DIGESTIVE SYSTEM (Obtaining Nutrients)

What would happen without it?

Without the digestive system, our body wouldn't be able to absorb nutrients from the foods we eat, which is needed for
energy, growth, and cell repair. In short, we will die.

Animal Nutrition

Heterotrophs (3 dietary categories) – are organisms that cannot produce their own food, so they consume other
organisms to gain nutrients.

• Herbivores – exclusive to eating plants (ex. cows, goats, sheep, rabbits, elks)
• Carnivores – exclusive to eating flesh (ex. tigers, cats, wolves, lions, crocodiles)
• Omnivores – eat both plants and animals (pigs, squirrels, raccoons, foxes, chipmunks)

Types of Digestive System in Animals

• Intracellular DS
➢ digestive system for single-celled organisms (ex. amoeba, paramecium)
➢ digestion happens within the cell
• Extracellular DS
➢ digestive system for multi-cellular organisms (ex. humans)
➢ digestion happens outside the cell
• Incomplete DS
➢ simple digestive system that only consists of one opening (ex. hydra, flatworms, corals)
➢ where the food gets in is where the waste goes out
• Complete DS
➢ complex digestive system has different start and end points (ex. humans)
➢ where the food gets in is different as to where the waste goes out

Feeding Mechanisms in Animals

• Suspension Feeders – animals that eat the microscopic food suspended in water (ex. planktons, bacteria,
protozoans)
• Filter-feeders – animals that have specialized filtering structure living in bodies of water (ex. clamps, sponges,
baleen whales); food particles or small organisms are strained from water
• Substrate-feeders – animals that live in or on their food source (ex. earthworms, caterpillars, termites)
• Fluid-feeders – animals that suck fluid of other living organisms (ex. mosquitoes, ticks, leeches, spiders)
• Bulk-feeders – animals that eat on large quantities or chunks (ex. dogs, cats, lions, tigers)

Nutrition and Energy

• We eat to get the nutrients we need

• The goal is to get energy in the form of ATP by chemically digesting the food
• Food energy is measured in units called calories

Nutritional Requirements of Animals

• Water (temperature regulation, keeping dehydrated, and maintaining bodily functions)

• Carbohydrates (providing quick energy to the body; structural components of all life)
• Proteins (providing with building blocks for life; regulating most functions in a cell)
• Fats (structural building blocks of the body, shock absorbers, best method of storing)

Polymers are long molecules built by linking together small, similar subunits (monomers)

Polymers Monomers Roles

Complex Carbohydrates (ex. Glucose and other simple

Broken apart to get energy to make ATP
starch) sugars

Used to make our own enzymes and other

Proteins Amino acids
body proteins
 Used for cellular energy and energy storage;
Lipids (ex. fats, waxes, oils, Fatty acid chains, glycerin
used to make cell membranes and steroid
and steroids) (except steroids)
hormones

• Minerals (inorganic materials needed to maintain homeostasis; important for making enzymes and hormones;
enables our body to grow and stay healthy) /no carbon in structure/

Mineral Major roles Natural Sources

• bone and tooth formation

Calcium Dairy products, leafy greens, dry beans
• muscle and nerve function

Red meats, eggs, nuts, whole grains,

Iron • used to make hemoglobin and myoglobin
leafy greens

• component of certain enzymes

Zinc • required for growth Meats, whole grains, nuts, legumes
• helps immune system

• bone and tooth formation

Phosphorous • maintaining pH level of body fluids Dairy products, grains
• has phospholipids

• maintains pH of body fluids

Potassium Many fruits and vegetables, meats, milk
• used in action potentials

• maintains pH of body fluids

Sodium Table salt, meats
• used in action potentials

Nuts (brazil nuts), many fruits and

Selenium • used by the immune system
vegetables

• Vitamins (play many different roles in metabolism; complex organic compounds not manufactured by the body;
supports the body’s immune system, keeps the bones strong, aids brain function) /has carbon in structure/

Vitamins Major Roles Natural Sources

• used to make visual pigments

Orange and yellow fruits and
Vitamin A (fat soluble) • maintains epithelial tissues needed for vegetables, egg yolk, dairy products
normal growth

Whole grains, legumes, many fruits

Vitamin B complex • used in cellular respiration to metabolize
and vegetables. B12 comes from
(water soluble) • breaking carbon compounds
animal sources

Vitamin C (water • used in collagen synthesis

Fresh fruits and vegetables
soluble) • possible role in immune function

• bone growth
Eggs, dairy products. Sunlight on
Vitamin D (fat soluble) • calcium absorption
skin oils creates Vitamin D
• possible role in immune function

• antioxidant
Vitamin E (fat soluble) Nuts, whole grains, leafy vegetables
• reduces cellular damage

Vitamin K • plays a role in blood clotting Produced by intestinal bacteria

Digestion

• breaking down of food into smaller pieces

• the mixing of food
• movement through the digestive tract
• chemical breakdown of the large molecules of food into smaller molecules for our cells to absorb

Types of Digestion

• Mechanical (physically moving the body, mostly our mouth to)

➢ chew, tear, grind, mash, mix
• Chemical (enzymatic reactions to improve digestive of/ needs chemical molecules to breakdown the food into
microscopic levels)
➢ carbohydrates, proteins, lipids

Two-way Digestion (Incomplete Digestion)

• simple animals have a single digestive pouch with a single opening

• food enters through the opening, waste leaves through the same opening
• these organisms must finish digesting before eating again

One-way Digestion (Complete Digestion)

• more complex animals have one-way digestion

• food enters one opening and waste leaves from another
• animals with one-way systems can eat any time, which is an advantage

Stages of Food Processing

• Ingestion – the process of placing the food into our mouth

• Digestion – the breaking down of the food, mechanically and chemically
• Absorption – the process in which the food is already in the simplest form, then absorbed by our cells
• Elimination – the waste products are removed in our body

Human Digestive System

Mouth

• used in ingestion process

• mechanical digestion – teeth bite off and chew food into a soft pulp that is easy to swallow
• chemical digestion – saliva

Esophagus

• muscular tube that connects the mouth to the stomach

• takes food from the throat and pushes it down through the neck, and into the stomach
• moves food by waves of muscle contraction called peristalsis (moves in wave-like manner)

Stomach

• does most of the chemical digestion because it contains digestive enzymes

• has thick muscles in its wall to prevent being eroded from digestive juices
• these contract to mash the food into a water soup called chyme
• the stomach lining produces strong digestive juices

Small Intestine

• most of the absorption happens here

• the nutrients are broken down small enough to pass through the lining of the small intestine, and pass it to the
red blood cells
• some nutrients are carried away to the liver and other body parts to be processed, stored, and distributed
 • most digestion occurs here

Large Intestine

• does water absorption

• the remains are formed into brown, semi-solid feces, ready to be removed from the body

Rectum

• receive stool from the colon to let the person know that there is stool to be evacuated
• hold the stool until evacuation happens

Anus

• opening at the end of the digestive tract

• it lets you know whether the contents are solid, liquid, or gas
• it is surrounded by sphincter muscles that control the movement of stool

Accessory Organs: The Glands

• not part of the path of food, but play a critical role

• includes the liver, gall bladder, and pancreas

Liver

• directly affects digestion by producing bile

• bile helps digest fat
• filters out toxins and waste including drugs, alcohol, and poisons

Gall Bladder

• stores bile from the liver, releases it into the small intestine
• fatty diets can cause gallstones

Pancreas

• produces digestive enzymes to digest fats, carbohydrates, and proteins (enzymes factory)
• regulates blood sugar by producing insulin and glucagon

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

It consists of the skin and its accessory structures, including the hair, nails, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands

What would happen without it?

The integumentary system protects the body from the external environment. Without it, we would be more susceptible
to pathogens and the adverse effects of temperature. Realistically speaking, we would look frightening since our
muscles, bones, and organs will be on full display.

Skin

• the exterior covering of the body

• the largest organ of the body
• it is supplied with blood vessels and nerves

Functions:

• provides protection
• inhibits excessive loss of water and electrolytes
 • helps produce the body’s supply of vitamin D
➢ vitamin D is not from the sun, but from our body
➢ the sun helps synthesized our body’s vitamin D
• regulates body temperature
➢ when the body’s too cold, the skin’s blood vessels constrict (tighten)
➢ when the body’s too hot, the blood vessels in the skin dilate; at the same time, sweat glands secrete
more sweat that cools the body when it evaporates
• provides sensations
➢ nerve endings – sends messages to the brain when we feel sensations (from cerebral cortex)

Anatomy of the Skin

• upper layer of skin is called Epidermis

➢ Epi means on top
➢ Dermis means skin
➢ Do not have blood vessels
➢ Majority is composed of dead cells
• lower layer of skin is called Dermis

Epidermis

• Stratum Corneum
➢ outermost strata of the epidermis
➢ mostly dead cells, filled with a protein substance called keratin
• Stratum Lucidum
➢ translucent layer lying directly beneath the corneum
➢ may not even exist in thinner skin
➢ cells in this layer are also dead or in the process of dying
• Stratum Granulosum
➢ one or more layers of cells starting to die and become hard
➢ they are in the process of keratinization—becoming fibrous protein similar to that in hair and nails
• Stratum Germinativum
➢ composed of several layers of living cells capable of cell division
➢ innermost layer of the epidermis
➢ contains melanin
➢ protects from harmful UV rays

Dermis

• beneath the epidermis and composed of connective tissue

• contains the lymphatics, nerves, nerve endings, blood vessels, sebaceous and sweat glands, elastic fibers, and
hair follicles
• divided into two layers:
➢ papillary layer – arranged into microscopic structures that form ridges; these are the fingers and
footprints
➢ reticular layer – beneath the papillary layer; it is a white fibrous tissue that supports the blood vessels
• connected to underlying tissue by the subcutaneous tissue
➢ subcutaneous tissue or hypodermis is composed of adipose and connective tissue
➢ it supports, nourishes, insulates, and cushions the skin

Hair

• threadlike structure formed by a group of cells that develop within a hair follicle or socket
• each hair has a shaft that is visible and a root that is embedded in the follicle
• a pilomotor muscle is attached to the side of each follicle (responsible for goosebumps)
• hair papilla
➢ at the base of each hair follicle is a bulb enclosing a loop of capillaries
➢ provides nourishment to the hair
➢ one of the few living parts of the hair
➢ responsible for hair growth
Sebaceous Glands

• are oil glands

• have tiny ducts that open into each hair follicle
• each sebaceous gland secretes sebum, which lubricates the hair and skin

Nails

• fingernails and toenails are hard keratin structures that protect the ends of the fingers and toes
• ingrown nails
➢ simply those that have curled down or around and are growing into the skin
➢ may become swollen and inflamed
➢ trim toenails straight across to avoid this growth pattern

Sudoriferous Glands

• are sweat glands

• about 2 million are distributed over the surface of the body, more numerous on the palms of the hands, soles of
the feet, forehead, and axillae or underarms
• sweat glands produce sweat or perspiration
• as sweat collects on the skin surface, it evaporates and creates a cooling effect
• sweat also rids the body of waste through the pores of the skin
• body odor is caused of bacteria formed in the skin

URINARY SYSTEM

• The urinary system's function is to filter blood and create urine as a waste by-product.
• The organs of the urinary system include the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra.
• The urinary system keeps everything in balance by removing waste, like urea, extra salt, extra water and
other things the body does not need.
• Urea is produced when protein, found in meats, poultry, and certain vegetables, are broken down in the body.

What would happen without it?

The urinary system allows the body to filter blood which is vital to keep the body healthy. Without it, our body would be
full of waste products and excess water causing our body to malfunction. In short, it would be very difficult to thrive if
our urinary system stops working.

Kidneys

A pair of purplish-brown organs is located below the ribs toward the middle of the back.

• Remove waste from the blood in the form of urine

• Keep substances stable in the blood
• Make erythropoietin, a hormone which helps make red blood cells
• Make vitamin D active
• Releases hormones to regulate blood pressure

The kidneys remove waste from the blood through tiny filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron is made up of a
ball of small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus. There is also a small tube called a renal tubule, which drains the
urine and joins other tubules carrying the urine out of the kidney to the ureter.

Urea, together with water and other wastes, forms the urine.

Two Ureters

• Each kidney has a narrow tube called a ureter, which carries urine from the kidney to the bladder.
• Muscles in the ureter walls tighten and relax forcing urine down this tube, away from the kidneys.
• If urine backs up, or stands still, a kidney infection can develop.
 • About every 10 to 15 seconds, urine is emptied into the bladder from the ureters.

Bladder

• The bladder is a triangle-shaped, hollow organ located in the lower abdomen.

• It is held in place by ligaments attached to the pelvic bones.
• The bladder's walls relax and expand to store urine, and contract and flatten to empty urine through the urethra.

Two Sphincter Muscles

• Circular muscles that help keep urine from leaking by closing tightly like a rubber band around the opening of
the bladder.

Nerves in the Bladder

• The nerves alert a person when it is time to urinate, or empty the bladder.

Urethra

• The tube that allows urine to pass outside the body.

• The brain signals the bladder muscles to tighten, which squeezes urine out of the bladder.
• At the same time, the brain signals the sphincter muscles to relax to let urine exit the bladder through the urethra.
• When all the signals occur in the correct order, normal urination occurs.

Urine

• a liquid waste formed by the kidneys as they filter the blood.

• Normal, healthy urine is a pale straw or transparent yellow color.
• Darker yellow urine means that one is low on water. It gets darker than usual because the body is trying to
reduce the amount of water lost in urine.

Processes of the Kidneys

There are four basic processes in the formation of urine starting with plasma.

Filtration

Filtration is the mass movement of water and solutes from plasma to the renal tubule that occurs in the renal corpuscle.
About 20% of the plasma volume passing through the glomerulus at any given time is filtered. This means that about
180 liters of fluid are filtered by the kidneys every day. Thus, the entire plasma volume (about 3 liters) is filtered 60 times
a day! Filtration is primarily driven by hydraulic pressure (blood pressure) in the capillaries of the glomerulus.

Note that the kidneys filter much more fluid than the amount of urine that is actually excreted (about 1.5 liters per day).
This is essential for the kidneys to rapidly remove waste and toxins from the plasma efficiently.

Reabsorption

Reabsorption is the movement of water and solutes from the tubule back into the plasma. Reabsorption of water and
specific solutes occurs to varying degrees over the entire length of the renal tubule.

Bulk reabsorption, which is not under hormonal control, occurs largely in the proximal tubule. Over 70% the filtrate is
reabsorbed here. In addition, many important solutes (glucose, amino acids, bicarbonate) are actively transported out
of the proximal tubule such that their concentrations are normally extremely low in the remaining fluid. Further bulk
reabsorption of sodium occurs in the loop of Henle.

Regulated reabsorption, in which hormones control the rate of transport of sodium and water depending on systemic
conditions, takes place in the distal tubule and collecting duct.
Secretion

Even after filtration has occurred, the tubules continue to secrete additional substances into the tubular fluid. This
enhances the kidney's ability to eliminate certain wastes and toxins. It is also essential to regulation of plasma potassium
concentrations and pH.

Urine Elimination

Nerves in the bladder are stimulated as the bladder fills with urine and becomes larger, which in turn stimulates the
need to urinate. When you urinate, the brain signals the bladder muscles to tighten, squeezing urine out of the bladder.

At the same time, the brain signals the sphincter muscles to relax. As these muscles relax, urine exits the bladder
through the urethra, and leaves the body through an opening in the genital region that contains the urethra. When all
the signals occur in the correct order, normal urination occurs, removing urine from the body.

amount excreted = amount filtered - amount reabsorbed + amount secreted

Filtration is the removal of waste from the blood through tiny filtering units called nephrons.

Reabsorption is the process by which the nephron removes water and solutes from the tubule back to the blood.

Secretion happens when tubules continue to secrete additional substances into the tubular fluid.

Elimination is the removal of the waste product, urine.