3

Methods of Tunnelling in Soft Strata

3.1. INTRODUCTION
Method of tunnelling in soft strata depends upon the type of soil in which the operation of
tunnelling is to be performed. The classification of soft strata indicates that the construction
requires to be supported immediately or shortly after excavation.
To guard against sudden or otherwise failure during or after construction it is desirable that
the support should be designed for higher stresses than that to which it is likely to be subjected
to. These precautions are necessary even though some reduction of the load does take place due
to arching action and other characteristics of the particular soil under construction.
The most commonly adopted method of tunnelling in soft starta is the shield method of
tunnelling. The tunnel shield acts as a temporary ground support. The permanent lining is designed
in such a way that it is capable of meeting the maximum loading requirement immediately after
its erection. Generally cast iron is used for this purpose. The particular method adopted depends
as the geometry of the proposed section. These methods
upon the nature of the strata as well
may broadly be classified as under:
(a) Running ground.
(6) Soft ground.
(c) Firm ground.
3.2. TUNNELLING IN RUNNING GROUND
The various methods adopted for soils of
this nature are

(a) Using Liner Plates.

(b) Using Needle beam.
(c) Flying Arch method.
The above systems are briefly described below
drifts for running
Liner Plates. The method is adopted for small
(a) Tunnelling using
followed are
ground in combination with compressed air. The steps
at the top along with
first liner plate at the crown segment in pre-excavated cavity
Placing the hole has been sufficiently
widened. The
two liner plates bolted to it on each side after
or by carefully tightened props.
This is followed by
plates are supported by trench jacks construction of
line. The method is suitable for
gradually widening down to the springing
very large tunnels.
(b) Using Needle Beam (See Fig. 3.1.)
This method of tunnelling can be usedwhere suitable soil strata which is capable of
can be advanced and the
withstanding for a few minutes without support. 3 to 4 m per day

475
476 A Textbook of Transportation Engineering

method is particularly suitable for brick lining. This method has the following disadvantages
() The efficient working of the system requires large number of trench jacks which interfare
with the working of the working party.
1. Concrete lining
,(1) 2. Trench jacks

(1)
(2)
3.1. Tunnelling with Needle Beam Method
Fig.
hand making the process tedious and time
(i) The heavy beams have to be pushed by
consuming.
Mechanical method of concrete lining becomes difficult as beams and bracings have to
(i)
used.
The process adopted is as below
the roof of the drifi and this in turm is
() Lagging carried on wooden segments supports cut in the sides of the monkey
two trench jacks which are set in hitches
drift whichbyitself is driven for a short distance of 90 cm on the working face beyond
supported
the day's work.
skidded forward into the monkey drift after the
(i) The 5 m long needle beam is slowly
drift indicated in sequence (i) above is completed.
the stout posts
(ii) The rear end of the needle beam is carried on stout posts which rest on
while the front end rests on planks on
resting on the lining of the floor of the tunnel
the floor of the drift
(iv) Other trench lacks are removed and the drift is widened sideways and supported by
lagging, segments and trench jacks.
For supporting the roof compressed air may be sued for supporting the roof.
(c) Flying Arch Method (see Fig. 3.2)
The liner plates of the arch are supported by trench jacks which rest on the bench. Each
day's work is concreted with half round arch forms.
3.3. SHIELD METHOD OF TUNNELLING (See Fig. 3.2 (a))
This method is particularly suitable for construction of tube railway tunnels in clay. The
machine consists of circular shield of thick steel plates with proper strong stiffeners. 1he
excavation may be carried out by hand (manual layout) or by the help of pneumatically operated
clay spades section. Hydraulic jacks are used for pushing the shield forward.
Parts of the shield are
() Cutting edge. It is provided with stiffeners and cuts into the earth to be excavated.
(i) Hood. It protects the workmen in the forward action.
(iin) Tail. It is normally of heavy cast iron and is the forward extension of the ring.
(iv) Propelling jacks. These jacks push the shield forward cutting the soil.
They permit the muck to flow into the completed portion of the shield port holes are provided
in the diaphragm. The shield is strengthened by circular box girder which carries the skin and
there are horizontal and vertical box girders for strengthening the ring beam.
 477
Methods of Tunnelling in Soft Strata

These shields have been used in the European countries for tube railways and for tunnelling
work under rivers.

1. Shield plate
Holes for jacks
.00 /m K-
8m T 1. Skin plate
2. Cutting edge
(1) . Port
4. Vertical frame (2 3. Hood
4. Plateform for
5. Horizontal frame
6. Diaphragm miner
5. Face jack
a: Cross-section
(3 (6) 6. Propelling Jack
8) (4) 7. Cutting edge
8. Ring girder
(5)
(4 3.5m

(3) (5) (8)

(6)
(6)-

(2) (7
(b) Longitudinal section
(a) Cross-section

Fig. 3.2. Flying Arch Method

shields are circular in section.

On account of the following tunnels driven by
erected within the tail is protected.
) Primary lining which being
is
C.L. getting disturbed.
It offers easy rotation of the shield without the
()
of soft ground is resisted.
(ii) Semi-fluid pressures cross-sectional area with minimum perimeter.
This (circular) section provides maximum
(iv) from 60 cm per day to 370 cm per day
has been varying
The progress of shield tunnelling
from 3 m to 9 m.
and tunnel diameters have been
Terms associated with the shield
are
the thrust of
shield. Forward propulsion of
the shield is accompanied by
() Steering the
the jacks against the primary lining
immediately behind.
shield.
cast iron lining used with the
(i) Primary lining. It is the heavy with
of the ground pressure is associated
(ii) Ground pressure. Building
for propulsion of the shield.
(a) Requirement of additional pressure
of the shield.
(6) Increased stress is the components measures to take
care
increased pressures. If these
Shield has therefore to take care of these shield may get
are not taken into
consideration while designing the
of the increased pressures
struck.
of the shield and
It is an important component
(iv) Tunnel boring machines (TMB). by the
excavation mechanically. The operations performed
performs the manual operation of the use of the machine
breaking the face material. The
machine are (a) Grinding (b) Cutting or

increases production.
air and is
Plenum compressed air method. This method uses the compressed
() or
soft strata or water bearing grond. The equipment
associated
Specially useful for tunnelling over

With the operation of this method are

478
A Textbook of
Transportation Engineering
(a) Air lock and accessories.
(b) Bulk head to fix the air lock.
(c) Blow line.
(d) Air processor.
. These accessories are described below
(a) Air lock. It consists of a long airtight cylinder steel
each end, both opening inwards. chamber with two doors onee at

(b) Bulk head. It is airtight diaphragm in which the airlock is fixed.

(c) Blow line. It is a 10 cm diameter pressure pipe running from the tunnel
outside. It is used with valve
heading to the
a near the end and is used to exhaust foul air from
the
heading.
(d) Air compressor. They are normally located outside the tunnel (withinthe portal) and
are connected with the locks by suitable pipes, control
cators.
arrangement and pressure indi-

A pressure of upto 14 N/cm* may have

be maintained during working.
to
(vi) Man lock and material lock. In the case of large diameter tunnels separate locks are
provided on the same bulkhead. One exclusively for the passage of the workers known as
man-lock and the other for conveyance of the excavated muck known as material lock.
(vii) Work in compressed air for labourers
(a) Working period of labour when working under pressure upto 12.5 N/cm* is
8 hours with at least half hour break in free air.
normally
(6) For working under 14 to 21 N per cm pressure the working period is reduced to 4
hours with at least 2 hours in free air.
(viin) Precautions for working in compressed air:
(a) The prescribed working period should not be exceeded.
(6) Suitable refreshment and adequate break to be provided.
(c) Air pressure to be maintained at the desired level.
(d) Decompression back normal pressure to be gradual.
to
(e) Extra man-lock or material lock to be provisioned.
)Workmen required to work under pressure to be checked for fitness.
g)Emergency lock to be provided.
(h) Proper control over detection of toxic and explosive gases.
(i) Proper ventilation to control dust and gas.
)Wet drilling should be resorted to.
(k) Precautions regarding explosive and blasting operations to be strictly observed.
(ix) Compressed Air. As a rule 1 N/cm2 is required to support Im head of water. In porous
soils this capacity of support by compressed air may reduce upto 25%.
If an impervious soil overlies a
porous soil a reverse pressure gets built up and a reverse
pressure adding to the hydrostatic hesd is built up. Under these circumstances the soil surrounding
the tunnel section has to be drained by well
points connected to the blow line. The air pressure
requirements depend upon the following
(a) Character and material of the face.
(b) Cover
(c) Method of excavation
(d) Size of the tunnel.
Methods of Tunnelling in Soft Strata 479

14. TUNNELLING IN SOFT GROUND

4.1. The Various Methods of Tunnelling in Soft Strata are:
(i) Forepoling
(i) American

(i) English
(iv) Belgian
Tunnelling in soft strata involves the following;
(a) Explosives are not required.
(6) Slow progress of work as wörk has to be carried out cautiously.
(c) Work by manual labour is adequate.
(d) Timbering for supporting the section is required.
below
Brief description of standard methods states above is given
() Forepoling method. (See Fig. 3.3)
shown in Fig. 3.3.
The ground ahead is supported by boards driven as
of breasting the forepoles act as
These ribs are known as 'Spiles'. Beyond the point
their forwardness are supported by steel ribs.
cantilever. They carry the weight of the ground till
(1)

(2) (2)
1. Cap
(1) 2. Shoulder timber
3. Wall plate
4. Strut
(2) 5. Post
6. Sill

(4) (3) (2)

1. Sand and gravel
2. Rib
3. Spile
(7 N5)°(6) 7. Vertical pol

3)
4. Cut to point

Fig. 3.4. American Method

Fig. 3.3. Forepoling method of tunnelling
excavated after
The far around the pheriphery as required. The soil
placed as
spiles are
This operation is followed by
removing the breast boards. A new rib is then erected in position.
fixing fresh breast boards and the sequence of operation is repeated.
) American Method. (See Fig. 3.4)
railway tunnels. The
This method of tunnelling is adopted for large size highway or

constructions sequence is as below:

and segment.
(a) Driving the top drift. This is supported by two posts, laggings
(b) Widening the sides of the draft. arch set
the
(c) Introduction wall plates (5 m length) at the springing. These plates support
composed of the segmehts.
(a) Inserting wall plates underpinned by props or vertical posts.
(e) The timber arch segment and roof load are transferred to the wall plates.
is that heavy timbering is
)Clearing sides and benching. Special feature of this method
not required.
 480 A Textbook of Transportation Engineer
eering
(ti) English Method (See Fig. 3.5)
Sequence of operations
involved in this method is (2)
(a) Driving a central 1. Lagging
top heading.
(1)- 2. Crown
(4) (3)
3. Bars carried on
(6) Top heading sup- 4. Post post
ported by crown
5. Extended sill
bars. 6. Posts
(c)Widening the 7. Extended sill
heading as in
American method.
(d)Underpinning the (5)
extended sill. Spe-
cial feature of this (6)
method is use of
large quantity of Fig. 3.5. English Method.
timber components.
Advantages and disadvantages ofthese method are:
(a) Advantages
() Method of hauling is simple.
(i) Masonry lining is built in one piece from foundation to the crown.
(b) Disadvantages.
(i) As compared to other methods the process is slow as masons and excavators have
to work alternately.
(i) If the soil is unstable the danger of caving exists in case full section of the tunnel
is excavated.
(1)
(2)
o 1. Completed arch
2. Horizontal bars
3. Side masonry
PQRS Trench

(3) R

Fig. 3.6. Belgian method.

(iv) Belgian Method. (See Fig. 3.6)
The method is suitable for all types of
operation is as below
moderately firm and hard soiled. The sequence o
(a) Driving top centre heading for the full rise of the arch.
(6) Widening the heading sideways.
(c) Building the arch lining.
Methods of Tunnelling in Soft Strata 481

(a) Excavating trench PORS. Cutting pockets in the trench sides to insert shores to underpin
the arch.
(e) Clearing alternating spaces between the shores and building supporting side masonry.
The important advantage of the method is that lighter sections are required.

3.5. TIMBERING
Timbering plays a very important role in the construction of tunnels. Particular method of
timbering is govermed by the design of the tunnel, characteristics of the soil, and size of the
tunnel, the design of timbering is as important as the design of the tunnel itself. Whatever be the
design following principles should serve 2s guide lines for the design of tinmbering
(a) Avoid having bending members as timber components.
(6) Keep length of the timber within reasonable limits from the point of view of the
availability of the section transportation in addition to handling during the erection.
(c)The timber design should be complete in itself. The top floor and sides shculd receive
pressure which would ensure compression on the timber sections
d)The joints should be sinmple and abutting surfaces should be as simple as possible.
During construction it should be ensured that the timber sections are not subjected to any
tensile stresses and the compression should be within the permissible limits.
If suitable precautions are taken during selection of timber and in the process of design
along with the protection against deformation and decay it would be possible for the shuttering
to be used a number of times there by saving the cost of construction.
3.6. TUNNELLING ON FIRM GROUND
Tunnelling on firm ground may be classified as under
(a) Traditional method involving drilling and blasting.
(b) Excavation by tunnelling methods (Refer article 3.4)
(a) Traditional method of drilling and blasting:
Methods of tunnelling under this system are
() Full Face method
(i) Top heading and benching
(iii) Drift method
drift method.
(iv) Multiple
The above methods are briefly described below

()Full face method. (See Fig. 3.7). The method is suitable for comparatively fim soils
where the excavation portion can hold itself for some time to allow removal of muck collected

(1)
I

2)
(3) 1. Drill hols
2. Heading
3. Benching
(4) 4. Hooked

II

Fig. 3.7. Full Face Method Fig. 3.8. Top heading and Benching
482 A Textbook of Transportation Engineering
during excavation. The excavation is divided into top, middle bottom sections shown as I,
and III in Fig. 3.8.
The top section is excavated and removed. It is followed by excavation of the second section
which is excavated and the muck removed. The bottom is then excavated and the muck removed
The method is suitable for small size tunnels.
(i) Top heading and benching (See Fig. 3.8). This method is suitable for tunnelling in
soils which can not hold itself by the time mucking operations are carried out. The heading is
excavated and supported to the full length or part of the length of the tunnel before starting the
benching. The heading is always ahead of the benching depending upon the nature of the soil
and progress of the work. The principle is illustrated in Fig. 3.8.
(i) Drift method. (See Fig. 3.9). The 'Drift' indicates a pilot tunnel
(miniature) made inside or along the centre of the tunnel. This drift in the
second stage widened by drilling holes on its face as illustrated in Fig. 3.9.
Depending upon the position of the drift method is further classified as ()
Wall place Drift, (b) Side Drift, and (c) Multiple Drift.
(a) Wall plate drift. Sometimes the top heading methods have to be
supplemented by introduction of drifts on each side of the spring line. They
have to be driven when the rock under consideration is so bad that the
procedure of 'heading in' only a very short advance per pull in the heading. Fig. 3.9. Drift
The top ribs is such cases are supported by wall plates of suitable lengths. Method.
(b) Side drift. In large size tunnels the excavation is required to be
supported before mucking. In such cases the rib, wall plate and post type of support is resorted
to. On each side on the sub-grade drift is driven ahead. If the situation so. demands full face
operation is carried out followed by quick erection of roof ribs.
In situations where ground conditions do not permit full operation multiple drift is resorted
to.
(c) Multiple drift method. The method is resorted to frequently to get through crushed
rock in fault areas where the crushed rock behaves like earth even if the rock may have hardened
enough to require blasting. The following two methods are adopted in such a situation
Method No. 1
The work involves the following stages
() Construction of crown drift.
i) Supporting the drift by two vertical posts to be subsequently removed and segment of
steel ribs is provided forming part of the ultimate steel rib.
(ii) Constructing drift on either side of the central drift.
(iv) Supporting the rib segments resulting in the formation of a complete semi-circle above
the springing.
(v)The above operations are followed by benching.
Method No. 2
The following stages are involved
() Driving a side drift through sub-grade on either side.
(i) Constructing a side support in steel or concrete in each drift along with suitable arrangement
for drainage.
(ii) Constructing concrete wall in a single lift in case the height of side walls is too great.
(iv) Driving side drift immediately above the concrete side wall carried upto spring line.