
234
FLUID MECHANICS
Ex. 5.3 : The centre line of tapered pipe AB slopes down from A to B at an
angle of 300 to the horizontal. The distance AB is 5 m and the
diameter increases uniformly from 100 mm at A to 150 mm at B.
The pipe carries petrol (S = 0.74) and pressure gauges are installed
at A and B. Find (a) the flow rate when the reading on the pressure
gauges are equal, (b) the pressure difference across AB for the same
flow rale when the direction of taper is reversed.
235
FLUID MECHANICS
2 2
𝑣𝐵 𝑎𝐴
l sin α = [ 2 − 1]
2𝑔 𝑎𝐵
2
𝑣𝐵 0.15 4
5 sin 30 = 0
[( ) − 1]
2g 0.1
v2B
2.5 = [5.0625 ‒ 1]
2×9.81
v2B ×4.0625
2.5 =
2×9.81
2.5
vB2 = = 12.0738
0.207
VB = 3.474 m/s
𝜋
Q = aBvB = (0.15)2 𝗑 3.474 = 0.0614 m3/s
4
= 61.4 liters/s
QAVA = aBvB 𝗑 3.747 = 0.0614 m3/s
0.0614 = (0.1)2 𝗑 vB
∴ vB = 7.82 m/s
𝜋
and 0.0614 = (0.15)2 𝗑 vA
4
∴ vA = 3.474 m/s
Applying the Bernoulli's equation between points A and B.
pA v2A pB v2B
+ + ZA = + + ZB
Spg 2g S𝜌g 2g
pB −pA v2A +v2B
= + (ZA ‒ ZB)
S𝜌g 2g
= 0.615 ‒ 3.11684 ‒ 2.5 = ‒2.5 ‒ 2.5 = ‒5
or PA ‒ PB = 0.74 𝗑 1000 𝗑 9.81 𝗑 5
= 36297 N/m2 = 36.297 kPa
236
FLUID MECHANICS
Ex. 5.4: A. Francis turbine has a vertical draft tube. The diameter of the tube
on the upper side is connected to the outlet of the turbine runner and
through which water enters is 600 mm and that of the outlet is 900
mm. The tube is running full with water flowing downwards and it is
6 m long with 1 m of its bottom length drowned in tail race. The
frictional loss in the vertical draft tube is K
𝑣12 −𝑣22
( 2𝑔
) where K is efficiency of conversion 90%. The velocity at
the entrance to the draft tube is 8 m/s. Find the pressure at the entrance
of the draft tube. Take datum at the water surface.
Solution:
Diameter D1 = 600 mm (inlet)
D2 = 900 mm (outlet)
Length of tube = 6 m + 1 m in drowned condition.
v21 −v22
Frictional loss = K( )
2g
V1 = 8 m/s
a1V1 = a2V2
𝜋 𝜋
(0.6) 2 𝗑 6 = (0.9)2 𝗑 V2
4 4
237
FLUID MECHANICS
1.696
V2 = = 2.66 m/s
0.636
𝑣12 −𝑣22
h𝑓 = k ( )
2g
(6)2 −(2.66)2
0.9 [ ]= 0.9 𝗑 1.474 = 1.3268
2×9.81
Ex. 5.5: In a vertical pipe conveying kerosene (s = 0.8), pressure gauges are inserted
at A and B, where the diameters are 150 mm and 75 mm respectively. The
point B is 3 m below A and when the rate of flow down the pipe is 20 liters/s.
The pressure at B is 9 kPa greater than at A. Assuming that the losses in the
pipe between A and B can be expressed as K𝑣𝜌2 /2g where vA is the velocity
at A, find the value of 𝑘.
238
FLUID MECHANICS
Solution:
Specific gravity of kerosene s = 0.8
DA = 150 mm, DB = 75 mm
l(AB) = 3 m, B is below A
Q = 20 lit/sec
pB ‒ pA = 9 kPa
𝑝𝐵 −𝑝𝐴 9
=
𝑆𝜌g 0.8×9.81
= 1.146 m of kerosene
Q = aA vA = aB vB
0.02
vA = Q/ aA = = 1.13 m/s
𝜋/4(0.15)2
0.02
vB = Q/ aB = = 4.527 m/s
𝜋/4(0.15)2
239
FLUID MECHANICS
Applying the Bernoulli's equation between points A and B:
2 2
𝑃𝐴 𝑣𝐴 𝑃𝐵 𝑣𝐵
+ + ZA = + + ZA + ZB + k𝑣𝐴2 /2g
𝑆𝜌g 2g 𝑆𝜌g 2g
0.875 = k(0.065)
∴ k = 13.46
Ex. 5.6 : Water is pumped at the rate of 300 litres/sec through a 30 cm pipe
upto a hill wop. On the hill top which has an elevation of 50 m, the
diameter of pipeline reduces to 20 cm. If the pump maintains a
pressure of 981 bar at the hill top, what is the pressure at the foot hills
having zero elevation? What is the power required to pump the
water?
Solution:
Discharge Q = 300 lit/sec = 0.3 m3/s
Diameter D1 = 30 cm = 0.3 m
Elevation Z2 = 50 m
Diameter D2 = 20 cm = 0.2 m
Pressure P2 = 981 bar = 980 𝗑 102 N/m2
240
FLUID MECHANICS
= 625.2 kN/m2
= 6252 bar
Pressure at the foot hills = 6252 bar
Power required to pump water to the hill top.
= 𝛾QH
= 9810 𝗑 0.3 𝗑 64.65
= 190265 Nm/s
= 190265 W
= 190.265 kW
241
FLUID MECHANICS
𝜋 5 2
The flow rate, Q= ( ) 𝗑 12.17 = 23.9 liters/sec
4 100
Velocity in the 20 cm pipe
0.0239×4
= = 0.76 m/s
𝜋×(0.2)2
242
FLUID MECHANICS
∴ PB = ‒0.0295 𝗑 9810
= ‒289.4 N/m2
(0.76)2 Pc
iii) Pressure at C : 0 + 0 + 0 = 1.5 + +
2×9.81 𝛾
𝑃𝑐
∴ = ‒1.529 m of water
𝛾
∴ PC = ‒1.5295 𝗑 9810 = ‒15.0 kN/m2
(0.76)2 𝑃d
iv) Pressure at : 5.75 + 1.8 + 0 + 0 = + +0
2×9.81 𝛾
𝑃d
= 7.5205 m of water
𝛾
= 7.5205 𝗑 9810 N/m2
= 73.8 kN/m2
243
FLUID MECHANICS
Ex. 5.8 : Water moves steadily through the turbine shown in the Fig. Ex. 5.8 at the rate of
0.23 m3/s. The pressures at (1) and (2) are 186.4 kN/m2 and ‒19.6 kN/m2
respectively. Neglecting heat transfer, determine the horsepower delivered to the
turbine from water.
Solution:
0.23 m3
Discharge Q=
s
Pressures at (1) and (2) = 186.4 kN/m2 and ‒19.6 kN/m2
Velocity at the 20 cm section:
0.23×4
‒ = 7.32 m/s
𝜋(0.2)2
Velocity at the 40 cm section
0.23×4
= = 1.83 m/s
𝜋×(0.4)2
Energy head available at (1) with reference to horizontal datum
passing section (2):
186.4×103 (7.32)2
= 1.30 + + = 23.035 Nm/N
9810 2×9.81
Energy head in the flow at section (2) :
19.6×103 (1.83)2
=0‒ + = ‒ 2.0 + 0.171
9810 2×9.81
= ‒ 1.829 Nm/N
244
FLUID MECHANICS
Ex. 5.9: A 1200 bend cum reducer has 300 mm diameter at inlet and 200 mm
diameter at the outer end. When it carries a flow 0.3 m3/s of water, the
pressure at that inlet section is 210 kN/m2. Assuming no energy loss
in the bend determine the force exerted by the water on the bend. The
bend is in a horizontal plane.
Solution:
Angle of bend = 𝜃 = 1200
d1 = 300 mm = 0.3 m
d2 = 200 mm = 0.2 m
Q = 0.3 m3/sec
245
FLUID MECHANICS
246
FLUID MECHANICS
∴ FX = ‒ 20025.03 N
The momentum equation in 𝑦-direction
P2 A2 sin 𝜃1 + Fy = 𝜌 Q (V2 sin 𝜃1 – 0)
‒ 169201.899 𝗑 0.03 𝗑 sin 600 + Fy = 1000 𝗑 0.3 (10 sin 600)
‒ 4395.99 + Fy = 6994.07 N
= √(−20025.03)2 + (6994.07)2
= 21211.29 N
The force exerted by the water on the bend will have same magnitude
but opposite direction to ' 𝐹 '.
Ex.5.10: A pipe of varying section has a sectional area of 3000, 6000 and 1250
mm2 at point A, B and C situated 16 m, 10 m and 2 m above datum.
If the beginning of the pipe is connected to a tank which is filled with
water to a height of 26 m above datum, find the discharge and the
velocity and pressure heads at A, B and C. neglect all losses. Take
atmospheric pressure equation to 10 m of water.
247
FLUID MECHANICS
Solution:
1) Cross sectional area at A, B, C 3000, 6000, 1250 mm2.
2) Datum heads at A, B, C 16 m, 10 m and 2 m.
3) Head of water 26 m.
Applying Bernoulli's equation to point D, A, B and C in turns.
Applying Bernoulli's equation to D and C:
2
𝑃𝐷 𝑣𝐷 𝑃𝐶 𝑣𝐶2
+ + ZD = + + 𝑥C
𝑃g 2g 𝑃g 2g
The point D and C are open to atmospheric, hence gauge pressure is
zero.
𝑣𝐶2
0 + 0 + 26 = 0 + +2
2g
𝑣𝐶2
= 24
2g
Q = aA vA = aB vB = aC vC
Therefore,
𝑄 0.0271×106
vA = = = 9.04 m/s
𝑎𝐴 3000
𝑄 0.0271×106
vB = = = 4.52 m/s
𝑎𝐵 6000
248
FLUID MECHANICS
i) Applying Bernoulli's theorem between water surface i.e. at D and
A
2 2
𝑃𝐷 𝑣D 𝑃A 𝑣𝐴
+ + ZD = + + ZA
𝜌G 2g 𝜌g 2g
𝑃A (9.04)
0 + 0 + 26 = + + 16
𝜌g 2×9.81
PA
= 26 ‒ 16 ‒ 4.1652 = + 5.8348 m of water
𝜌g
= 15.8348 (absolute) m of water
ii) Applying Bernoulli's theorem between D and B.
2 2
𝑃𝐷 𝑣𝐷 𝑃𝐵 𝑣𝐵
+ + ZD = + + ZB
𝜌g 2g 𝜌g 2g
𝑃3 (4.52)2
0 + 0 + 26 = + + 10
𝜌g 2×9.81
𝑃B
= 26 ‒ 10 ‒ 1.0413 = 14.958 m of water gauge
PB
= 14.958 + 10 = 24.958 mm of water absolute
249
FLUID MECHANICS
𝑃1 𝑝2 𝑣22 𝑣12
∴ h = ( + 𝑍1 ) ‒ ( + 𝑍2 ) = ‒
𝛾 𝛾 2g 2g
𝑆𝑚 𝑣22 𝑣12
and h = 𝑥( − 1) = ‒
𝑆𝑎 2g 2g
Qact Qth = Cd
Qact = Cd · Qth
Qact = Cd · a1 V1 = Cd · a2 V2
‒3 𝜋×0.12
∴ 50 𝗑 10 = 0.97 𝗑 𝗑 V1
4
= V1 = 6.56 m/sec
0.97 × 𝜋0.052
Similarly 50 𝗑 10‒3 = V2
4
∴ V2 = 26.25 m/sec
13.6 26.253 6.562
∴ 𝑥( − 1) = ‒
1.0 2×9.81 2×9.81
35.12−2.19
∴ 𝑥= = 2.61 m
12.6
∴ Deflection in a mercury manometer is 2.61 m.
250
FLUID MECHANICS
∴ V1 = 0.25 V2
Using Bernoulli's equation:
𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2 + hL
𝛾 2g 𝛾 2g
14×104 (0.25𝑉2 )2 𝑉22
+ = ‒6.29 + + 1.206
0.8×9810 2×9.81 2×9.81
17.83 + 3.18 𝗑 10‒3 𝑉12 = ‒6.29 + 0.05 V22 + 1.206
V2 = 20.79 m/sec
Rate of flow of oil through the pipeline
Q = a2V2 = 0.1767 𝗑 20.79
= 3.67 m3/sec
Solution:
d1 = 500 mm = 0.5 m d2 = 250 mm = 0.25 m
252
FLUID MECHANICS
𝑎1 𝑎2 √2gℎ 𝑎1 √2gℎ
Q = Cd = Cd 2
√𝑎12 −𝑎22 √(𝑎1 ) −1
𝑠 2
0.19635√2×9.81×ℎ
600 𝗑 10‒3 =
√16−1
600 𝗑 10‒3 = 0.22456 √ℎ
√ℎ = 2.67
h = 7.1389
𝑃1 𝑃2
h= = + (Z1 ‒ Z2)
𝑃𝐸 𝑃g
𝑃1 −𝑃2
7.1389 = + 0.5
𝑃g
𝑃1 −𝑃2
= 7.1389 ‒ 0.5 = 6.6389
𝑃g
253
FLUID MECHANICS
7.1389 = 𝑥 [0.999]
𝑥 = 7.146 m
Solution:
d1 = 75 mm = 0.075 m S0 = 1.0
Sm = 13.6 𝑥 = 25 cm ‒ 0.25 m
650 650
Q = 650 lpm = lps = 𝗑 10‒3 m3/sec = 0.01083 m3/sec
60 60
254
FLUID MECHANICS
Cd = 0.97
Using continuity equation:
Q = Cd a1V1 = Cd a2V2
∴ V1 = 2.53 m/sec
𝑆𝑚 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑣22 𝑣12
∴ h = 𝑥( − 1) = ( + 𝑍1 ) ‒ ( + 𝑍2 ) ‒ ‒
𝑆 𝛾 𝛾 2g 2g
𝑆𝑚 𝑉22 𝑉12
∴ 𝑥( − 1) = ‒
𝑆0 2g 2g
13.6
0.25 ( − 1)
1.0
0.0142 2 1 0.0142 2 1
=( ) ‒( )
𝑑22 2×9.81 2
𝑑2 2×9.81
1.0277×10−5
3.15 = ‒ 0.3262
𝑑24
1/4
1.0277×10−5
∴ d2 = ( )
3.15+0.3262
¼
= (0.2956 𝗑 10‒5)
= 0.041 m = 41 mm
255
FLUID MECHANICS
Ex. 5.15 : A venturimeter whose inlet and throat diameter are 100 and 40 mm
respectively is used to measure the flow of petrol (specific gravity =
0.78) along a pipe. The ends of a U tube containing mercury of
specific gravity 13.6 are connected to the meter at the inlet and
throat, and the difference of levels is observed to be 480 mm when
the discharge is 15.6 litres/s. Determine the theoretical venturihead
(neglecting friction) and hence deduce the coefficient of the meter.
Assuming that friction losses are directly proportional to the
measured venturihead, determine this head in mm of mercury when
the discharge is halved.
Solution:
Data : d1 = 100 mm = 0.1 m d2 = 40 mm = 0.04 m
Specific gravity of petrol = 0.78
Q = 15.6 lit/sec = 15.6 𝗑 10‒3 m3/sec
𝑥 = 480 mm of mercury = 0.480 m
Neglecting Losses:
𝑝1 −𝑝2 𝑉22 −𝑣12
Venturihead = + (Z1 – Z2) = =H
𝜌g petrol 2g
Sm 480 13.6
=𝑥( − 1) ‒ ( − 1) ‒ 7.889 m
S 1000 0.78
𝑣22 −𝑣12
∴ = 7.889
2g
Using continuity equation:
a1V1 = a2V2
(0.1)2 V1 = (0.04)2 V2
6.25 V1 = V2
Substituting in step (1)
256
FLUID MECHANICS
𝑣2
𝑣22 − 2
(6.25)2
= 7.889
2g
𝑣22 38.0625
[ ] = 7.889
2 g 39.0625
𝑣22 = 158.848
𝑣2 = 12.6 m/s
𝜋
Q = a2V2 = (0.04)2 𝗑 12.6
4
= 0.015838 m3/s ‒ 15.838 litres/s
Qactual 15.6
Cd = = = 0.9849
Qtheoretical 15.838
𝑉22 −𝑉12
h ‒ h𝑓 =
2g
𝑆𝑚 𝑉22 −𝑉12
or, 𝑥( − 1) ‒ 𝑥 =
𝑆 2g
𝑉22 −𝑉12
or, 16.7458 𝑥 ‒ 𝑥 =
2g
𝑉22 −𝑉12
or, 15.4358 𝑥 ‒ 𝑥 =
2g
257
FLUID MECHANICS
Ex. 5.16 : If in the venturimeter the quantity of water passing through the meter
will only be proportional to the measured venturihead h show that
the head lost in friction h1 is, proportional to the head difference hv
due to increased velocity.
A venturimeter has a coefficient of discharge of 0.98 and the
frictional loss in the diverging cone is twice that in the converging
cone. What will be total head lost in friction in the meter when the
measured difference head is equivalent to 500 m of water?
Solution:
𝑎1 √2𝑔ℎ
Qact = Cd 2
---(1)
√(𝑎1 ) −1
𝑎2
𝑎1 √2𝑔(ℎ−ℎ𝑓 )
Qact = 2
---(2)
√(𝑎1 ) −1
𝑎2
2𝑔ℎ𝑣
= 𝑎1
√(𝑎1 )2 − 1 where h ‒ h𝑓 = hv
𝑎2
258
FLUID MECHANICS
ℎ𝑣
∴ Cd = √ ---(3)
ℎ
ℎ𝑣
∴ Cd = √ ---(4)
ℎ𝑣 +ℎ𝑡
1−𝑘
∴ h𝑓 = h𝑣
𝑘
∴ hf ∝ hv proved
Ex. 5.17 : (a) Coefficient of discharge for a venturimeter used for measuring
the discharge of an incompressible fluid was found to be constant
provided that the rate of flow exceeds a certain value. Show that
water under these conditions the loss of head in the convergent
portion of the venturi can be expressed by kQ2 meter where k is a
constant and Q is the rate of flow in m3/s.
(b) A venturimeter with 75 mm diameter throat is installed in a 150
mm diameter pipeline. The pressure at the entrance to the meter is
259
FLUID MECHANICS
0.7 bar gauge and it is undesirable that the pressure should, at any
point, fall below 66 kPa absolute.
Assuming Cd for the meter as 0.96, find the maximum flow for
which it may be used. Take the relative density of the liquid as 0.75
and atmospheric pressure 750 mm of mercury.
(10 Marks)
Solution:
d2 = 75 mm = 0.075 m, d1 = 150 mm = 0.150 m
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑣22 𝑣12
(𝜌g + 𝑍1 ) ‒ ( + 𝑍2 ) ‒ h𝑓 = ‒
𝜌g 2g 2g
𝑎1 √2𝑔(ℎ−ℎf )
V2 =
√𝑎12 −𝑎22
𝑉22 −𝑉12
or h ‒ h𝑓 = g
2g
𝑎1 𝑎2 √2g(ℎ−ℎf )
Qact = a2V2 =
√𝑎12 −𝑎22
when head lost due to friction is not included in the equation, the
equation is known as an ideal equation from which we will get the
theoretical discharge (Qth).
260
FLUID MECHANICS
𝑎1 𝑎2 √2𝑔
Qth =
√𝑎12 −𝑎22
𝑎1 𝑧2 √2g
= Cd
√𝑎12 −𝑎22
h ‒ h𝑓 = 𝐶𝑑2 ℎ
ℎ𝑓
h=
1−𝐶𝑑2
𝑎1 𝑎2 √ℎf (1−𝑐𝑑2 )
Qact = Cd
√𝑎12 −𝑎22
𝐶𝑑 𝑎1 𝑎2 √2𝑔ℎ
Q=
√(1−𝑐𝑑2 )√𝑎12 −𝑎22
If Cd is constant then
h𝑓 = kQ2 proved
261
FLUID MECHANICS
𝑃1 1.7×105
h1 = = = 23.1 m absolute
( sp. gr. )ρg 0.75×1000×9.81
𝑃2 56×103 :
h2 = = = 7.61 m absolute
( sp. gr. )ρg 0.75×1000×9.81
𝐶𝑑 𝑎√2gℎ 0.96×0.01767√2×9.81×15.49
Q= 2
=
√(𝑎1 ) −1 √16−1
𝑎 2
= 0.07636 m3/s
Solution:
d1 = 0.15 m, d2 = 0.05 m, S = 0.8
262
FLUID MECHANICS
𝜋
a1 = 𝗑 (0.15)2 = 0.0177 m2
4
𝜋
a2 = 𝗑 (0.05) 2 = 1.963 𝗑 10‒3 m2
4
Sm 13.6
h=x( − 1) = 0.2 ( − 1) ‒ 3.2 m
s 0.8
∴ V1 = 0.11 V2
V2 = 7.97 m/sec
By using relation in step 1:
Qact = Cd · a2 V2
= 0.0149 m3/sec
𝑃1 𝑃
h=( + 𝑍1 ) ‒ ( 2 + 𝑍2 )
𝛾 𝛾
263
FLUID MECHANICS
𝑃1 𝑃2
∴ ‒ = h ‒ Z1 + Z2
𝛾 𝛾
= 3.2 ‒ 0 + 0.25
= 3.45 m of oil
Solution:
𝑣22
d1 = 0.2 m, d2 = 0.1 m, hL = 0.1
2g
By continuity equation:
264
FLUID MECHANICS
a1V1 = a2V2
𝜋 𝜋
𝗑 0.22 𝗑 V1 = 𝗑 0.12 𝗑 V2
4 4
∴ V1 = 0.25 V2
By Bernoulli's theorem:
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2 + hL
𝛾 2g 𝛾 2g
𝑃 𝑃 𝑣22 −𝑣12
(𝜌g1 + 𝑍1 ) ‒ (𝜌g2 + 𝑍2 ) = + hL
2g
𝑣22 −𝑣12
h= + hL
2𝑔
Sm V22 −v21
𝑥 (1 − 2)= + hL
s 2g
2 1−0.5625
0.075 = v2 ( )
2×9.81
V2 = 1.25 m/s
265
FLUID MECHANICS
= 7.9638 𝗑 10‒3 m
Sm 0.75
= 𝑥 (1 − ) = 0.3 (1 − )
s 1.0
= 0.075 m
hL −h
Cd = √
h
= 0.94
Ex. 5.20: Water flows at the rate of 10.5 liters/s through a 150 mm diameter
pipe in 0 which an orifice meter with a 100 mm diameter orifice is
fitted. If the pressure drop across the meter is recorded as a 18 mm
difference in levels of mercury in a U tube manometer, what would
be the coefficient of discharge Cd?
Solution:
Q = 10.5 lit/sec = 10.5 𝗑 10‒3 m3/s
d1 = 0.15 m, d2 = 0.10 m, 𝑥 = 18 mm mercury
𝑆𝑚 18 13.6
h=𝑥( − 1) = ( − 1)
𝑆 1000 1
= 0.2268 m
𝐶𝑑 ⋅𝑎√2𝑔ℎ
Q=
2
√1−𝐶𝑒2 ( 𝑎)
𝐴
266
FLUID MECHANICS
Assume
Cv = 0.95
Cd = Cc · Cv
Cd
∴ Cc =
0.95
𝜋
Cd × 4 (0.15)2 √2×9.81×0.2268
∴ 10.5 𝗑 10‒3 = 2 2
√1−( C𝑑 ) (0.10)
0.95 0.15
𝐶𝑑 2
10.5 𝗑 10‒3 √1 − ( ) (0.444) = Cd 𝗑 (0.0176) √4.445
0.95
2
√1−( 𝐶𝑑 ) (0.444)
0.95
= 3.53
𝐶𝑑
1−0.492𝐶𝑑2
= 12.46
𝐶𝑑
∴ Cd = 0.6076
Cd
∴ Cd = = 0.6396
0.95
𝐶𝑑 ⋅𝑎√2𝑔ℎ
Q=
2
√1−𝑐𝑒2 ( 𝑎)
𝐴
𝜋
0.6076+ 4 ×(0.15)2 √2×9.81×h
‒3
10.5 𝗑 10 =
2
√1−(0.6396)2 (0.125)
0.150
267
FLUID MECHANICS
√ℎ = 0.2848
h = 0.081 m
h = 12.6 𝗑 𝑥
h = (0.081)12.6
Solution:
d1 = 20 cm = 0.2 m, d2 = 10 cm = 0.1 m
= 0.0314 V1 = 0.00785 V2
V1 = 0.25 V2
By Bernoulli's theorem:
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2
𝛾 2g 𝛾 2g
268
FLUID MECHANICS
V2 = 14.60 m/sec
= 0.06878 m3/sec
Ex. 5.22 : A pitot-static tube is used to measure the velocity of water in a pipe.
The (5) stagnation pressure head is 6 m and static pressure head is 5
m. Calculate the velocity of flow assuming the co-efficient of tube
equal to 0.98.
Solution:
Stagnation pressure head = 6 m,
Static pressure head = 5 m
∴ h=6‒5=1m
Using equation of velocity using pitot tube find velocity.
V = CV √2gℎ
= 0.98 √2 × 9.81 × 1
= 4.34 m/s
Ex. 5.23 : A sub-marine moves horizontally in sea and has its axis 15 m below
the surface of water. A pitot-tube properly placed just in front of the
sub-marine and along its axis is connected to the two limbs of a U-
tube containing mercury. The difference of mercury level is found
to be 170 mm. Find the speed of the sub-marine knowing that the
specific gravity of mercury is 13.6 and that of sea-water is 1.026
with respect of fresh water.
269
FLUID MECHANICS
Solution:
𝑥 = 170 mm = 0.17 m
Specific gravity of mercury = 13.6
Specific gravity of sea-water = 1.026
𝑠𝑚
h=𝑥[ − 1]
s
13.6
= 0.17 [ − 1]
1.026
= 2.0834 m
Solution:
d = 0.3 m
Static pressure = 100 mm of mercury (vacuum)
Stagnation pressure = 0.981 N/cm2
Cv = 0.98
Static pressure 100 mm of mercury (vacuum)
−100
= 𝗑 13.6
1000
= ‒ 13.6 m of water
270
FLUID MECHANICS
= 0.981 N/cm2
Ex. 5.25 : An orifice is located in the side of a tank which issues oil of relative
density (T) 0.85 under a pressure of 0.2 kg/cm2 at a rate of 4.5 l/s.
The diameter of orifice at vena contracta is 3 cm. Find coefficient of
velocity
Solution:
Pressure 0.2 kg/cm2 = 2000 kg/m2
P 2000
Pressure head = =
𝛾 0.85×1000
H = 2.353 m
Discharge Q = 4.5/s = 4.5 10‒3 m3/sec
Diameter at V.C. = 3 cm = 0.03 m
m
Area of jet at V.C. = 𝗑 0.032
4
271
FLUID MECHANICS
= 7.068 𝗑 10‒4 m2
Velocity at V.C. = Q / ac
4.5×10−3
= = 6.366 m/s
7.068×10−4
𝑉
C4 =
√2 𝑔 𝐻
6.366
= = 0.937
√2×9.81×2353
Ex. 5.26: A tank has two identical orifices in one of its vertical sides. The
upper orifice is 3.2 m below the water surface and lower one is 5.5
m below the water 5 surface. If value of Cv for each orifice is 0.96,
find the point of intersection of two jets.
Solution:
Cv = 0.96
Positions of orifices as shown in Fig. Ex. 5.26
Let the jets intersect at point B.
From Fig. Ex. 5.26
272
FLUID MECHANICS
y1 = y2 + 23
x2 x2
√ =√
4H1 y1 4H2 y2
x2 x2
√ =√
4×5.5×y1 4×3.2×𝑦2
x2 x2
∴ =
4×5.5×y1 4×3.2×y2
∴ 3.2 y1 = 5.5 y2
But y1 = y2 + 23
∴ y2 = 3.2
x2
Cv = √
4H2 y2
𝑥2
96 = √
4×5.5×3.2
𝑥 = 8.055 m
273
FLUID MECHANICS
will be required for each orifice? Take coefficient of contraction and
velocity as 0.62 and 0.98 respectively.
Solution:
H = 2m
Demand of water 18 𝗑 105 lit/day
Cc = 0.62, Cv = 0.98
Cd = Cc 𝗑 Cv
= 0.98 𝗑 0.62
Cd = 0.6076
Q = 18000000 lit/day
= 18000 m3/sec
18000
= m3/sec
24×60×60
Qact = 0.2083 m3/sec
Qact
Cd =
Qth
274
FLUID MECHANICS
a = 0.02736 m2
𝜋
∴ 𝗑 d2 = 0.02736
4
d = 0.1866 m
= 18.66 cm
Ex. 5.28 : Water flows through a uniform diameter pipe of 200 mm. Points A
and B are at elevations of 6 m and 8 m respectively along the inclined
pipe. Pressures at A and B are 50 kPa and 20 kPa respectively. If
rate of flow is 60 lit/sec.
Determine :
(1) Direction of flow
(2) Head loss between these points
(Dec. 98, 4 Marks)
Solution:
D = 200 mm = 0.2 m ZA = 6 m ZB = 8 m
𝑄 60×10−3
VA = VB ‒ =
𝐴 𝜋/4×0.22
= 1.91 m/s
𝑉𝐴2 𝑉B2 (1.91)2
Velocity head, = =
2g 2g 2×9.81
= 0.186 m
P V2
Total head at A = + +Z
𝛾 2g
50
= + 0.186 + 6
9.81
= 11.283 m of water
275
FLUID MECHANICS
P V2
Total head B = + +Z
𝛾 2g
20
= + 0.186 + 8
9.81
= 10.225 m
∴ Water flows from A to B.
Head loss = Total energy at A ‒ Total energy at B
= 1.058 m
𝑎1 √2g
C=
4
√(𝑑1 ) −1
𝑑 2
𝜋
a1 = (0.2)2 = 0.0314 m2
4
𝑑
( 1) = 2
𝑑2
0.0314√2×9.81
∴ C= = 0.036 m5/2/sec
√(2)2 −1
∴ Q = C· Cd√ℎ
276
FLUID MECHANICS
UNIT SUMMARY
1 The study of fluid motion with the forces causing the flow is called as
dynamics of fluid flow, which is analysed by the Newton's second law of
motion.
2 Bernoulli's equation is obtained by integrating the Euler's equation of
motion states:
For a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible fluid, the total energy which
consists of pressure energy, kinetic energy and datum energy at any point
of the fluid is constant.
Mathematically, Bernoulli's equation.
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2
𝜌g 2g 𝛾 2g
𝑝
where = Pressure energy per unit weight = Pressure head
𝜌g
V2
= Kinetic energy per unit weight = Velocity head Q = C · Cd √ℎ
2g
277
FLUID MECHANICS
4. The kinetic energy correction factor is given by,
1 𝑉 3
𝛼 = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑎
𝐴 𝑉
5 The Bernoulli's equation with the kinetic energy correction factor is,
𝑃1 𝛼𝑉12 𝑃2 𝛼𝑉22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2
𝜌g 2g 𝜌g 2g
6 The momentum equation states that the net force acting on a fluid mass is
equal to the change in momentum per second in that direction.
d
This is given by F= (mV)
dt
The impulse momentum equation is given by
F · dt = d (mV)
7 The modified form of Impulse momentum equation is,
F = 𝜌Q (V1 ‒ V2)
8 The momentum correction factor 𝛽 is given by,
1 𝑣 2
𝛽= ∫ (𝑉) · dA
𝐴
278
FLUID MECHANICS
S is the specific gravity of liquid flowing through pipe.
𝑥 is the deflection in terms of manometric liquid and
𝑆m
h = 𝑥 (1 − ) where Sm < S
𝑆
Q = Cd · C · a√2gh
where Cd is coefficient of discharge.
a is cross sectional area of the orifice.
h is the head difference between section of the pipeline and Vena Contracta.
C is constant of venturimeter, can be expressed by,
1
2
√1 − 𝐶𝑐2 (𝑎)
𝐴
12. Pitot tube is used to find the velocity of a flowing fluid at any point in a pipe
or channel. The velocity is given by the relation,
V = Cv √2gh
Where Cv is coefficient of velocity of pitot tube.
h - rise of liquid in the liquid representing dynamic pressure head for pipes and
rise of liquid in the tubes above free surface of liquids for channels.
13. The discharge through triangular notch can be expressed as,
8 θ
Q = 15 Cd √2 g tan 2 H5/2
279
FLUID MECHANICS
𝑣𝑎2
ha =
2g
5.12: Exercise
280
FLUID MECHANICS
5. If in a fluid, while applying Newton’s second law of motion, compressibility
force is neglected then what equation is obtained?
a) Navier Stoke’s Equation b) Reynold’s equation of motion
c) Euler’s Equation of motion d) Continuity Equation for fluid flow
Ans: (b)
6. A point in a fluid flow where the flow has come to rest is called __________
a) Pressure point b) Initial point
c) Flow point d) Stagnation point
Ans: (d)
281
FLUID MECHANICS
11. The pipe fitting with water having velocity 120 m/min and gauge pressure is
3.5 bar over the pipe is located at 8 m above the datum line. The total head of
water in ....m.
a) 44.88m b) 45.88m
c) 43.88m d) 42.88m
Ans: ( c )
16. The ratio of throat diameter and pipe diameter for Venturimeter is
a) 1:1 b) 1:2
c) 1:3 d) 2:1
Ans: (b)
282
FLUID MECHANICS
17. The Venturimeter consists of which of the following parts.
a) Converging section b) Throat section
c) Divergent section d) All of the above
Ans: (d)
19. The pitot tube having coefficient of friction is point 98 and used to measure
velocity of water. The stagnation pressure recorded 3 m and static pressure is 2
m what is the velocity?
a) 4 m/s b) 5 m/s
c) 4.34 m/s d) 5.34 m/s
Ans: ( c )
283
FLUID MECHANICS
Q5 State Bernoulli's theorem.
Q6 State Bernoulli's theorem. Explain significance of each term in Bernoulli's
equation. State the assumptions made clearly.
Q. 7 Explain how Bernoulli's equation is applied to the real fluid flow problems.
Q. 8 Explain how Bernoulli’s theorem, applied to two points in flow, is modified
to account for
1. Loss of head
2. Installation of pump
3. Installation of a device like a turbine.
4. Non-uniform velocity variation in the pipe.
Q. 9. What is a venturimeter? Derive an expression for the discharge through
venturimeter.
Q. 10 Explain the principle of venturimeter with a neat sketch.
Q. 11 Discuss the relative merits and demerits of venturimeter with orificemeter.
Q. 12 What is pitot tube? How will you determine the velocity at any point with
the help of pitot – tube.
Q. 13 What is the difference between pitot tube and pitot static tube?
Q. 14 Define an orificemeter. Derive an expression for discharge through
orificemeter.
Q. 15 what are Cd, Cc, Cv. Express the relation in them.
Q. 16 Draw a net sketch of venturimeter and orificemeter and explain their parts
neatly.
5.12.2: Problems :
Q. 1 In an experiment on determination of hydraulic co-efficient of sharp-
edged orifice, 2.5 cm of diameter it was found that the jet issuing
horizontally under a head of 1 m travelled a horizontal distance of 1.6 m
from vena contrata in a course of vertical drop of 0.7 m from the same
284
FLUID MECHANICS
point. If a flat plate is held nomal to jet at vena contrata, force 5.6 N
would be exerted on the plate. Determine Cc′ Cv4 Dd for orifice.
Q. 2 In -a vertical pipe conveying oil of specific gravity 0.8, two pressure gauges
have been installed at A and B, where diameters are 16 cm and 8 cm
respectively. A is 2 m above B. The pressure gauge readings have shown
that pressure at B is greater than at A by 0.981 N/cm2. Neglecting all losses
calculate flow rate.
Q. 3 Water is flowing through a tapered pipe having diameters 300 mm and 150
mm at sections 1 and 2 respectively. The discharge through the pipe is 40
litres/s. Section 1 is 10 m above datum and section 2 is 6 m above datum.
Find the intensity of pressure at section 2 if that at section 1 is 400 kN/m2.
(May 2005, 6 Marks)
285
FLUID MECHANICS
By contracting the passage of flow at the throat, the velocity of flow and hence
the velocity head is increased. This increase in the velocity head causes change
in the pressure head. The pressure difference thus created is measured generally
by a U-tube manometer (differential) and the discharge through the pipe is
calculated by the formula.
Q = KCH1/2
Where,
286
FLUID MECHANICS
Q = Discharge
K = Coefficient of discharge of venturimeter
H = difference of head in terms of water column between inlet and throat
[𝑎1 𝑎2 (2g)0.5 ]
C = Constant of venturimeter given by = 0.5
[𝑎12 − 𝑎22 ]
Where,
a1 = area of inlet which can found out from inlet diameter
Procedure:
1) Venturimeter is set up on the flow table and connected to the inlet pipe.
2) The manometer is then connected to the respective pressure tappings
making sure that no airbubble is entrapped in the tube.
3) The water is allowed to flow through the venturimeter and the pressure
difference is noted using the differential manometer.
4) The discharge is measured using measuring tank.
5) Time required to collect water in the measuring tank is noted
6) The procedure is repeated for different discharges
Observations:
287
FLUID MECHANICS
Tabulated Calculations:
Graph:
1. The graph between ’ln Qact’ on y-axis and ‘ln H’ on x axis is plotted.
The slope of graphgives value of index ‘n’. While intercept gives the
average value of ‘M’. hence modified equation is Q = MHn
ln Q = ln M + n ln H
The above equation is similar to y = mx + c. Thus law of venturimeter or
calibration equation is mentioned by taking antilog of ln M. The value of
K is calculated by M = K C.
Calibration equation Q = ---------- H (*** Write value of M and n from graph)
Coefficient of discharge K = M/C
288
FLUID MECHANICS
2. For calibration the graph between Qa on Y-axis and ‘H’ on x axis is plotted.
The value of Qa is estimated by assuming certain value of H and compared
with value of Qa obtained from laws of graph as established above. Both values
must be same
Result:
Conclusion:
2) The calibration between actual discharge and differential head can be used for
measurementof discharge whenever venturimeter is used.
Remark:
290
FLUID MECHANICS
By contracting the passage of flow at the orifice, the velocity of flow and hence the velocity
head is increased. This increase in the velocity head causes change in the pressure
head. The pressure difference thus created is measured generally by a u-tube
1
Cd a1a2 2gH 2
Q 1
a 2 C 2 a 2 2
1 d 2
291
FLUID MECHANICS
manometer (differential) and the discharge through the pipe is calculated by the
formula.
Where Cd = coefficient of discharge,
a1= area of inlet which can be found out from inlet diameter d1,
a2 = area of orifice which can be found out from orifice diameter d2,
H = difference of head in terms of water column between inlet and orifice.
In the above equation put
1
a 2 a 2 2
1 2
K Cd 1
a 2 C 2 a 2 2
1 d 2
Q = KCH1/2
Where,
Q = Discharge
K = coefficient of discharge of Orifice meter
[𝑎1 𝑎2 (2g)0.5 ]
C = constant of Orificemeter given by =
[𝑎12 −𝑎22 ]0.5
Actually the coefficient K is never unity and hence it is determined experimentally. The
above formula can be written as
Q = MHn
Where M= K C
The constant M and n can be found out by plotting the result of the experiment on log-log
scale. Once the M and n values are determined the orificemeter is said to be calibrated
as discharge can then be easily calculated by measuring the head difference (as
explained above) only.
292
FLUID MECHANICS
Procedure:
1) Orificemeter is set up on the flow table and connected to the inlet pipe.
2) The manometer is then connected to the respective pressure tappings making sure that
no air bubble is entrapped in the tube.
3) The water is allowed to flow through the orificemeter and the pressure difference is
noted using the differential manometer.
4) The discharge is measured using measuring tank.
5) Time required to collect water in the measuring tank is noted
6) The procedure is repeated for different discharges
Observations:
1) Type of manometer : U Tube differential manometer
2) Inlet diameter = d1= ------------ m
3) Diameter of orifice = d2 = ------------ m
Observation table:
293
FLUID MECHANICS
Tabulated Calculations:
294
FLUID MECHANICS
Average of K =
Graph:
1) The graph between ’ln Qact’ on y-axis and ‘lnH ’on x axis is plotted. The slope of
graph gives value of index ‘n’. While intercept gives the average value of ‘M’.
hence modified equation is Q = MHn
ln Q = ln M + n ln H
2) For calibration the graph between Qact on Y-axes and ‘H’on x axis is plotted. The
value of Q is estimated by assuming certain value of H and compared with value of
Qact obtained from laws of graph as established above. Both values must be same
295
FLUID MECHANICS
Result:
Constant of orificemeter = C =
Coefficient of orificemeter = K =
a) Avg. value from calculation =
b) Value from graph =
Conclusion:
1) Discharge formula = Q = ------------ H (*** Write value of M and n from graph)
2) The calibration between actual discharge and differential head can be used for
measurement of discharge whenever orifice meter is used
296
FLUID MECHANICS
6 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
UNIT SPECIFICS
Through this unit we have discussed the following aspects:
ccc
Dimensional Analysis
Non-dimensional numbers
This is followed by large number of solved examples. The students are encouraged to solve the
objective questions, long answer questions and numerical problems to judge ones
understanding.
RATIONALE
This unit presents Buckingham’s π theorem to perform dimensional analysis which is necessary
especially when relationship between dependent and independent variables is to be
established empirically. The six non-dimensional parameters which are important in
establishing this relationship are then described.
PRE-REQUISITES
Mathematics: School level (Class VIII)
Physics: Dimensions (Class X)
297
FLUID MECHANICS
UNIT OUTCOMES
List of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
(At the end of this unit, students will understand..)
U6-O1: Use of Buckingham’s πtheorem for dimensional analysis
U6-O2: Non-dimensional parameters in fluid flow
6.1 Introduction:
Dimensional analysis is a mathematical tool used to establish a relationship between
various parameters governing a phenomenon with the help of their dimensions.
Many fluid flow problems are very complex in nature making it very difficult to
obtain their analytical solutions. The solutions of such problems are therefore
based upon combination of physical analysis and experimental studies. The
effect of different variables on the phenomenon under study and their
interdependence is observed by experimentation. Dimensional analysis
reduces the number of experiments by determining an empirical relation
connecting the parameters and grouping them in various non-dimensional
forms. Before the dimensional analysis is carried out, the variables controlling
the phenomenon are identified and expressed in terms of primary dimensions.
The phenomenon under consideration is then expressed by dimensionally
homogeneous equations.
6.2 Dimensions:
As mentioned earlier, various physical quantities are required to describe a given
phenomenon. These quantities can be described by a set of 'fundamental or
primary units'. The primary units are mass, length, time and temperature
298
FLUID MECHANICS
299
FLUID MECHANICS
Dimensions Unit of
Sr. No. Quantity Symbol MLT Measurement
System SI System
(A) Geometric
2 Area a, A L2 m2
3 Volume V L3 m3
4 Slope S - -
(B) Kinematic
6 Time T, t T sec.
(C) Dynamic
15 Mass M, m M kg
300
FLUID MECHANICS
16 Force F MLT-2 N
17 Weight W MLT-2 N
20 Specific gravity S - -
⩝ M-1L3 m3/kg
21 Specific volume
⩝ M-1L2T2 m3/N
27 Moment M ML2T-2 Nm
28 Momentum M MLT-1 kg m / s
Impulse I or N / s
Note : Friction factor ‘f’, energy correction factor ‘α’, momentum correction factor
‘β’, efficiency ‘η’ are dimensionless quantities.
301
FLUID MECHANICS
Substituting dimensions
Dimensions of L.H.S. = [L3 T-1]
Dimensions of R.H.S. = [LT-2]1/2 [L] . [L]3/2
∴ [L3 T-1] = [LT-2]1/2 [L] . [L]3/2
∴ [L3 T-1] = [L3 T-1]
This equation will hold good as long as all variables are consistent i.e. all variables
should be substituted in same system of units. Dimensionally non-consistent
parameters, for e.g. discharge Q in litre/s and g in m/s2, if substituted the
equation will not remain valid in the given form. This indicates that the
equation of flow over the weir is dimensionally homogeneous.
However, there are several equations which are dimensionally non-homogeneous.
For example, a steady uniform flow in an open channel with cement lining can
be expressed (in MKS units) as,
U = 90√𝑅𝑆 6.2)
Where U = Velocity of flow [LT-1]
R= Hydraulic Radius [L]
S= Channel slope (no dimension)
∴ [LT-1] ≠ [L1/2]
This indicates that the above equation is dimensionally non-homogeneous.
[L1/2 ]
Consequently, it is implied that '90' has the dimensions of i.e. m1/2/s in
T
MKS units. Thus in FPS units, this equation will be expressed as U = 163√RS.
(∵ 1 m = 3.281 ft)
303
FLUID MECHANICS
Guidelines:
1 None of the repeating variables should be dimensionless.
2 No two of the repeating variables should have the same dimensions i.e. they should
not form a dimensionless parameter among themselves.
3 Repeating variables should contain all ‘m’ dimensions collectively.
4 Dependent variables should not be selected as repeating variables.
5 Generally, the first repeating variable should be from those variables which
describe 'Geometry of flow, e.g. length, diameter, height, breadth etc.
6 Second repeating variable should be from those variables which describe 'flow
property' i.e. velocity, acceleration, force, power etc.
7 The third variable should be from those variables which describe ‘fluid property’,
e.g. viscosity, mass density, surface tension etc.
Note: Generally, mass density 𝜌, velocity 𝑣 and length 𝑙 are taken as repeating
variables for fluid mechanics problems. Generally, the first term on R.H.S, of the
given problem indicates repeating variables e.g. prove that R = 𝜌L2v2𝜙 (Re, M).
Here 𝜌, v, L are the repeating variables)
8 Raise the repeating variables to unknown powers and combine them with other
variables one after the other to form dimensionless groups.
304
FLUID MECHANICS
9 Equate exponents of 𝜋 term (M, L, T) to zero. Express the final expression in terms
of all ‘n‒m’ dimensionless groups operations with π term:
i) A dimensionless variable is a π term itself. e.g. 𝜃0, efficiency 𝜂.
ii) Ratio of two variables with same dimensions forms a π term by observation
e.g. L/D, H/D
iii) Any 𝜋 term can be multiplied or divided by any numerical number or by any
other π term 3π1, π2/5, π1/π2, π3/π4.
3/2
iv) A π term can be raised to any power. e.g. 𝜋12 , 𝜋1−2 , 𝜋1 .
The above steps can be understood better by solving a numerical problem as given
below.
Ex. 1. Drag on a body depends upon its characteristic length l, speed v, mass density
ρ, viscosity µ and gravitational acceleration g. Obtain an expression for drag F
in terms of dimensionless parameters using Buckingham's 𝜋 theorem.
Solution :
𝑓(F, 𝑙, v, 𝜌, 𝜇, g) = 0 or constant
Number of variables = 6
Dimensions
F 𝑙 v 𝜌 𝜇 g
[MLT‒2] [L] [LT‒1] [ML‒3] [ML‒1T‒1] [LT‒2]
Number of ' 𝑚 ' primary dimensions involved = 3
∴ Number of π terms = 6 ‒ 3 = 3
∴ 𝑓1(𝜋1, 𝜋2, 𝜋3) = 0 or constant.
∴ 𝑥1 = ‒1, y1 = ‒2, z1 = ‒2
F
∴ 𝜋1 = 𝜌‒1𝑣‒2 𝑙 ‒2 F =
𝜌v2 𝜌2
𝜋2 = 𝜌𝑥2𝑣 y2 𝑙 𝑧2 𝜇
[M0 L0 T0] = [ML−3 ]x2 [LT −1 ]y2 [ L]z2 [ML−1 T −1 ]
∴ 0 = 𝑥2 + 1, 0 = ‒3𝑥2 + y2 + z2 ‒ 1 0 = ‒y2 ‒ 1
𝑥2 = ‒ 1 z2 = ‒ 1 y2 = ‒ 1
𝜇 1 1
∴ 𝜋2 = 𝜌-1𝑣 -1l-1𝜇 = = = 𝑅𝑒 (𝜋2 = )
𝜌𝑣𝑙 𝑅𝑒 𝜋2
∴ 𝜋3 = 𝜌 𝑥3 𝑣 𝑦3 𝑙 𝑧3 𝑔
[M0 L0 T0] = [ML−3 ]𝑥3 [𝐿 T −1 ]𝑦3 [ L𝑧3 [LT −2 ]
∴ 0 = 𝑥3, 0 = ‒3𝑥3 + y3 + z3 + 1 0 = ‒y3 ‒ 2
∴ 𝑥3 = 0, z3 = 1, y3 = ‒2
𝑔𝑙 𝑣 1
∴ 𝜋3 = 𝜌0 𝑣‒2 lL g = 2= = Fr … (𝜋3 = )
𝑣 √𝑔𝑙 𝜋3
𝐹
∴ 𝑓1 ( 2 2 , 𝑅𝑒 , 𝐹𝑟 ) = 0 or constant
𝜌𝑣 𝚥
F
∴ = 𝜙 (Re, Fr)
𝜌𝑓 2 𝑣 2
306
FLUID MECHANICS
307
FLUID MECHANICS
Application: Incompressible fluid flows with dominant viscous force e.g. pipe flow,
motion of fully submerged bodies like submarine, Torpedo, airplane etc.
inertia force ½
W=( )
surface tension force
½
𝜌𝐿2 𝐯 2 𝑣
=( ) = (6.8)
𝜎𝐿 𝜎
√𝜌𝐿
Application: Study of droplets or capillary rise where a thin film is involved or depth
of flow is small.
308
FLUID MECHANICS
Ex. 6.1: The variables controlling the motion of a floating vessels through water
are the of the water and the gravitational acceleration g. Derive an
expression for F by dimensional analysis.
Solution:
𝑓(F, V, 𝑙, 𝜌, 𝜇, g) = 0 or constant
Dimensions
F V 𝑙 𝜌 𝜇 g
[MLT‒2] [LT‒1] [L] [ML‒3] [ML‒1T‒1] [LT‒2]
Number of variables n = 6
Number of primary dimensions m = 3
∴ Number of 𝜋 terms n ‒ m = 3
∴ 𝑓(𝜋1, 𝜋2, 𝜋3) = 0 or constant
Now, 𝜋2 = 𝜌x2 V 𝑦2 𝑙 𝑧2 𝜇
[M0 L0 T0] = [ML−3 ]𝑥2 [LT −1 ]𝑦2 [L]𝑧2 [ML−1 T −1 ]
𝑥2 + 1 = 0, ‒3 𝑥2 + y2 + z2 ‒ 1 = 0, ‒ y2 ‒ 1 = 0
309
FLUID MECHANICS
∴ 𝑥2 = ‒1, z2 = ‒1, y2 = ‒1
𝜇
∴ 𝜋2 = 𝜌‒1 V‒1 𝑙‒1 𝜇 =
𝜌V𝐼
Now, 𝜋2 = 𝜌 𝑥1 𝑣 𝑦3𝑇3 g
[M0 L0 T0] = [ML−3 ]𝑥3 [LT −1 ]3 [ L]𝛼3 [LT −2 ]
𝑥3 = 0, ‒3𝑥3 + y3 + z3 + 1 = 0, ‒ y3 ‒ 2 = 0
∴ 𝑥3 = 0, z3 = 1, y3 = ‒2
gl
∴ 𝜋3 = 𝜌0 V‒2 𝑙1 g =
V2
F 𝜇 g𝑙
∴ 𝑓1( , , ) = 0 or constant
𝜌V2 𝑙 2 𝜌V𝑙 V2
𝜇 g𝑙
∴ F = 𝜌V2𝜌𝜙 [ , ]
𝜌V𝑙 V2
Ex. 6.2: The thrust F of supersonic air-craft during light is dependent on the length
of aircraft (L), air-craft velocity (V), air viscosity (𝜇), air density (𝜌) and
bulk modulus of air (K). Using Buckingham 𝜋 theorem, show that the
rational equation for thrust is given by :
𝐾
𝐹 = 𝜌𝐿2 𝑉 2 𝜙 [𝑅𝑒 , ]
𝜌𝑉 2
Solution:
𝑓(F, L, V, 𝜇, 𝜌, K) = 0 or constant
Dimensions
F L V 𝜇 𝜌 K
310
FLUID MECHANICS
𝜋1 = 𝜌 𝑥1 𝑉 𝑦1 𝐿𝑧1 F
[M0 L0 T0] = [ML−3 ]x1 [LT −1 ]y1 [ L]𝑧1 [MLT −2 ]
𝑥1 + 1 = 0, ‒3 𝑥1 + y1 + z1 + 1 = 0, ‒ y1 ‒ 2 = 0
∴ 𝑥1 = ‒1, z1 = ‒2, y1 = ‒2
F
∴ 𝜋1 = 𝜌‒1 V‒2 L‒2 F =
𝜌V2 L2
Now, 𝜋2 = 𝜌 𝑥2 𝑉 𝑦2 𝐿𝑧2 𝜇
[M0 L0 T0] = [ML−3 ]𝑥2 [LT −1 ]𝑦2 [ Lz2 [ML−1 T −1 ]
𝑥2 + 1 = 0, ‒3 𝑥2 + y2 + z2 ‒ 1 = 0, ‒ y2 ‒ 1 = 0
∴ 𝑥2 = ‒1, z2 = ‒1, y2 = ‒2
𝜇
∴ 𝜋2 = 𝜌‒1 V‒1 L‒1𝜇 =
𝜌V𝐿
1 𝜌VL
= = Re
𝜋2 𝜇
Now, 𝜋3 = 𝜌 𝑥3 𝑉 𝑦3 𝐿𝑧3 K
[M0 L0 T0] = [MLL−3 ]x3 [LT −1 ]𝑦3 [ L]x3 [ML−1 T −2 ]
𝑥3 + 1 = 0, ‒3 𝑥3 + y3 + z3 ‒ 1 = 0, ‒ y3 ‒ 2 = 0
311
FLUID MECHANICS
∴ 𝑥3 = ‒1, z3 = 0, y3 = ‒2
K
∴ 𝜋3 = 𝜌‒1 V‒2 L0 K =
𝜌V2
𝐹 𝐾
∴ = 𝜙 (𝑅𝑒 , )
𝜌𝑉 2 𝐿2 𝜌𝑉 2
𝐾
∴ F = 𝜌V2 L2 𝜙 (𝑅𝑒 , )
𝜌𝑉 2
Ex. 6.3: A viscous fluid is confined between two long cylinders. A torque per unit
length 'J' is required to turn the inner cylinder at constant angular velocity
'𝜔'. The cylinder radii are 'r' and 'R' and the fluid 'viscosity is '𝜇'. Set up a
nondimensional equation for the set of parameters given. If both radii are
doubled, how does it affect T. If the viscosity is halved, what effect does
it have on T.
Solution :
𝑓(J, 𝜔, r, R, 𝜇) = 0 or constant
Dimensions
J 𝜔 r R 𝜇
[MLT ] [L] [t] [L] [ML‒1T‒1]
‒2
Number of variables n = 5
Number of primary variables m = 3
∴ Number of 𝜋 terms = 2
𝑓(𝜋1, 𝜋2) = 0 or constant
𝜋1 = 𝜔 𝑥1 𝑟 𝑦1 𝜇 𝑧1 𝐽
[M0 L0 T0] = [T −1 ]x1 [ L]𝑦1 [ML−1 T −1 ]z1 [MLT −2 ]
312
FLUID MECHANICS
‒𝑥1 ‒ z1 ‒ 2 = 0, y1 ‒ 1 + 1 = 0, ‒ z1 ‒ 2 = 0
∴ 𝑥1 = 0, y1 = 0, z1 = ‒2
𝐽
∴ 𝜋1 = 𝜔0 r0 𝜇‒2 J =
𝜇2
𝑅
Now 𝜋2 = by observation
𝑟
J R
∴ 𝑓( 2, ) = 0 or constant
𝜇 r
R
∴ J = 𝜇2𝜙( )
r
i) If both radii are doubled torque will not change.
1
ii) If 𝜇 is halved, J will be reduced by .
4
Ex. 6.4 : The pressure drop per unit length (Δp/L) for an incompressible fluid flow
through a pipe depends upon the pipe diameter (D), the pipe roughness (E),
velocity of the fluid (V), fluid density (𝜁) and its viscosity (𝜇), Using the
Buckingham 𝜋 - theorem show that the relation between the variables is
given by:
𝐴𝑝 𝜁𝑉 2 𝐸 𝜇
= 𝑓( ⋅ )
𝐿 𝑑 𝐷 𝜁𝑉𝐷
Solution :
Δ𝑝
𝑓( , D, ∈, V, 𝜁, 𝜇) = 0 or constant
𝐿
Dimensions
313
FLUID MECHANICS
Δ𝑝
D ∈ V 𝜁 𝜇
𝐿
[ML‒2T‒2] [L] [L] [LT‒1] [ML‒3] [ML‒1T‒1]
Number of variables n = 6
Number of primary dimensions m = 3
∴ Number of 𝜋 terms = 3
∴ 𝑓(𝜋1, 𝜋2, 𝜋3) = 0 or constant
314
FLUID MECHANICS
ΔP 𝜁V2 E 𝜇
∴ = 𝜙( , )
L D D 𝜁VD
Ex. 6.5: Using the Buckingham 𝜋 theorem show that the velocity 𝑈 through a
circular orifice is given by,
𝛼 𝜇
u = √gH 𝜙 [ , ]
H 𝜌VH
where H is the head of the orifice, 𝛼 diameter of orifice, 𝑝 density and 𝜇
viscosity.
Solution :
𝑓(u, g, H, α, 𝜇, 𝜌) = 0 or constant
Dimensions
u g H α 𝜇 𝜌
[LT‒1] [LT‒2] [L] [L] [ML‒1T‒1] [ML‒3]
Number of variables n = 6
Number of primary dimensions m = 3
∴ Number of 𝜋 terms = 3
∴ 𝑓(𝜋1, 𝜋2, 𝜋3) = 0 or constant
𝜋1 = 𝜌 𝑥1 𝑢 𝑦2 𝐻 𝑧 g
[M0 L0 T0] = [ML−3 ]x1 [LT −1 ]y2 [ L]z1 [LT −2 ]
𝑥1 = 0, ‒3𝑥1 + y2 + z1 + 1 = 0, ‒ y2 ‒ 2 = 0
∴ 𝑥1 = 0, z1 = 1, y2 = ‒2
315
FLUID MECHANICS
gH √gH
∴ 𝜋1 = 𝜌0 u‒2 H1 g =
u2
∴ √𝜋1 = u
𝛼
Now, 𝜋2 = by observation.
𝐻
Now, 𝜋2 = 𝜌 𝑥2 ⋅ 𝑢 𝑦2 𝐻2 𝜇
[M0 L0 T0] = [ML−3 ]x2 [LT −1 ]𝑦2 [ L]x2 [M1 L−1 T −1 ]
𝑥2 + 1 = 0, ‒3𝑥2 + y2 + z2 ‒ 1 = 0, ‒ y2 ‒ 1 = 0
∴ 𝑥2 = ‒1, z2 = ‒1, y2 = ‒1
𝜇
∴ 𝜋3 = 𝜌‒1 u‒1 H‒1 𝜇 =
𝜌uH
√gH 𝛼 𝜇
∴ 𝑓1 ( , , ) = 0 or constant
u H 𝜌VH
𝛼 𝜇
∴ √gH = 𝜙 [ , ]
H 𝜌VH
𝛼 𝜇
∴ u = √gH 𝜙 [ , ]
H 𝜌VH
Ex. 6.6 : The resisting torque T of a lubricated joumal bearing depends on the
joumal diameter D, clearance c, length 𝑙, speed of rotation N, viscosity of
oil 𝜇 and load W show that,
𝑇 𝑙 𝐶 𝜇𝐷2 𝑁
= 𝜙( , , )
𝑊𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 𝑊
Solution :
𝑓(T, D, C, 𝑙, N, 𝜇, w) = 0 or constant
316
FLUID MECHANICS
Dimensions
T D C 𝑙 N 𝜇 w
[ML2T‒2] [L] [L] [L] [T‒1] [ML‒1T‒1] [MLT‒2]
Number of variables n = 7.
Number of primary dimensions m = 3.
Number of 𝜋 tems n ‒ m = 4.
∴ 𝑓(𝜋1, 𝜋2, 𝜋3, 𝜋4) = 0 or constant
𝜋1 = W 𝑥1 N 𝑦1 D𝑧1 T
[M0 L0 T0] = [MLTT −2 ]x1 [ T −1 ]𝑦1 [L]𝑧1 [ML2 T −2 ]
0 = 𝑥1 + 1, 0 = 𝑥1 + z1 + 2, 0 = ‒2𝑥1‒ y1 ‒ 2
∴ 𝑥1 = ‒1, z1 = ‒1, y1 = 0
T
∴ 𝜋1 = W‒1 N0 D‒1 T =
WD
𝑙 C
∴ 𝜋2 = ′, 𝜋3 =
D D
∴ 𝜋4 = W 𝑥2 N 𝑦2 D2 𝜇
[M0 L0 T0] = [MLT −2 ]x1 [ T −1 ]𝑦1 [L]21 [ML−1 T −1 ]
0 = 𝑥1 + 1, 0 = 𝑥1 + z1 ‒ 1, 0 = ‒2𝑥1‒ y1 ‒ 1
∴ 𝑥1 = ‒1, z1 = 2 y1 = 1
T 𝑙 C 𝜇ND2
∴ 𝑓( , , , ) = 0 or constant
WD D D W
T 𝑙 C 𝜇ND2
=𝜙( , , )
WD D D W
317
FLUID MECHANICS
Ex. 6.7: Power P, developed by a water turbine depends upon rotation speed N,
operating head H, diameter D, breadth 'B' of runner, density p, viscosity
𝜇 and gravity g. Show
3
𝑁 𝐵 𝜌𝐷2 𝑁 𝑁𝐷
3
𝑝 = 𝜌𝐷 𝑁 𝜙 [ , , , ]
𝐷 𝐷 𝜇 √𝑔𝑁
Solution :
𝑓(P, N, H, D, B, 𝜌, 𝜇, g) = 0 or constant
Dimensions
P N H D B 𝜌 𝜇 g
[ML2T‒3] [T‒1] [L] [L] [L] [ML‒3] [MLT‒1T‒1] [LT‒
2
]
Number of variables n = 8.
Number of primary dimensions m = 3
∴ Number of 𝜋 terms = 5
∴ 𝑓(𝜋1, 𝜋2, 𝜋3, 𝜋4, 𝜋5, 𝜋6, 𝜋7, 𝜋8) = 0 or constant
𝜋1 = 𝜌 𝑥1 𝑁 𝑦1 𝐷 𝑧1 P
[M0 L0 T0] = [ML−3 ]x1 [ T −1 ]y1 [ L]z1 [ML2 T −3 ]
0 = 𝑥1 + 1, 0 = ‒3𝑥1 + z1 + 2, 0 = ‒y1 ‒ 3
318
FLUID MECHANICS
P
∴ 𝜋1 =
𝜌N5 D5
H B
Now 𝜋2 = , 𝜋3 = by observation
D D
𝜋4 = 𝜌 𝑥2 𝑁 𝑦2 𝐷 𝑧2 𝜇
∴ [M0 L0 T0] = [𝑀−3 ]𝑥2 [𝑇 −1 ]𝑦2 [𝐿]22 [𝑀𝐿𝐿−1 𝐿−1 ]
0 = 𝑥2 + 1, 0 = ‒3𝑥2 + z2 ‒ 1, 0 = ‒y2 ‒ 1
∴ 𝑥2 = ‒1, z2 = ‒2, y2 = ‒1
𝜇
∴ 𝜋4 = 𝜌‒1 N‒1 D‒2 𝜇 =
𝜌ND2
Now, 𝜋5 = 𝜌 𝑥3 𝑁 𝑦3 𝐷 𝑧3 g
[M0 L0 T0] = [𝑀−3 ]𝑥3 [𝑇 −1]𝑦3 [𝐿] 𝑧3 [𝐿𝑇 −2 ]
∴ z3 = ‒1, y3 = ‒2
g
∴ 𝜋5 = 𝜌0 N‒2 D‒1 g =
N2 D
p H B 𝜇 g
∴ 𝑓( , , , , ) = 0 or constant
𝜌N5 D5 D D 𝜌ND2 N2 D
𝐻 𝐵 8 𝜇
∴ P = 𝜌N3 D5 𝜙 ( , , , )
𝐷 𝐷 𝑁2 𝐷 𝜌𝑁𝐷2
𝐻 𝑔 𝑔𝐻
Now 𝜋2 ⨯ 𝜋5 = ⨯ =
𝐷 𝑁2 D 𝑁 2 D2
1 N2 D2
∴ =
𝜋1 𝜋5 gH
319
FLUID MECHANICS
ND
(𝜋1 ⨯ 𝜋5)½ =
√gH
𝐻 𝐵 𝜌𝑁𝐷2 𝑁𝐷
∴ P = 𝜌N3 D5 𝜙 ( , , , )
𝐷 𝐷 𝜇 √𝑔𝐻
Ex. 6.8 : A supersonic plane of length 𝐿 moves with speed ∨ through air of density
𝜌, method show that dimensionless groups obtained are Mach number,
𝐹𝐷
Reynold's number and Drag coefficient 2 2
𝜌𝐿 𝑉
Solution :
𝑓(L, V, 𝜌, 𝜇, k, FD) = 0 or constant
Dimensions
L V 𝜌 𝜇 k FD
[L] [LT‒1] [ML‒3] [ML‒1T‒1] [ML‒1T‒2] [MLT‒2]
Number of variables n = 6
Number of primary dimensions m = 3
∴ Number of 𝜋 terms = 3
Taking 𝜌, V, L as repeating variables.
𝜋1 = 𝜌 𝑥1 N 𝑦1 L2𝜇
[M0 L0 T0] = [ML−3 ]x1 [LT −1 ]y1 [ L]z1 [ML−1 T −1 ]
𝑥1 + 1 = 0, ‒3𝑥1 + y1 + z1 ‒ 1 = 0, ‒y1 ‒ 1 = 0
∴ 𝑥1 = ‒1, 3 ‒ 1 + z1 ‒ 1 = 0, y1 = ‒1
∴ z1 = ‒1
320
FLUID MECHANICS
𝜇
∴ 𝜋1 = 𝜌‒1 V‒1 L‒1 𝜇 =
𝜌VL
1
= (First dimensionless group is Reynold's number)
𝑅𝑒
1
∴ = Re
𝜋1
𝜋2 = 𝜌 𝑥2 𝑉 𝑦2 𝐿𝑧 k
[M0 L0 T0] = [ML−3 ]x2 [LT −1 ]𝑦2 [ L]2 [ML−1 T −2 ]
𝑥2 + 1 = 0, ‒3𝑥2 + y2 + z2 ‒ 1 = 0, ‒y2 ‒ 2 = 0
∴ 𝑥2 = ‒1, 3 ‒ 2 + z2 ‒ 1 = 0, y2 = ‒2,
∴ z2 = ‒1
k
∴ 𝜋2 = 𝜌‒1 V‒2 L0 k =
𝜌V2
1 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑉2
𝜋 2= 𝑘
=
𝑘/𝜌
321
FLUID MECHANICS
Number of variables n = 6
Number of primary dimensions m = 3
Number of terms = 3
∴ 𝑓(𝜋1, 𝜋2, 𝜋3) = 0 or constant
𝜋1 = 𝜌 𝑥1 𝑁 𝑦1 𝐷 𝑧1 Q
[M0 L0 T0] = [𝑀−3 ]𝑥1 [𝑇 −1 ]𝑦1 [𝐿]2 [𝐿3 𝑇 −1 ]
𝑥1 = 0, ‒3𝑥1 + z1 + 3 = 0, ‒y1 ‒ 1 = 0
∴ z1 = ‒3 y1 = ‒1
Q
∴ 𝜋1 = 𝜌0 N‒1 D‒3 Q =
ND3
𝑥2 + 1 = 0, ‒3𝑥2 + z2 ‒ 1 = 0, ‒y2 ‒ 1 = 0
∴ 𝑥2 = ‒1, 3 + z2 ‒ 1 = 0, y2 = ‒ 1
∴ z2 = ‒2
𝜇 𝛾
∴ 𝜋2 = 𝜌‒1 N‒1 D‒2 𝜇 = =
𝜌ND2 ND2
𝜋3 = 𝜌 𝑥3 𝑁 𝑦3 D𝑥3 P
[M0 L0 T0] = [𝑀−3 ]𝑥3 [𝑇 −1 ]𝑦3 [𝐿] 𝑧3 [𝑀−1 𝑇 −2 ]
𝑄 𝑔𝐻 𝑣
∴ 𝑓( 3, 2, ) = 0 or constant
𝑁𝐷 𝑁2 𝐷 𝑁2
𝑥3 + 1 = 0, ‒3𝑥3 + z3 ‒ 1 = 0, ‒y3 ‒ 2 = 0
∴ 𝑥3 = ‒1, 3 + z3 ‒ 1 = 0, y3 = ‒2
∴ z3 = ‒2
322
FLUID MECHANICS
𝑃 𝜌⋅𝑔⋅𝐻 𝑔𝐻
∴ 𝜋3 = 𝜌‒1 N‒2 D‒2p = = =
𝜌𝑁2 𝐷2 𝜌𝑁2 𝐷2 𝑁2 𝐷2
𝑄 𝑔𝐻 𝑣
∴ = 𝑓( 2 2 , 2 )
𝑁𝐷3 𝑁 𝐷 𝑁
𝑔𝐻 𝑣
∴ Q = N3𝜙 ( 2 2 ⋅ )
𝑁 𝐷 𝑁𝐷2
Ex. 6.10: Drag on a body depends on its characteristic length 𝑙, speed 𝑢 of the body
Mass density and viscosity of the fluid and gravitational acceleration.
Obtain an expression for drag in terms of dimensionless parameters.
Solution:
𝑓(F, l, u, 𝜌, 𝜇, g) = 0 or constant
Dimensions
F l u 𝜌 𝜇 g
[MLT‒2] [L] [LT‒1] [ML‒3] [ML‒1T‒1] [LT‒2]
Taking 𝜌, 𝑙, u as repeating variables.
𝑦
𝜋1 = 𝜌 𝑥1 𝑙1 1 u2 F
[M0 L0 T0] = [ML−3 ]x1 [LT y1 [LT −1 ]z1 [MLT −2 ]
𝑥1 + 1 = 0, ‒3𝑥1 + y1 + z1 + 1 = 0, ‒ z1 ‒ 2 = 0
∴ 𝑥1 = ‒1, 3 + y1 ‒ 2 + 1 = 0, z1 = ‒2
∴ y1 = ‒2
F
∴ 𝜋1 = 𝜌‒1 𝑙‒2 u‒2 F =
𝜌𝑙 2 u2
𝜋2 = 𝜌 𝑥2 𝐼 𝑦2 𝑢 𝑧2 𝜇
323
FLUID MECHANICS
‒𝑥2 + 1 = 0, ‒3𝑥2 + y2 + z2 ‒ 1 = 0, ‒ z2 ‒ 1 = 0
∴ 𝑥2 = ‒1, 3 + y2 ‒ 1 ‒ 1 = 0, z2 = ‒1
∴ y2 = ‒1
𝜇 1 1
∴ 𝜋2 = 𝜌‒1 𝑙‒1 u‒1 𝜇 = = ; = Re (Reynold's number)
𝜌u𝑙 R𝑒 𝜋2
𝜋3 = 𝜌 𝑥3 𝑙 𝑦3 𝑢 𝑧1 g
[M0 L0 T0] = [ML−3 ]x3 [ L]y3 [ L T −1 ]2 [ L T −2 ]
𝑥3 = 0, ‒3𝑥3 + y3 + z3 + 1 = 0, ‒ z3 ‒ 2 = 0
∴ y3 ‒ 2 + 1 = 0, z3 = ‒2
∴ y3 = 1
𝑔𝑙
∴ 𝜋3 = 𝜌0 𝑙1 u‒2 g =
𝑢2
1 𝑢2 1 𝑢
𝜋3
=
𝑔𝑙
, √𝜋 =
√𝑔𝑙
= Fr (Froude number)
3
𝐹
∴ 𝑓( 2 2 , 𝑅𝑒 , 𝐹𝑟 ) = 0 or constant
𝜌𝑅 𝑢
UNIT SUMMARY
Unit is summarized in the following points :
1. Dimensions of all quantities must be known correctly (Refer Table 6.3.1)
2. Rules for applying Buckingham 𝜋 theorem.
324
FLUID MECHANICS
6.7: Exercise
325
FLUID MECHANICS
Ans: (a)
a) True b) False
Ans: (d)
8. The ratio of inertia force to the surface tension force is called as.....
a) Reynold’s number b) Euler's number
c) Weber's number d) None of the above
Ans: (c)
13. Dimensional analysis develops which type of relations from the experimental
data ?
a) Analytical b) Empirical
c) Analytical & empirical d) None
Ans: (b)
a) [M LT – 1 ] b) [M LT – 2]
c) [ML-1T-1] d) [M L2 T 2 ]
Ans: (c)
a) Stress b) Strain
c) Modulus d) None
Ans: (b)
327
FLUID MECHANICS
6.7. 3: Problems :
328
FLUID MECHANICS
4. The discharge 𝑄 through an oil ring depends on the diameter 𝑑 of oil ring,
speed N rpm, mass density 𝜌 of oil, absolute viscosity 𝜇 of oil, surface tension
𝜎 and specific weight 𝛾 of oil. Show that
𝜇 𝜎 𝛾
𝑄 = 𝑁𝑑 3 𝜙 ( , , )
𝜌𝑁𝑑 2 𝜌𝑁 2 𝑑3 𝜌𝑁 2 𝑑
2
𝑁𝐷 𝜌𝑁𝐷2
5
𝑇 = 𝜌𝑁 𝐷 𝜙 [ ]
𝑉1 𝜇
329
FLUID MECHANICS
330
FLUID MECHANICS
Following is the blank CO and PO attainment table, one can use this for individual practice
for CO-PO mapping. Course outcomes (COs) for this course can be mapped with the
programme outcomes (POs) after the completion of the course and a correlation
can be made for the attainment of POs to analyze the gap. After proper analysis of
the gap in the attainment of POs necessary measures can be taken to overcome the
gaps.
331
FLUID MECHANICS
INDEX
Adhesion, 1,13,17,44
Archimedes Principle, 116,126
Bernoulli's Equation, 208,209,210,211,212
Buckingham π theorem, 303
Buoyancy, 117,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126
Capillarity, 13,17,18,19
Centre of Pressure, 71,72,76,78
Cohesion, 13,17
Compressibility, 1,13,205
Compressible & Incompressible Flow, 154,156
Differential Manometer, 65,286,291
Dimensional analysis, 298,299,302
Electrical Analogy, 174,175
Equipotential Lines, 171,172,173,174,175
Euler Number E, 308
Flow net, , 173,174,175
Froude Number Fr, 307
Inclined tube manometer, 66,67
Laminar Flow, 48,155,156
Stream Function, 168,169,170,171,172
Mach Number M, 302,308
Manometer, 58,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68
Mass, 5,6
Mass Density, 6
Pressure, 15,16,53,55,58,60,61
Mechanical Gauges, 70,71
Micromanometer, 68,69
Momentum Equation, 213,214,215
Neutral Equilibrium,
118,119,122,136
Newtonian fluids, 10
Non-Newtonian fluids, 10,11
Orifice Meter, 203,204,218,224,226,266,268,292,296
Pascal’s Law, 53,55,67,98,102
332
FLUID MECHANICS
Piezometer, 58,62,107,108,225
Pitot Static Tube, 229,230,284
Pitot Tube, 227,228,229
Pressure intensity inside a droplet, 15
Pressure intensity inside a liquid jet, 16
Pressure intensity inside a soap bubble, 16
Principle of Floatation, 118,149
Reynold's Number Re, 308,320
Rotational and Irrotational Flow, 154,156,200,201
Rotational and Irrotational Motion, 153, 166
Sensitive Manometers, 66
Specific Gravity, 7
Specific Volume, 6
Specific Weight, 6
Stable Equilibrium, 118,119,120,12,122
Stream Function 𝜓, 169,170,179
Surface Tension, 13,14,15,16,17,18
Total Pressure on Curved Surface, 77,78
Unstable Equilibrium, 118,119,120,12,122,124
U-tube Manometer, 62,63,66
Vapour Pressure, 19,20,43,44,61,99,219
Variation of Pressure in Static Fluid, 55
Velocity Potential Function 𝜙,
166,167,168
Venturimeter, 218,219,220,221,222,224,226,228
Viscosity, 7,8,9,10,11
Weber Number W, 304
333
FLUID MECHANICS
334