Unit 12

Food Management: Types
UNIT 12 FOOD MANAGEMENT: TYPES OF of Food Service Systems
FOOD SERVICE SYSTEMS
Structure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Introduction to Food Service Systems
12.3 Types of Service Systems
12.3.1 Conventional
12.3.2 Commissary
12.3.3 Ready Prepared
12.3.4 Assembly/Serve
12.4 Distribution and Service in Food Service System
12.4.1 Conventional Food Service System
12.4.2 Commissary Food Service System
12.4.3 Ready Prepared Food Service System
12.4.4 Assembly/Serve Food Service System
12.5 Conduct and Appearance of Service Unit Personnel
12.6 Let Us Sum Up
12.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
12.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 10 earlier, we learnt about service systems model and various types of services.
These were, as you may recall, conventional, commissary, ready prepared and assembly/
serve. Here, in this unit, we shall have a deep insight of these service systems. We
will get to know what are these, their characteristics, the food service organizations
where these are in operation and how these are carried out.
Next, we shall understand the meal distribution system and service styles in food
service systems. This too, you may recall, you have already studied earlier. Here,
however, we will have a look at all of these in terms of distribution and service issues.
So let us proceed with our discussion.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• understand different types of service,
• discuss distribution and service styles in food service system, and
• highlight the factors which are important for the service personnel.
12.2 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SERVICE SYSTEMS

New production/service systems for food service organizations have developed in
recent years. Characterized by a separation of production and service of food in time
and/or place, these new systems have been primarily aimed at increasing productivity,
decreasing cost, or strengthening control of operations. Because food service managers
assume primary responsibility for food safety and quality regardless of the type of
system, complex managerial decisions are required to develop and implement appropriable
food service systems that serve quality food at minimal cost. The physical, chemical
and microbiological changes occurring in food throughout all stages of procurement,
production and service must be monitored and controlled to ensure the quality and
safety of the finished products.
243
Entrepreneurship and Food Spiraling labour costs and technological innovation in both food and equipment have
Service Management led to implementation of these new types of systems. Faced with these costs and a
lack of available highly skilled employees, food service managers have been receptive
to using the new forms of food with built-in convenience or labour-saving features.
These foods, in their various forms and stages of preparation, have appeared on the
market in increasing numbers each year. Many require specialized equipment for final
production, delivery and service.
As highlighted in Unit 10 earlier, four major types of food service systems have been
identified – the conventional or traditionally used system, and three newer systems,
commissary, ready prepared and assembly/serve. A series of conceptual diagrams for
food service operations, developed by a regional research group to illustrate food
product flow within these various types of food service systems, will be presented and
discussed further in this section.
A major distinguishing characteristic of the four systems is the degree of processing

of the foods, which may vary from little or no processing prior to purchase of the foods
to completely prepared foods ready for service. This food processing continuum, deals
with the procurement sub-system and the process of bringing into the system one of
the most important inputs, food. Figure 12.1 illustrates the interrelationship between
the inputs of the system and the transformation processes. It also emphasizes the
critical role procurement plays and indicates how the types of food used in the system
the quality standards enforced and quality assurance programmes affect the nature and
characteristics of the entire system and the output.
Organizational Goals
and Objectives
Quality Standards
Performance Measures
Quality Assurance
Programme
Input Transformation Output
Figure 12.1: Quality assurance in food service model
In many food services, a combination of foods with varying degrees of processing is

utilized. Look at Figure 12.2, which presents the food processing continuum. At the
far left of this diagrammatic continuum, as you would have noticed, food items receive
little or no processing prior to purchase by the food service operation; at the far right,
however, the food products have undergone complete processing and are ready for
service. Fresh apples, sugar, flour, and shortening for use in baking an apple pie are
examples of foods with little or no processing, whereas frozen baked pie is an example
at the other end of the food processing continuum.
Food Processing Continuum

None Complete
Food
Procurement
Alternatives
Food Service System
Figure 12.2: Food processing continuum

244
With a brief understanding of the food processing continuum, let us next review the Food Management: Types
four systems of food service which as mentioned earlier are distinguished based on of Food Service Systems
the degree of processing of the foods, which may vary from little or no processing
prior to purchase of the foods to completely prepared foods ready for service.
12.3 TYPES OF SERVICE SYSTEMS

You may recall studying about different types of services in Unit 10. Let us have
a look at these in detail in this section. We shall begin with conventional type of service
first.
12.3.1 Conventional
The conventional food service system is the type most establishments have traditionally
used. Foods are purchased for an individual operation in various stages of preparation,
but all production is completed and foods are served on the same premises. Following
production, foods are held hot or chilled, as appropriate for the menu item, and served
as soon as possible as illustrated in Figure 12.3.

None Complete
Food
Procurement
Conventional Alternatives
Food Service System
Food Production
Hold Heated Hold Chilled
Consumer
Figure 12.3: Conventional food service system
In previous years, conventional food service systems often included a butcher shop,
bake shop, and vegetable preparation unit. Currently, many conventional food service
operations use pre-portioned meats, baked goods, and canned and frozen vegetables
rather than purchasing all types of foods raw and completing processing on premises.
Although alternative systems have evolved, the conventional system continues to be

the dominant type of food service in the United States. Because of increasing labour
costs, managers of conventional food services have gradually made changes in ingredients
and menu items purchased in an attempt to reduce the labour needed for meal
production. Food procured for conventional systems vary from those with no processing,
to those with a limited amount of processing, to those processed completely.
Foods with varying degrees of processing are brought into the system and prepared
for service in the food production sub-system. As shown in Figure 12.3 some food
are merely purchased and held chilled before service, such as milk or butter patties,
whereas other menu items are produced in the system from raw foods and held either
heated or chilled until time of service.
Following receipt and appropriate storage of food items and ingredients, menu items
should be prepared as near to service time as possible. Considerable labour is required 245
Entrepreneurship and Food before and during food service periods. Otherwise, food subjected to hot-holding
Service Management conditions is affected by temperature, humidity and length of holding time, all of which
can adversely affect its nutritional and sensory quality and must be considered when
scheduling food production.
Foods prepared in the conventional system may be distributed for service directly to
an adjacent or nearby serving area, such as a cafeteria, dining room, or lunch counter.
In hospitals or other healthcare facilities, as you know already, food may be served
on trays, using a centralized or decentralized service approach. In centralized
service, as you would recall, the individual patient trays are assembled and set up at
some central point in or close to the production area. Trays are then distributed by
carts or conveyors to patient floors, where they are delivered to patient rooms. In
decentralized service, food is distributed in bulk quantities to another area in the
facility where trays are assembled. In some facilities, a combination of these two
approaches is used.
Next, let us review the commissary food service system.
12.3.2 Commissary
Technological innovations and the design of sophisticated food service equipments
have led to the evolution and development of commissary food service systems.
These commissary systems are characterized by a centralized food procurement
and production facility, with distribution of prepared menu items to several remote
areas for final preparation and service. The centralized production facilities are often
referred to as central commissaries or food factories, and the service units as satellite
service centers. The economies of scale concept have guided the design of these
systems. The potential for economies from large-scale purchasing and production in
a central facility has been used to justify design and construction of these complex
operations with expensive automated equipment for production of foods from
unprocessed states.
In commissary food service systems, the foods purchased have received little or no
processing, as indicated in the continuum at the top of the Figure 12.4. These foods
are generally purchased in large quantities and held after delivery at the facility under
appropriate environmental conditions in frozen refrigerated or dry storage. Most
menu items in commissary systems are processed completely in the central facility.
Because of the large quantities produced, the equipment for preprocessing and
production is often different from the equipment used in conventional systems. These
large central production centers may be designed using equipment frequently seen in
food industry operations, such as canneries or frozen food processing
plants. Because of the large scale production quantities, recipes and food
production techniques require major modification. For example, the degree of
doneness is less for most menu items because of the additional heating or thermalization
needed at the satellite service centers to bring the foods to an acceptable serving
temperature.
Foods are held after production, frozen, chilled, or heated, for distribution to the
service centers as you may have noticed in Figure 12.4. These menu items may be
stored in bulk or in individual portions. The type of storage used may depend on the
time lag necessary between production and service. In many instances, however, the
type of storage for prepared menu items may be the concept guiding the design of
the system. For example, a decision to use frozen storage for menu items may be
made before proceeding with the design. Many menu items that have been held frozen
or chilled require an additional thermal process to heat them to desirable service
temperature. Highly specialized distribution equipment may be needed, depending on
the type and location of satellite service centers.
246
Food Processing Continuum of Food Service Systems
None Complete
Food
Procurement
Commissary Alternatives
Food Service System
Food Production
Store Frozen Store Chilled Hold Chilled
Heat
Distribution
Consumer
Figure 12.4: Commissary food service system
A modification of the food service systems model illustrates unique characteristics of

commissary food service systems. As indicated, the major modifications affecting
inputs to the system are the type of food and facilities used. In the transformation
element, the nature of the functional sub-systems is vastly different from the convenient
system, mainly because of the larger scale production capacity, the storage necessary
for prepared menu items, and the distribution capabilities required for transporting
prepared menu items to a wide array of satellite service centers.
The packaging and storage of prepared menu items present challenges for control in
commissary systems. A variety of packaging materials and approaches is used in
systems now in operation, varying from individual pouches or serving dishes, specially
designed for frozen or chilled holding, to disposable or reusable metal pans adapted
to various types of distribution and transportation equipment. Preserving the
microbiological, sensory, and nutritional quality of foods during holding and
thermalization at point of service can present problems. Specialized equipment is
required for the packaging, storing and distributing of products prepared in central
commissaries. In large food factories, a food technologist or microbiologist is frequently
on staff, responsible for monitoring quality control.
In food service organizations with many serving units, centralized production and
other activities with commissary type systems have been tried in an attempt to curtail
labour and other costs. The commissary food service principles have been adopted
in systems where service areas are remote from, yet accessible to, the production
center. Reducing duplication of production, labour, and equipment that occurs if
production centers are located at each food service site has been the objective.
Space requirements at the service centers can also be minimized because of the
limited production equipment required. The high capital cost for construction of these
large central production units and also the high cost for transportation equipment and
the increasing expenses for distribution are current concerns in evaluating the
effectiveness of these systems.
Commissary systems are adaptable particularly for food service operations with service
in unique places. One of the best examples can be found in airline food service,
where the commissary system has been applied for many years. Menu items for
airlines are produced in ground level facilities according to specifications of the
247
Entrepreneurship and Food various airlines, portioned into individual meals for passengers, and distributed in
Service Management various containers and carts for holding on site in the production facility and on the
planes until service. Commissary systems are, in large measure, an outgrowth of airline
food service applied to other types of operations.
Commissary systems have long been applied in school food service, although many
systems have combined conventional and commissary approaches. In recent years,
centralized production facilities located away from schools have been constructed,
usually in urban districts with a large number of schools. Often the larger secondary
schools have their own conventional systems, so the central production facility only
produces meals for the smaller elementary schools in the district. A more common
system, however, uses the larger secondary school kitchens as the commissary for
producing meals that are transported for service in bulk or portions to the smaller
elementary schools. In this instance, the secondary school operation is both a
commissary and a conventional system, because secondary students are also served
in an adjacent cafeteria. These secondary school operations are often referred to as
base kitchens.
In commercial food service in large, multi-unit operations, systems combining

characteristic of commissary and conventional systems are found. For example, some
menu items may be prepared in a central commissary and then shipped to a variety
of operations, often great distances from the commissary. In the individual units, a
combination of menu items is served, including both those procured from the central
commissary and others prepared on site.
The discussion above we hope presented a good insight into the commissary food
service system and its application in the food industry. Let us next move on to study
the third food service system i.e., ready prepared.
12.3.3 Ready Prepared

Ready prepared food service systems have been developed in response to increased
labour costs and to a critical shortage of skilled food production personnel. In ready
prepared systems, menu items are produced and held frozen or chilled for service. A
key difference between ready prepared and conventional systems is that menu items
are not produced for immediate service in ready systems. Many of the production,
packaging and storage techniques are similar to those used in commissary systems;
however, the scale of production is not as large because the ready prepared system
is designed for a single operation. Generally, ready prepared systems have been
adopted because completely prepared foods are not available in the market to meet
the needs of an organization. In the healthcare industry, in particular, prepared foods
are often not available to meet the specialized needs of patients with varying health
problems.
The food product flow in ready prepared food service systems is shown in Figure 12.5.
As indicated, foods from the entire spectrum of the food processing continuum are
used. Foods brought into the system that are completely processed are merely stored
frozen or chilled, as appropriate to the food item. Foods procured with little or no
processing are used to produce menu items that are stored either frozen or chilled.
A distinct feature of these systems is that prepared menu items are readily available
at any time for final assembly and/or heating for service.
Menu items such as entries and hot vegetables require two phases of heat processing
in ready prepared food service systems, the first occurring during the quantity production
of menu items. The second occurs after storage, in bringing items to the appropriate
temperature for service to the consumer.
248
of Food Service Systems
None Complete
Food
Procurement
Ready Prepared Alternatives
Food Service System
Food Production
Store Frozen Store Chilled
Heat
Consumer
Figure 12.5: Food flow in ready prepared food service system
Cook-chill and cook-freeze are two variations of ready prepared systems. In cook-
chill food service operations, most menu items are maintained in the chilled state for
various periods of time. In cook-freeze systems, menu items are stored in the frozen
state for periods generally ranging from two weeks up to three months.
Procured foods are placed in appropriate shortage conditions, and then produced for
holding in one of the two forms discussed above. Careful production scheduling is
needed along with accurate forecasting to maintain quality of foods and avoid prolonged
holding beyond the planned time. In cook-chill systems, prepared menu items are
portioned for service several hours or as much as a day in advance of the serving
period. In both, cook-chill or cook-freeze approaches, final heating occurs just before
service, usually in facilities near the serving areas. For example, hospitals have
facilities on patient floors called galleys, where specialized heating equipment is used
to finish the preparation for menu items immediately before service. Microwave ovens
are the most commonly used heating equipment. Often, minor preparation, such as
preparing toast for a breakfast menu, may occur in these galleys. In the initial
preparation, menu items should be slightly undercooked to avoid overcooking and loss
of sensory quality in the final heating for service.
In cook-freeze systems, special recipe formulations are needed for many menu items
because of the changes that occur in freezing. Development of off-flavours may be
a problem with some food items. Substituting more stable ingredients, by exercising
greater control of storage time, temperature, and packaging, or by adding stabilizers
may control some of these changes.
The challenge in the ready prepared systems using either cook-chill or cook-freeze
approaches in retention of foods’ nutrient content, microbial safety and sensory
quality. Prolonged holding should be avoided, and careful control in the final heating
stage prior to service is important. In addition to microwave ovens for this final heating
process, immersion techniques and convection ovens have also been proven to be
effective. Convection ovens, in which the air is circulated during the heating process,
are effective for heating foods held in bulk because appropriate temperatures are
reached more rapidly than in conventional ovens. Immersion techniques, which involve
immersing pouches of food in boiling water or in steamers, are used for reheating moist
food items, such as entrée items in sauces. 249
Entrepreneurship and Food The food service systems model, already described earlier in Unit 10, that we are using
Service Management as a framework for this unit has direct application to the ready prepared system. In
the transformation process, however, special attention must be focused on the production
and holding of prepared menu items. As indicated above, special systems for heating
menu items for service to consumers are required.
Ready prepared food service systems have been adopted in many operations to reduce
labour expenditures and use labour more effectively. Peak demands for labour are
removed because production is designed to meet future rather than immediate needs.
Production personnel can be scheduled for regular working hours rather than during
the early morning and late evening shifts that are required in conventional systems.
The heating and service of menu items does not require highly skilled employees and
thus, reductions in labour costs are often possible. Food procurement in volume may
decrease food costs in these systems.
Finally let us review the assembly/serve system.
12.3.4 Assembly/Serve
The development of assembly/serve systems – also referred to as convenience food
systems or systems using minimal cooking concepts – came about primarily because
of the availability of foods that are ready to serve or that require little or no processing
in the food service operation prior to service. Another factor has been the chronic
shortage of skilled personnel in food production and the increasing cost of labour.
The primary objective of assembly/serve systems is to provide food ready for service
while minimizing the amount of labour resources employed within the food service
operation. Food products are brought into the system with a maximum degree of
processing as you would notice in Figure 12.6. Only storage assembly, heating and
service functions are commonly performed in these systems; little, if any, preprocessing
is done and production is very limited.

None Complete
Food
Procurement
Assembly / Serve Alternatives
Food Service System
Store Frozen Store Chilled
Protein
Heat
Consumer
Figure 12.6: Food flow in assembly/serve food service system
The three market forms of foods used predominantly in these systems are bulk, pre-
portioned, and preplated frozen foods. The bulk form requires portioning before or
after heating within the food service service operation, whereas the pre-portioned
market form requires only assembly and heating. The preplated products require only
heating for distribution and service, and thus are the most easily handled of the three
250 forms.
In many assembly/serve operations, a combination of foods is used, some requiring Food Management: Types
a limited degree of processing in the food service operation and others requiring none. of Food Service Systems
Often partially prepared foods are purchased to be combined with other ingredients
before heating or chilling. In many operations, completely processed foods may be
enhanced in the assembly/serve system as a way of individualizing menu items; for
example, a sauce may be added to an entrée. Glew (1972), however, contends that
the use of completely processed foods is probably more cost effective than using total
convenience foods along with those requiring more preparation in the food service
system.
Following procurement, in assembly/serve systems, food items are held in dry,

refrigerated, or frozen storage. When menu items are heated in bulk or pre-portioned
form, quality control is a particular concern. Foods must be thawed under appropriate
conditions if thawing is required prior to heating. The thawing and heating processes
must not be scheduled too long to advance of service because of the potential loss
of microbial, nutritional, and sensory quality of the food. For this reason, specialized
systems for heating frozen foods to appropriate serving temperatures have been
developed, in which convection and microwave ovens are frequently used.
The assembly/serve approach to food service systems gained some degree of acceptance
because it appeared to offer an easy solution to labour and production problems.
However, a readily available supply of highly processed, high quality food products
is a prerequisite for a successful assembly/serve operation. As indicated in the discussion
of ready prepared systems, the availability of food products is sometimes a problem,
particularly in healthcare institutions. Although foods for special modified dietary
needs have been developed in recent years, these foods are not always readily
available, particularly in rural and small communities. Therefore, if a convenience food
system is used for patients or nursing home residents without special dietary needs,
food production may be needed to prepare items for those on modified diets.
Another common complaint about the assembly/serve systems is the lack of individuality.
Comments are frequently heard about the “sameness” of the ready prepared foods
available in the market place. As we discussed in the section on conventional food
systems, a trend toward use of foods with some degree of processing is evident. This
trend appears to be more predominant than total adoption of assembly/serve systems.
In some instances, however, an assembly/serve system meets the needs of particular
operations in which space is very limited for production facilities or labour is not
available.
Before we further move on to study distribution and service, let us take a break here
and recapitulate what we have learnt till now.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Discuss the reasons behind the increased need of new food production/
service systems.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) What are the four major types of food service systems?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
251
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management 3) Packaging and storage of prepared menu items present challenges for control
in commissary systems. Discuss.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4) What are the benefits and challenges of using ready prepared systems?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
5) Bring about the drawbacks of assembly/service systems.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
Now that we have a good knowledge of the different food service systems, let us next
review the distribution and service in food service system.
12.4 DISTRIBUTION AND SERVICE IN FOOD SERVICE

SYSTEM
Depending on the type of food service systems, distribution may or may not be a
major function. In hospital food service, where patients must be served in individual
rooms located on many floors and perhaps in separated building, distribution is a major
concern. You would recall reading about this before in Unit 10 as well. Ensuring that
the appropriate food is sent to the appropriate place for service to a particular patient
is a complex process, further complicated by the need to ensure that the food is at
the right temperature and aesthetically appealing. In contrast, in the fast food operation,
where patrons pick up the food items directly after production and either carry them
off premises for consumption or to a table in the facility, distribution is relatively
simple. In fact, the distribution and service becomes the responsibility primarily of the
customer, not the personnel.
Service takes many forms in a food service establishment, from that in the upscale
fine food restaurant involving several highly trained personnel to that in the many types
of self-service operations – cafeteria, vending or buffet. The method, speed and
quality of the services provided can “make or break” a food service establishment as
already discussed earlier in Unit 11. The quality of food may be excellent, the
sanitation of the establishment above reproach, the procurement and storage of food
ideal, but if the service is lacking, the operation will be rated poor by the clientele.
In some instances, clientele will repeatedly return to an establishment with only
mediocre food because a favourite waiter or waitress provides high quality
service or because they can depend on being served and back to work in a short period
of time.
In this section, the four basic types of systems will be discussed from the standpoint
of distribution and service issues. Different types of service in these food service
systems/operations will then be outlined. So let us begin our discussion with conventional
food service system.
252
12.4.1 Conventional Food Service System Food Management: Types
In the conventional system, most menu items are produced on premise and distributed
for service to a serving area or areas close to the production facilities. In this system,
hot and cold holding equipment is needed to maintain the proper temperature for
various menu items between the time of production and service as you may have
already noticed in Figure 12.3. Depending on the type of service areas, this holding
equipment may be stationary or mobile. Some equipment is quite versatile and can
be used for distribution, holding and service. For example, the mobile modular-serving
units could be used for transporting food for a catered function in a dining room away
from the main kitchen and also for holding the food until time of service. The units
then provide a service counter for self or waiter/waitress service.
In a healthcare facility, however, patient service may take place throughout the
facility, requiring more complex distribution systems that in other types of food service
operations. Meal assembly, for example, may be centralized or decentralized. In a
facility with centralized meal assembly, the time between production, assembly,
distribution and service can be minimal. The trays are first assembled for service at
a central location in or close to the main production facilities. Hot menu items are held
in food warming cabinets, usually in cafeteria counter pans, where they remain until
placed in hot food serving units during tray assembly; cold items are held under
refrigeration. The assembled trays are then distributed to the patient units using a
variety of types of cars. Some institutions use heated and refrigerated tray carts, which
may be motorized or pushed manually by hospital personnel. A few institutions have
an automated cart transport system, which only requires setting a dial or pushing a
button to move carts along specially designed corridors to designated service areas.
This type of system must be a design feature of the facility during construction.
The high initial and maintenance costs of heated and heated/refrigerated carts have led
to development of other methods for maintaining proper temperatures on assembled
trays. One of these systems uses specially designed dishes that have been preheated
in an infrared oven, and then transferred to an insulated base. The hot menu items
are portioned onto the plate, which is covered by a dome designed to fit the base
container, thus keeping food warm until service to the patient. This unit is placed on
the individual patient’s tray, and other menu items that have been individually wrapped
are added. The assembled trays are then transported in an unheated cart to patient
units for service.
The process of meal distribution in a centralized tray system includes activities to the
movement of assembled trays from the point of assembly to the patient area. A method
for thermal retention is needed in larger operations in which the time between meal
assembly and service to the patient is too long to maintain proper temperatures.
Refrigerated support for cold foods may also be needed. We had already described
the types of methods that are widely used in healthcare institutions in Unit 10 earlier.
These categories include hot thermal retention/support, hot and cold thermal retention
systems, and no thermal support. Benefits and constraints of these distribution systems
and of few others (such as microwave ovens, convection ovens, infrared ovens etc.)
are described for your reference in Table 12.1.
The layout uses mobile equipment, which has been widely accepted because of the
flexibility and the ease of facility maintenance provided. This type of set-up can be
readily rearranged or moved for cleaning.
Each assembly area requires support equipment to assemble the trays. The size of
the area and the number of trays to assemble will determine the type of conveyor
system required to provide support. Hysen and Harrison (1982) outline options for
tray assembly equipment, including manual conveyors, such as a tray slide; simple
mechanical conveyors, such as a roller type, and motorized conveyors, which may be
straight-line or circular. The straight-line lay out illustrates other equipment needed
for holding and dispending food and other items needed for tray assembly.
253
Entrepreneurship and Food Table 12.1: Major meal distribution and service systems along with their benefits and
Service Management constraints
Major Meal Distri- Benefits Constraints

bution and Service
System
Hot and Cold Thermal Retention Systems
Pellet and sublima- • A synergistic heat main- • The operational cost of com-
tion refrigeration tenance effect is plexity of the required carbon
achieved. dioxide cooling system is
• Simplicity of cart con- consideration.
struction and ease of • Patient trays are not com-
sanitation. pletely assembled at a
• The cast is lightweight, central assembly point. Final
which provides for ease assembly occurs in patient
of mobility. areas.
Split tray • Centralized supervision • The card is heavy and bulky.
and control of the total A motorized version may be
assembly process. required if any ramps are to
• Non reassembly of tray be negotiated.
components is required • The cards are difficult to
in the patient areas. sanitize.
• Good temperature re- • The initial cost of the cart is
tention of both hot and high and maintenance costs
cold items. can be high.
• The system accommo- • Due to the relatively heavy
dates late trays within a weight and limited manoeuvra-
reasonable period. bility, carts and wall surfaces
are subject to damage.
Match-a-tray • Same as described for • Same as described for split
split tray except that tray.
consolidation is re- • Additional labour must be ap-
quired on the patient plied at the patient area to re-
level. assemble the complete patient
meal.
Insulated trays • The purchase of special dis-
• Maintains hot and cold posable dishes results in
zones well without ex- higher operational costs.
ternal hat or refrigerant Food holding time is limited
sources. to 45 minutes.
• Simplicity or transport
• The long range cost could be
is achieved. It does not
substantially higher than other
require a heavy, en-
systems due to disposable and
closed delivery cart.
lease costs.
Stacked trays protect
and insulated food. • Hot foods may take on a
• There is a less load on “steamed” appearance in the
the dish washing facility hot compartment due to its
due to disposables. relatively small volume and
• There are no complex lack of venting.
components to repair,
• Possible adverse patient reac-
replace or maintain.
tion to eating from a
compartmentalized tray.
• Trays can be difficult to sani-
tize completely due to deep
cavity construction.
254
• The top and bottom tray of Food Service Systems
compartments do not nest,
more storage area required.
• Rigid presentation and
placement of dishes is a
limitation of the system.
Insulated components • Only the dinner plate and • Additional service ware
food are heated. There are pieces need to be invento-
no pellet bases to heat. It ried, stored, transported, and
is simple in operation, re- washed.
quiring no special pellet • Attractive insulated compo-
dispensers to purchase. nents are often taken home
• There is no burn hazard to by patients as useful me-
the attendant or patient mentos of their hospital ex-
because there is no hot perience.
pellet base or pellet disk. • Hot food holding time is
• No special insulated de- limited to 30 minutes; cold
livery cart is required. food items can be held longer.
No Thermal Support
Covered Tray • The tray is a simple stand- • Requires an immediate and
ard unit. responsive transportation
• The equipment cost of the system.
system is low. • High labour component is
required for transportation
process.
• No thermal support is avail-
able for entrée and other
food items.
Hot Thermal Retention Systems
Pellet system • Support equipment and • Provisions for maintenance
system operation are con- of cold items such as milk,
ventional and uncompli- salads, jellies, ice cream
cated. etc. are not made.
• There is no requirement • Hot food cannot be held for
for a special plate; any a long period of time (more
standardized china. than 45 minutes)
• No special insulated de- • Additional service ware
livery cart is required. pieces need to be invento-
ried, stored, transported and
washed.
Insulated components • Only the dinner plate and • Additional service ware
food are heated; there are pieces need to be invento-
no pellet bases to heat. It ried, stored, transported and
is simple in operation, re- washed.
quiring no special pellet • Attractive insulated compo-
dispensers to purchase. nents are often taken home
There is no burn hazard to by patients as useful me-
the attendant or patient mento of their hospital ex-
because there is no hot perience.
pellet base or pellet disk.
• No special insulated de-
livery cart is required.
Heat support cart • Thermal energy can be • Special sophisticated motor-
controlled to place and/or ized carts and special trays
bowl as required. The cart with heaters are required. The
allows for food to remain potential for maintenance/re-
pair problems is high. 255
Service Management heating until tray is re- • The cart and the trays are
moved for service to the dependent on the use of dis-
patient. posable dishes. Disposable
• Each cart has an insulated dishes could be uneconomi-
drawer for ice cream and cal from an operational cost
other frozen desserts. standpoint and could be
considered unacceptable
• Heat energy continues to
from an aesthetic perspec-
be supplied to food during
tive.
the transportation process.
• No provisions are made for
maintenance of cold food
items at proper temperatures
except ice cream.
Other Systems
Microwave ovens • The food is cooked very • Food is easily overcooked,
rapidly. “on-demand” pa- and some foods tend to
tient feeding can be rather malize unevenly, leav-
achieved. ing hot and cold spots.
• Food does not brown, caus-
ing some foods to have an
unnatural appearance.
• A trained operator is re-
quired to re-thermalize all
food products. Employee
training is essential to the
success of the programme.
• Maintenance of microwave
ovens can be a significant
cost factor.
Convection ovens • Oven cavities can accom- • The speed is increased as
modate 12 to 30 meals at a compared to a conventional
time; thus higher efficiency still air oven; however, the
can be achieved in the re- process is not a fast as a mi-
thermalization and crowave oven.
reassem-bly process as • Some food products expe-
compared to a microwave rience excessive cooking
system. losses; in others, there is a
thickened surface layer on
the food from the re-
thermalization process.
• Some food products do not
re-thermalize to a uniform
temperature.
Infrared ovens • Energy consumption for re-
• Food is re-thermalized at a thermalization is compara-
faster speed than conven- tively high.
tional still air ovens. • Soups are not accommo-
• Oven cavities can accom- dated by the infrared
modate 16 - 24 meals at a equipment and must be
time; thus higher efficiency separately handled.
can be achieved in the re- • Dishes and covers become
thermalization and reasse- very hot in the re-therma-
mbly process as compared lization process.
to a microwave system.
256
Integral heat ovens • Minimum intervention by • Food products may burn to of Food Service Systems
and carts employees is required to or stick to the heated dish.
re-thermalize foods. • Certain food items, such as
• Efficiency and speed of soup or hot breakfast cereals,
service is enhanced due to are difficult to re-thermalize.
multiplicity of meals re- • Dishes must be sprayed with a
thermalized at the same release agent to prevent sticking
time. when using certain food items.
• Integrally heated dish acts • Ware washing time is in-
as “pellet” system to con- creased, particularly for the
tinue to provide thermal breakfast service, because of
support to hot food after the food that sticks to dishes.
service to patient.
• Ongoing operation costs are
comparatively high due to re-
placement to lease costs.
• An inflexible presentation of
the tray and rigid placement
of items when employing the
cart-borne system.
Contact plate heater • Reduced pantry labour due • Cart maintenance may be a
carts to re-thermalizing and re- problem due to complex
frigerating patient trays in electrical components.
the delivery cart. • Special trays and dishes are
• Allows pantry to be re- required–usually disposable
duced in size and lowers dishes–which can increase
equipment cost by elimi- operating costs.
nating need for reheating • Re-thermalization can only
ovens. be done from the chilled
• Minimum intervention by state, not from the frozen state.
employees after assembled • The cart is presently being
tray has been dispatched field tested; its performance
from main tray assembly has not been proven.
location.
• Operating cost appears to be
high, based on preliminary
data available.
• An inflexible presentation of
the tray and aesthetic limita-
tions of the system.
Source: Hysen, P. and Harrison J. State-of-the-art review of health care patient feeding
system equipment. In Hospital Patient Feeding Systems. Washington D C: National
Academy Press, 1982.
Let us see how decentralized meal assembly works.

In a decentralized meal assembly, the food products are produced in one location and
transported to various locations for assembly at sites near patients. Equipment to
maintain proper temperatures – food warmers, hot food counters, and/or refrigerated
equipment – must be provided at each location. Since, some foods, such as grilled
or fried menu items, do not transport or hold well, some cooking equipment may be
available in the service units for these difficult-to-hold foods. Even in a centralized
meal assembly system, a few menu items such as coffee and toast may be prepared
on the patient units.
Since the early 1950s, healthcare institutions have moved toward centralized tray
assembly systems, with the early systems patterned after airline food service. The
centralized system has the advantage of eliminating double handling of food and
facilitating supervision of meal assembly because the activity takes place in one
location rather than in many throughout the facility. In addition, it allows for
257
Entrepreneurship and Food standardization of portion, uniformity in presentation, and decreased waste. Finally,
Service Management less staff time is needed and the space occupied by floor kitchens can be used for
other purposes. Decentralized meal assembly is still used in some institutions, however,
because it offers the advantage of less time between assembly and service to patients,
allowing for potentially higher quality food. Decentralized facilities also offer greater
flexibility in providing for individual patient needs and in making last minute substitutions
and changes.
Depending on the layout and design of the healthcare facility, a combination of meal
assembly and distribution methods may be used. Some facilities may even serve
groups of patients in a dining room, while others are provided tray service in their
hospital rooms. Group service is especially common in nursing homes and other types
of extended care facilities, such as psychiatric hospitals.
Next, let us get to know the distribution system followed in a commissary food service
system.
12.4.2 Commissary Food Service System

Commissary food service systems are characterized by centralized production, with
distribution of prepared menu items to several remote areas for service and possibly
final production. Service at these areas may be self-service, cafeteria service, tray
service, or some other method. The centralized production facility is referred to as
the commissary; in this unit, we refer to the service areas as satellite service
centers.
The commissary food service system can take many forms and may, in fact, be a
combination of systems. In school food service operations, for example, a central
kitchen may be a conventional food service for a secondary school but may also
provide food to several satellite service centers for elementary schools in the district.
Depending on the nature of the operation, distribution and service in commissary food
service systems can thus take many forms. The unique feature of distribution in this
system is that a method must be provided for transporting food to the remote locations
of the service centers. As we pointed out, these facilities may be relatively close,
within the same city or country, as is the case for most school food service operations,
or they may be located great distances away from the central production unit, which
is typical of many large commercial chain operations.
For this reason, a commissary system requires specialized distribution equipment,

tailored to its particular needs. Food items produced in the central commissary may
be transported frozen, chilled, or hot, in bulk or in individual portions. The receiving
area of the commissary and the satellite service centers must be designed to accommodate
the distribution equipment. Also, special precautions are necessary to preserve
microbiological quality of foods in commissary food service systems because of the
length of time between production and ultimate service to the customer. In evaluating
commissary systems, the transportation costs must be considered, because they may
add materially to the total cost of the operation, involving as they do, purchase,
operation, and maintenance of the trucks for distribution.
12.4.3 Ready Prepared Food Service System

In ready prepared food service systems, menu items are produced and held, either
frozen or chilled, for service at a later time as we had seen in Figure 12.5 earlier. They
may be packed in bulk, in individual portions, or in combination containers. For
example, in airline food services, two of these menu items may be portioned into an
individual serving dish.
The type of distribution equipment needed by ready prepared systems depends on

258 whether foods are in bulk quantities or individual portions and or whether they use
a cook-chill or cook-freeze approach. The systems in which foods are portioned into Food Management: Types
individual servings an assembly system is needed. A unique characteristic of the ready of Food Service Systems
prepared food service system is the heat processing of prepared item prior to service.
Microwave, convection, and infrared ovens are commonly used in the service unit for
this final heat-processing step. Usually, foods are transported in the chilled or frozen
state, and this final heating occurs just before service. Therefore, cold temperature
support is needed during the distribution process.
Two types of carts are used predominantly for cold temperature support. One type
is insulated to maintain temperature during distribution to remote pantry areas where
the carts are connected to wall-mounted or floor-borne refrigeration units. Hysen and
Harrison (1982) describe these carts as light weight and thus easy to transfer; they
are also easy to sanitize. In more common use is the roll-in-refrigerator cart. If the
cart is the enclosed type, the doors should be opened prior to placing in the refrigerated
unit to permit proper circulation of chilled air.
In addition to the type of equipment used for heat processing prior to service
mentioned above, two other types of equipment for patient tray service are in use in
some institutions: contact plate heater carts and integral heat ovens and carts. The
benefits and constraints of the various methods of heat processing for patient services
are enumerated in the Table 12.1 above.
The place on the patient floors where final heat processing and meal assembly occurs
is generally referred to as a galley as we had learnt earlier also. The equipment in
a galley includes the cold temperature support equipment, the equipment needed for
the final heat processing of menu items, some small equipment such as a coffee make
and toaster, a sink, a small storage area and a desk area for the dietetic personnel.
Finally let us review the distribution in assembly/serve system.
12.4.4 Assembly/Serve Food Service System

The assembly/serve food service system uses for the most part foods that are ready
to serve or that require little or no processing prior to service. As pointed out, bulk,
pre-portioned, and preplated frozen foods are the three market forms of foods that
fit into this category.
When foods are served cafeteria style, the bulk form is generally used, the primary
requirement being heat processing before service. This heat processing can be done
in the service unit or in an auxiliary area, using one of the methods described in the
discussion of the ready prepared system. If pre-portioned or preplated items are
purchased, heat processing similar to the methods described for ready systems can be
used. Cold temperature support equipment may be needed for distribution foods to
service areas and for holding prior to heat processing for service.
With this we end our study of distribution and service in food service systems. Let
us take a break here and try to recall what we have learnt so far. Answer the questions
in check your progress exercise 2. Thereafter, move on to section 12.5, which focuses
on conduct and appearance of food service unit personnel.

1) Discuss centralized meal assembly system in a health care facility.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
259
Service Management
2) Distribution and service in commissary food system assumes different forms.
Explain giving an example.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) How is cold temperature maintained during distribution system in ready
prepared food service system?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
Now then let us review another important aspect specific to food service i.e. conduct
and appearance of personnel involved with food service in a food service unit. You
would realize that food service workers can make or break a unit depending on their
behaviour, attributes and conduct. Let us review this aspect now.
12.5 CONDUCT AND APPEARANCE OF SERVICE UNIT

PERSONNEL
This section seeks to indicate factors which are important in the personal characteristics,
appearance and development of service personnel. These factors are important for us
as food managers or dietitians to know and ensure in the service personnel. What are
these? Let us read and get to know.
• Clothing
A waiter or waitress is usually required to wear some form of uniform. At one time
when dress was more formal at all levels of society; the reason for wearing uniform
was to distinguish staff from customers.
There are other more relevant reasons for wearing uniforms. Two important reasons
are:
— hygiene, encouraging the selection of suitable, protective, washable clothing,
keeping the wearer cool and healthy, and enabling frequent laundering and changes
of clothing; and
— aiding the merchandising and selling of a meal service by an appropriate integration
of staff appearance into a restaurant’s theme and décor.
Modern waiting dress for men, especially day dress, is often a neat jacket with epaulets
or a blazer-type jacket, including ‘themed jackets’ to match the surroundings. Commis
(assistants) are likely to wear washable white jackets as their work is more likely to
soil their clothes.
Modern dress for waitresses should also be washable. Uniforms are usually bright,
attractively coloured and ‘themed’ with the décor. Waitresses rarely wear traditional
uniforms of black dress with white aprons except in banqueting, and they seldom wear
white caps with this outfit.
Neither men nor women waiting staff should appear in the public part of a hotel or
catering establishment when not in uniform or when not wearing full uniform. Waitresses,
for example, should put on aprons (and caps, if worn) in the dressing or locker room
and not in the restaurant.
260 Some common rules for dressing are highlighted herewith:

• Rules of dress Food Management: Types
— Make sure that uniform is neat and clean, is kept in good repair and fits well.
— Change washable clothing frequently and wear freshly laundered. Linen
should be immaculately clean.
— Keep suits and shirts (or dresses, skirts and blouses) well-pressed and free
from spots. When clothing is not washable, regular sponging is usually
necessary.
— Shoes should fit well (with ample room for toe movement), be of conservative
design and kept clean, well-polished and always in a good state of repair.
Avoid high or pointed heels, or badly supported shoes. Change tights or socks
daily.
Although the waiter may be responsible for the supply and upkeep of his clothing, it
is customary for many hotels and restaurants to arrange, at the establishment’s cost,
for laundering his linen.
Jewellery, earrings and rings (except wedding rings) should not be worn.
Good waiters are as proud of their uniforms as they are of their jobs. They show
it by an upright stance and by walking erect.
Head-dress
The former requirement for waitresses to wear caps has increasingly declined. One
original intention was that caps would confine hair tidily and prevent loose hairs
dropping into food. With proper hair styling and grooming, there is no particular reason
for head-dress to be worn by modern waiting staff.
Personal Qualities
The desirable personal qualities (as distinct from technical skills) of waiting staff may
be considered under two broad headings: one largely concerned with physical matters
and hygiene; the other related to attributes and attributes including courtesy, honesty,
co-operation and speech.
Hygiene
Waiting staff should have a positive attitude to hygiene, which is about the maintenance
of health.
A waiter or waitress needs abundant energy, should have a fresh, wholesome appearance
and naturally must not spread disease. Part of this positive attitude to hygiene should
involve taking care to eat and sleep properly, being temperate in relation to alcohol,
taking proper exercise, sufficient outdoor activity and fresh air.
Because waiting staff deal with food, utmost cleanliness and good grooming is necessary
at all times. This applies not only in high class hotels and restaurants but in every
branch of catering, however, humble customers may be. Guests are not likely to
return to an establishment where they know the waiter or waitress is dirty. Indeed,
whenever a guest enters a catering establishment, he judges standards of hygiene and
cleanliness by his personal observation. This observation includes the waiters and
waitresses.
Everybody in the catering business has to remember that though not frequently
expressed openly, all customers expect high personal standards from those who serve
them food and drink.
• Reporting ill health
Apart from aesthetic considerations of not offending by unclean appearance or
unpleasant odour, waiting staff have statutory obligations in regard to health and
261
Entrepreneurship and Food hygiene. Any catering employee (including waiters and waitresses) suffering from,
Service Management or a carrier of certain illnesses must immediately inform their employer. Illnesses
include; typhoid fever; paratyphoid fever, or any other salmonella infection; amoebic
or bacillary dysentery or any staphylococcal infection likely to cause food poisoning.
Many waiting staff may be unfamiliar with the nature of such illnesses; they should
look for, and report to their employer such symptoms as:
— Diarrhoea or vomiting
— Septic cuts or sores, boils or whitlows
— Discharge from ear, eye or nose
Some rules for clean products are given herewith.
• Rules for clean product
To prevent germs contaminating food, observe the following rules:
— Ensure scrupulous cleanliness of hands, face and parts of the body which directly,
or through touch, may come into contact with food; for example, hair, scalp and
forearms (when short sleeves are worn). Avoid touching nose and lips while
handing food. Wash hands frequently.
— Keep personal clothing and uniform clean.
— Cover completely (with a coloured, waterproof dressing) all open cuts and grazes.
— Never smoke, or use snuff, while handling ‘open’ food or while in a room where
there is such food even when not on duty.
For aesthetic, as well as, hygienic reasons, waiting staff should avoid touching their
hair or face when on duty in the restaurant. Waiters should not, of course, sneeze
or cough carelessly (ensure that this is done into a handkerchief). Though always
carrying a clean handkerchief, a waiter should avoid using it in the restaurant unless
it is absolutely necessary.
Care of the person
The following require particular attention:
Finger nails and hands: Must be washed frequently. Always wash immediately before
service and always following use of the toilet. Nails and cuticles should be neatly
trimmed and kept clean by use of a nail brush. Waitresses should avoid nail varnish
whether clear or coloured when on duty. Smokers must ensure that they remove all
traces of nicotine from fingers (pumice and bleach are useful).
Body cleanliness: Cleanliness of the whole body is essential. Any suggestion of odour
or staleness is a most grave offence in a restaurant employee. A daily bath or shower
should be the minimum standard for good waiting staff. Underclothing should be
changes frequently and deodorants regularly used. Talcum powder for body and feed
is acceptable but scent (even for a waitress) must be avoided and aftershave used
sparingly.
Hair: Hair should be kept neatly trimmed and shampooed frequently to avoid dandruff
and odour. Hair should be well brushed, as well as, combed. Men, as well as, women
should avoid styles which cause hair to fall over the eyes; for tossing hair away from
eyes, especially by hand, is offensive to guests during food service. Waitresses’ hair
should be no longer than collar length, and waitresses should adopt neat hair styles.
Long hair should be tied up and tied back.
Teeth: Sound teeth and a clean mouth are vital both for appearance and a wholesome
breath. Teeth should be kept clean by brushing at least twice a day – certainly morning
and night. Inspection by a dentist is advisable twice a year and certainly not less
frequently than once a year. Dentures, if worn, must similarly be kept clean.
262
Feet: Feet need care both for comfort and cleanliness. Keep toe nails trim and feet Food Management: Types
well washed. Corns and other painful blemishes may require treatment by a chiropodist; of Food Service Systems
for more serious foot weakness, medical advice should be sought.
Posture: Good stance is also important for the appearance, comfort and efficiency of
waiting staff. To stand upright and walk erect is to give a good impression to guests
and also to avoid the bodily stresses that accompany slouching. Waitresses who require
support garments are advised to choose sound quality and properly fitting ones to aid
posture and health, as well as, comfort and appearance.
• Attributes and Behaviour
The following personal qualities which a waiter should cultivate, or how he should
behave, are should cultivate, or how he should behave, are in no particular order of
importance. Indeed, some types of operation encourage emphasis on some qualities
or some styles of behaviour as against others; but all the observations which follow
are considered relevant.
Addressing guests: Innumerable market studies reveal that an important element in a

customer’s choice of eating place is friendliness, in welcome and in service. It is also
well established that a customer is eager for recognition. He likes to hear his own name
for that expresses and establishes recognition. Therefore, the use by restaurant staff
of a guest’s own name is welcomed by most customers.
Whenever a guest’s name is known (through former custom or through pre-booking)

it should desirably be used. Many modern restaurants are successful because in the
total dining experience they feed a guest’s ego as much as his appetite. Ways in which
remembering a guest’s name can be aided are:
— Listen carefully to the name when it is given.
— Jot the name on a piece of paper (not in the guest’s presence).
— Repeat the name mentally several times.
In addition to using a guest’s name when greeting or re-greeting, use his name when
asking him for subsequent orders or about his satisfaction with food and service. A
modern waiter may have greater difficulty in adapting his mode of speech to modern
requirements than did waiting staff in earlier generations. In former times waiters were
expected to adopt a more formalized style with, for example, invariable use of ‘sir’
or ‘madam’. Despite injunctions to staff that they should be respectful rather than
servile, these older styles of speech did, in fact, tend to mark customer/staff distinctions
in a way often less acceptable to both parties today.
On first welcoming guests, a waiter should address them by name, for example, Mr
or Mrs Patron. But name usage should not be overdone and ‘sir’ or ‘madam’ is more
appropriate during service period.
Speech is linked with courtesy. Style of speech and mode of manners change.
The points about speech which follow here should be read against its general background;
namely that a pleasant, friendly manner (but certainly without undue familiarity) is
acceptable today at almost every level of restaurant operation. To achieve an ease
and friendliness of manner with giving offence requires sensitivity from staff. From
management it requires a lively policy of training whether in college, hotel school or
on-the-job.
A respectful manner of speech towards customers still remains appropriate. A waiter

is not servile, for he is proud of his skill, particularly if he is a good waiter; but he
is a technical salesman of his establishment and a good salesman should aim to
please. 263
Entrepreneurship and Food Clear Speech: A waiter’s voice should be clear, low in pitch and natural, if still
Service Management somewhat formal. He should be able to pronounce words properly and to express his
ideas. He should acquire a sound knowledge of good English and be able to converse
easily, for customers like to hear a well-modulated, pleasing voice, with well-expressed
answers to any questions they may ask.
Knowledge of a second language is a help, particularly to waiters who seek service
in large hotels or restaurants or other tourism centers where there are foreign visitors.
French is useful, for not only are menus still often written in French, but it is the
language used in cookery book and in repertoires of fishes based on ‘la cuisine
francaise’.
Courtesy: It is the hallmark of a good waiter to be courteous on all occasions. Indeed,
a waiter must often go out of his way to be considerate or forebearing to a critical
or ill-tempered person. He will certainly be courteous to customers, but should also
carry these good manners through to the service room and the locker room. His
manners should not be just a part of the ‘techniques of the restaurant’, but inherent
in his nature and a sign of well-bred desire to please those with whom he comes into
contact. The aim is to be friendly without being familiar.
Memory: Cultivation of memory (and using aids of memory) is essential if customers’
likes and dislikes are to be noted and remembered. Sensitive awareness of what a
customer wants should also be sought.
If a waiter studies his customers’ preferences, even their ‘fads’ he will find that they
will be delighted when they realize that their wishes are known and anticipated.
Honesty: In recent years an increasing amount of research has been undertaken into
hotel keeping and catering. This has included work by sociologists, and others into
practices and attitudes of waiting staff. Some studies have revealed persistent instances
of pilfering unfortunately there are still opportunities in some establishments for waiter
to seek to defeat checking systems (adding up bills incorrectly against the customer)
or to secure privileged treatment or serving over-large portions to guests so as to gain
larger tips.
Some waiters fall into dishonest habits, such as taking food from the restaurant for
consumption elsewhere in the establishment or to their homes, ‘borrowing’ silver or
linen for similar purposes. All this is stealing and denotes at the very least that a waiter
has not acquired a truly professional attitude to his work. Opportunity for dishonesty
makes it doubly important for waiting staff to have high personal standards of conduct,
and equally when they reach supervisory levels to create conditions which reduce
temptation and create a positive morale.
The waiter should take the greatest care of all equipment belonging to an establishment
and never think he can deal with it wastefully or carelessly because it is not his own.
A waiter must be scrupulously honest in all his dealings; with guests, colleagues and
management.
Co-operation and reliability: A dedicated waiter accepts unsocial hours, enjoys service
to others and in ready to work until tasks are finished. He should not, for example,
hurry customers in an attempt to ‘clear’ his station in order to leave promptly and
early. He aims to be a good timekeeper and to carry out his duties without fuss and
with minimum supervision.
His personal qualities and his professional skills will all help a waiter to remain
courteous even-tempered, able to work under pressure and to summon up a smile even
when tired, or under difficult circumstances.
Since an establishment’s success depends on effective co-ordination of all staff, a

264 waiter should aim to help his fellow workers. This implies such conduct as: not being
jealous if another waiter has customers who pay higher tips; taking his proper turn Food Management: Types
in the servery queue; learning and keeping to rules of the house in spirit, as well as, of Food Service Systems
to the letter.
Receiving gratuities: A waiter must never indulge in preferential treatment of customers

according to, or in anticipation of, tips he may received from them. Indeed, every
customer, irrespective of his financial standing, should be treated alike. There should
be no fawning on lavish tippers. Tips should be acknowledged graciously; if placed
on the table they should not be removed until the customer has left and certainly never
counted in front of a guest.
A waiter must never lean against the wall or sideboard, tables or other furniture. He
must especially never lean on a chair back (above all no the customer’s) when
speaking with a guest. When addressed by a customer, a waiter should stand erect
and steady.
Conversing: A waiter must not converse, far less argue, with other members of staff
and emphatically never argue with guests. He should not interrupt a guest’s conversation
with a waiter, the latter must answer politely and as briefly as possible. The waiter
should ask to be excused at the first opportunity, but must use tact to avoid offending.
He must never start a conversation with guests.
A waiter never discusses other guests with his customers nor must he give information
regarding guests. A waiter must discipline himself not listen to guests, conversation,
whether it is carried out loudly enough for him to hear or not. If he has any complaints
to make to the head waiter or to colleagues, a waiter must wait until service if over.
There should be no quarrelling or horse-play on duty. Waiters should not, of course,
talk among themselves or neglect guests by so doing.
Mistakes and Complaints: If a mistake is made by the head waiter or by one of his
assistants, a waiter should never remonstrate with or criticize him in the restaurant.
First, he should remedy any fault (for example, bring the customer the dish he states
he ordered). Any explanation that may be necessary to present an error recurring,
or to apportion the blame for it, should be made outside the restaurant, preferably at
the end of service. Tact, courtesy and a sense of responsibility (informing superiors
of complainants) must be brought to bear on complaints as in all customer contact.
Technical skill: In addition to cultivating social qualities and modes of conduct to

support his sales function a waiter uses technical skills. He must be hungry for
knowledge, know and like food and be eager to learn service methods. The skills and
knowledge that a waiter needs are listed herewith:
1) Knowledge of the catering trade, of which he is an important member.
2) Knowledge of foods that he will serve, menus and cooking times.
3) Layout of restaurant or dining room and its preparation for the service.
4) Actual method of serving, for example, generally on floors and in lounges, or in
canteens and bars.
5) Service of tabacco, cigarettes and cigars.
6) Service of liquor (wines, spirits, etc)
7) A good groundwork, general education and attitude, ability to speak a foreign
language or understand French terms used in catering.
Remember an informed knowledgeable waiter sells more. Refer to Figure 12.7 which
highlights this aspect.
265
Service Management Knowledge of techniques
(e.g. food, wine, tabacco) More Confidence
Knowledge of techniques Water Customer Heightened

(e.g. cookery, service and and/ or Or appreciation
selling) Waitress Guest
Knowledge products
(e.g. dishes, beverages) Interest Stimulated
Figure 12.7: Informed knowledgeable waiter sells more
Personality and Professionalism: A waiter’s personality merges with, and is part of,
his professionalism. He needs to integrate social skills and attributes with technical
skills and knowledge. Many personal qualities have already been touched upon, and
the technical skills needed have been indicated.
A waiter should be proud of his work and not treat it as an ordeal. He must always
be in good humour, seeking to please and oblige customers without servility.
Developing personality and professionalism should involve: attitude, attentiveness,

alertness leading to an ability to anticipate customer’s needs and to be able to cope
with customers and colleagues in varying situations. Waiters should avoid airs and
mannerisms, but should certainly cultivate personality. This is particularly important for
a head waiter. Reading and an interest in current affairs, sport and constructive
recreation can help. The waiter, it is re-emphasized, is in essence a salesman, operating
in a venue generating sector. He is part of ‘the show’. He is always during service
‘on show’. His dexterity and skill controlled by a restrained personality can add to
a guest’s idea of value and also increase his enjoyment. Therefore, a waiter’s
‘showmanship’ is positively useful.
However, in selling, simple skills and speed are an important as elabourate techniques.
Speed is particularly important, for example, when serving hot food.
Some things that efficient service personnel should avoid are enlisted herewith.
Things that efficient service personnel should avoid
• A surely greeting or not greeting a guest at all or ignoring a guest deliberately.
• Letting guests seat themselves, inspite of being present near the table and not
otherwise engaged.
• Refusing to assist a guest or seating a guest at a dirty table.
• Serving from the wrong side, when it is possible to serve from the correct side.
• Note setting tables properly. Placing empty sugar bowls/cruet sets on the table.
• Forgetting to say ‘Pardon me’, or ‘Excuse me, sir/madam’.
• Being too familiar with guests. This could lead to embarrassing situations.
• Gathering in groups in operational areas and talking loudly and showing signs of
irritability with other members of the staff.
• Leaving fingerprints on crockery/glassware or making a noise by clattering the
service equipment.
• Keeping the side station dirty or using torn or stained linen.
• Forgetting a dish that has been ordered, or serving wrong accompaniments.
266
• Overfilling water glasses or leaving them empty or leaving dirty ashtrays on an Food Management: Types
occupied table. of Food Service Systems
• Being inattentive to a guest’s needs, for example, forgetting special instructions

from the guest such as less chilies or no onions in the food.
• Using cold plates for hot food and hot plates for cold food.
• Touching food with one’s hands.
• Not following the rules of quality waiting at table.
• Soliciting the tips or questioning the amount of tips.
We hope you enjoyed reading this section on conduct and appearance of food service
personnel.
12.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we learnt that production and service of food being individual processes
is the basis of classification of food service systems. Ensuring quality food at minimal
cost means that the physical, chemical and microbiological changes that occur during
procurement, production and service must be monitored and controlled, effectively.
Then, we saw that there are four major types of food service systems that have been
identified. These included conventional, commissary, ready prepared and assembly /
service. A major distinguishing factor among the four systems is the degree processing
prior to foods, which may vary from little or no processing prior to purchase of foods
to completely prepared foods ready for service.
Next, we got to know about the delivery and service in these food service systems.
Major meal distribution and service systems along with their benefits and constraints
were also highlighted.
12.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
1) Characterized by a separation of production and service of food in time and/or
place, the need for the new systems have been primarily aimed at increasing
productivity, decreasing cost, or strengthening control of operations. Spiraling
labour costs and technological innovation in both food and equipment have also
led to implementation of these new types of systems.
2) The four major types of food service systems include: Conventional Food Service
System, Commissary Food Service System, Ready Prepared Food Service System
and Assembly/Serve.
3) The packaging and storage of prepared menu items present challenges for control
in commissary systems because a variety of packaging materials and approaches
is used in systems, varying from individual pouches or serving dishes, specially
designed for frozen or chilled holding, to disposable or reusable metal pans
adapted to various types of distribution and transportation equipment. Preserving
the microbiological, sensory, and nutritional quality of foods during holding and
thermalization at point of service can present problems.
4) The challenge of using ready prepared systems is in retention of foods’ nutrient
content, microbial safety and sensory quality. The benefits include reduce labour
expenditures and use of labour more effectively. The heating and service of menu
items does not require highly skilled employees and thus, reductions in labour
costs are often possible. Food procurement in volume may decrease food costs
in these systems. 267
Entrepreneurship and Food 5) In the assembly system the availability of food products is sometimes a problem,
Service Management particularly in healthcare institutions. Another common complaint about the assembly/
serve systems is the lack of individuality. Comments are frequently heard about
the “sameness” of the ready prepared foods available in the market place.
1) In a healthcare facility, meal assembly, may be centralized or decentralized. In
a facility with centralized meal assembly, the trays are first assembled for service
at a central location in or close to the main production facilities. Hot menu items
are held in food warming cabinets, usually in cafeteria counter pans, where they
remain until placed in hot food serving units during tray assembly; cold items are
held under refrigeration. The assembled trays are then distributed to the patient
units using a variety of types of cars. Some institutions use heated and refrigerated
tray carts, which may be motorized or pushed manually by hospital personnel.
In a decentralized meal assembly, the food products are produced in one location
and transported to various locations for assembly at sites near patients. Equipment
to maintain proper temperatures – food warmers, hot food counters, and/or
refrigerated equipment – are provided at each location.
2) The commissary food service system can take many forms and may, in fact, be
a combination of systems. In school food service operations, for example, a
central kitchen may be a conventional food service for a secondary school but
may also provide food to several satellite service centers for elementary schools
in the district
3) Cold temperature is maintained during distribution system in ready prepared food
service system by using carts. Two types of carts are used predominantly for cold
temperature support. One type is insulated to maintain temperature during distribution
to remote pantry areas where the carts are connected to wall-mounted or floor-
borne refrigeration units. The other is the roll-in-refrigerator cart.
268

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Food Management: Types

UNIT 12 FOOD MANAGEMENT: TYPES OF of Food Service Systems

FOOD SERVICE SYSTEMS

12.2 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SERVICE SYSTEMS

A major distinguishing characteristic of the four systems is the degree of processing

Input Transformation Output

Figure 12.1: Quality assurance in food service model

In many food services, a combination of foods with varying degrees of processing is

Food Processing Continuum

Figure 12.2: Food processing continuum

12.3 TYPES OF SERVICE SYSTEMS

Food Processing Continuum

Hold Heated Hold Chilled

Figure 12.3: Conventional food service system

Although alternative systems have evolved, the conventional system continues to be

Store Frozen Store Chilled Hold Chilled

Figure 12.4: Commissary food service system

A modification of the food service systems model illustrates unique characteristics of

In commercial food service in large, multi-unit operations, systems combining

12.3.3 Ready Prepared

Store Frozen Store Chilled

Figure 12.5: Food flow in ready prepared food service system

Finally let us review the assembly/serve system.

Food Processing Continuum

Store Frozen Store Chilled

Figure 12.6: Food flow in assembly/serve food service system

Following procurement, in assembly/serve systems, food items are held in dry,

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

12.4 DISTRIBUTION AND SERVICE IN FOOD SERVICE

Major Meal Distri- Benefits Constraints

Let us see how decentralized meal assembly works.

12.4.2 Commissary Food Service System

For this reason, a commissary system requires specialized distribution equipment,

12.4.3 Ready Prepared Food Service System

The type of distribution equipment needed by ready prepared systems depends on

12.4.4 Assembly/Serve Food Service System

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

12.5 CONDUCT AND APPEARANCE OF SERVICE UNIT

260 Some common rules for dressing are highlighted herewith:

Addressing guests: Innumerable market studies reveal that an important element in a

Whenever a guest’s name is known (through former custom or through pre-booking)

A respectful manner of speech towards customers still remains appropriate. A waiter

Since an establishment’s success depends on effective co-ordination of all staff, a

Receiving gratuities: A waiter must never indulge in preferential treatment of customers

Technical skill: In addition to cultivating social qualities and modes of conduct to

Knowledge of techniques Water Customer Heightened

Figure 12.7: Informed knowledgeable waiter sells more

Developing personality and professionalism should involve: attitude, attentiveness,

• Being inattentive to a guest’s needs, for example, forgetting special instructions

12.6 LET US SUM UP

12.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

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