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Section 1.2 PG 12

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Figure 1.6 showsa high-energy particle accelerator.

Such an
instrument helps modern scientistsprobe inside tiny particles
of matter by splitting them apart. Using this tool, scientistscan
evencreatenew particlesthat do not existin nature. Work of this
kind is basedon modern theories that explain the composition
of matter. These theories, in turn, are rooted in the work and
the ideasof scientistsfrom centuries ago. These scientistsused
techniquesand tools that are "low-tech" by today'sstandards.
Even so, early chemistsdevisedatomic therories that are still
useful today.

Early Observations
During the 1600sand 1700s,scientistsimproved laboratory
techniquesfor isolating pure substancesand analyzing their
properties.The scientistsgathereda great deal of information
about specific substancesand the ways that they interact.
In somecases,scientistsobservedan action or condition so
consistentlythat they were convincedit would alwayshappen.
When scientistsare convinced of the regularity of certain
observations,they generalizetheir observationsas scientific laws. Severalof
fast-movingparticlesinto a target
theseearly laws could be explainedby the hypothesisthat matter is made up
surroundedby sensitivedetectors.
of tiny particles.In this section,you will discoverhow that hypothesisdeveloped
to becomemodern atomic theory.

Dalton's Atom ' ~ --

John Dalton (1766-1844)was an English scholar and teacher.He published


a comprehensiveatomic theory in 1808.The heart of Dalton's theory was
that everysubstanceis madeup of indivisible atoms.Further, the key difference
betweenatomsof different elementsis their mass.Dalton'stheory is summarized
below. Note how well it explainedmany observationsand laws.
For example,by the late 1700s,scientistsknew that when substancesreact,
the total massof the substances
before and after the reactionis alwaysthe same.
If matter is madeup of indestructible particles, this law makessense.Particles
are only rearranged during reactions. They are not destroyed or created.
~ Accordingto
Dalton,theatomwasa solid, Today, chemistsstill use many parts of this theory to explainthe behaviour
uniformsphere. of matter. Figure 1.7 showshow Dalton might have pictured the atom.

Dalton's Atomic Theory


. All matteris madeup of smallparticlescalledatoms.
. Atomscannotbe created,destroyed,or dividedinto smallerparticles.
. All atomsof the sameelementareidenticalin massandsize,but they
aredifferentin massandsizefrom the atomsof other elements.

12 MHR . Unit 1 Energy and Matter in Chemical Change


. Compoundsare formed when atoms of different elements
combinein fixed (definite) proportions. The tiniest particles
0 hydrogen cx: water

of any compoundalwayscontain the sametypesand relative


numbersof atoms. ammonia
. Chemical reactions changethe way atoms are grouped,
but the atoms themselvesare not changedin reactions. I carbon methane
Many of Dalton's conclusionswere basedon assumptions.
If the assumptionwas wrong, it led to an incorrect conclusion. 0 oxygen carbon dioxide
For example,Dalton assumedthat atoms combined in the
simplestpossibleway.He knew that water containedhydrogen
and oxygen, so he proposed that the formula

He assignedhydrogena massof one unit. Then, Dalton used


for water was OH.
ffi
W sulfur £ sulfur trioxide

measurements madeby French chemistJosephProust (1754-1826).According Iim!IaA;.I Daltonrepresented


to Proust'smeasurements,water containseight times more oxygenby mass elementsandmolecules
than hydrogen.Basedon Dalton's assumption,an atom of oxygenwould then differentlythanmodernchemists.
havea massof eight units. Dalton developeda systemof symbols,shown in Howarethesesubstances
Figure 1.8, to keep track of his assumptionsabout how atoms combined. represented today?
Dalton's assumptionsabout the composition of water, and severalother
compounds,were inaccurate.As a result, someof his calculationsof relative
masseswere also inaccurate.However, Dalton usedhis theory to predict
different waysin which a given pair of elementsmight combine.He proposed,
for example,that there should be severaldifferent compoundscontaining
nitrogen and oxygen.These includedNO, NzO, and NOz. When his prediction
wasverified experimentally,doubts about Dalton's atomic theory gaveway to
widespreadacceptance.

Electricity and the Atom


Sometimessciencefosters technological discoveries,and sometimesnew
technology stimulatesscientific discoveries.A technological achievement
that helped scientistsimprove on Dalton's theory was the refinement of the
gasdischargetube. A gas discharge tube is a sealedglassvesselthat contains
a gasat low pressure.As electricity flows through the gas,a "ray" is formed
acrossthe length of the tube, and light is produced.The rays produced in
gasdischargetubes are called cad1ode rays. In 1855,Heinrich Geissler
11
(1814-1879),a German glass-blowerand mechanic,improved the gasdischarge SomeancientGreekphilosophers
tube. Figure 1.9 showsa modern version of a Geissler gasdischargetube. speculatedthat the universe
must be composedof small
particlesthat could not be
brokendown.Theyusedthe
Greekword atomos("indivisible")
to describetheseparticles,which
werethoughtto be separated
by emptyspace.AncientGreek
thinkersarrivedat their ideas
by a seriesof logicalarguments.
Theydid not useexperimental
investigationto test or develop
Iim!IIiU!J High-voltage their ideas.Wouldyou consider
electricityflowingthrough the methodsof the ancientGreek
a low-pressure gasproduces philosophersto be scientific?
the glowinglinein the middle Explainwhy or why not.
of this gasdischargetube.

Chapter Atoms,Elements,andCompounds. MHR 13


Evidence of Electrons
Severalexperimentswith gasdischargetubesled researchersto infer that matter
contains tiny particles that havenegative charges.This inference may seem
obvioustoday.At the end of the nineteenth century,however,many scientists
were reluctant to abandonthe central theme of Dalton's useful atomic theory.
They did not want to believethat Dalton's indivisible atomsmight actuallybe
made up of even smaller particles.

Find Out
Develop a Theory
As you are discovering, scientists developed 4. Seal your box, and exchange boxes with
theories about the structure of the atom without your partner.
ever seeing the atom. They used models to
5. Perform simple tests to determine what is
represent their theories visually. In this activity,
inside your partner's box. You may not open
you will construct a mystery box and develop
the box. Make a table like the one below to
your own model to show what is inside it. Then
record the tests you performed and what you
you will challenge a partner to collect evidence
can infer about the internal structure of the
and develop a theory about what is inside.
box. Give your table a title.

Materials
cardboard box, the size of a shoe box
objects to place inside box
adhesive tape
thin, stiff wire
6. Put your inferences together to develop a
theory of the internal structure of the box.
Then draw a model of the inside of the box.
1. Design a mystery box. Keep in mind that:
. a simple but creative mystery box is better
than one that is too complicated
. your box may not contain any liquid that 1. Compare your model with your partner's.
How similar are they? Which inferences could
could spill or any substance that could
account for the differences between them?
decompose, such as food
. your design must allow for simple tests or 2. Which test yielded the most useful evidence?
experiments, such as probing with a thin
wire or shaking 3. Having seen your partner's model of his or
her box, what test did you not carry out that
2. Construct your box. You can might have yielded useful results?
. put in one or two objects that can move
and make noise when the box is tilted 4. Suppose you are granted access to an X-ray
. tape a few objects to the inside of your box machine to conduct further tests on the box.
What are your hypotheses for the X-ray
3. Draw a model of the inside of your box. Your machine experiment? What predictions
model must be based on the inferences you will you make before you begin?
think your partner can make about it. Do not
show your model to your partner.

~
14 MHR . Unit 1 Energy and Matter in Chemical Change
DidYouKnow?, Electrons and the Atom
Thomsonis sometimescalled .- I Electrons were much lessmassivethan atoms. Electrons also appearedto be
"the father of the electron." I present in all samplesof matter. These discoveriessuggestedto scientistslike
Whenhe publishedhis resultsin
1897,however,he referredto the
J.J.Thomson that every atom contained electrons.Electrons are negatively
cathoderay particlesas corpus- charged,however,and samplesof matter normally have no overall charge.
cles. It was not Thomson,but Therefore, eachatom would also have to contain a sourceof positive charge.
anotherscientist,G. Johnstone Yet, it wasnot clearwhere the positive chargewas.Thomson at first supported
Stoney,who inventedthe name
"electron"in 1891to describe a model first suggestedin 1902 by another English physicist with the same
a unit of chargein electrolysis last name.This personwasWilliam Thomson, better known asLord Kelvin
experiments.A third scientist, (1824-1907). According to Kelvin's model, atoms consistedof electrons
GeorgeFitzgerald,arguedthat
embeddedin a spherical cloud of positive charge.
this electronandThomson's
corpusclewere reallythe Figure 1.11showsa diagramrepresenting the Kelvin/Thomson model.
samething. This model eventually becameknown simply as the Thomson model.

~ electrons

positively charged sphere

The Thomson atomic model of 1903. Thomson viewedthe


atom as a positivelychargedsphereembeddedwith sufficient numbers
of electronsto balancethe total charge.

The electrons in this model are like raisins in a plum pudding or raisin'bun.
, DidYouKnow?, Thus, Thomson's theory has been called the "plum-pudding" or "raisin-bun"
ErnestRutherford wonthe1908
NobelPrizein Chemistry for theory. This model (also called the Thomson atom) could not account for
findingthatradioactive elements a phenomenon that Thomson himself was studying. Radioactiveelements
actuallygaveoff threedifferent had only recently beenisolatedin pure form. They appearedto be constantly
typesof emissions. These
emissions arenowcalled emitting fast-moving,positively chargedparticles.These particlesare called
alphaparticles,electrons, and alphaparticlesand haveabout 7200times the massof an electron.The Thomson
gammarays.Hestudiedwith atom containednothing similar to alphaparticles,and gaveno cluesabout how
J. J. Thomson at Cambridge,
thentaughtat McGillUniversity they might be formed.
in Montreal from1898until
1907.Thenhereturned to Rutherford's Experiment
England to develophisown
research laboratoryat the In 1909,New'Zealand-born physicistErnest Rutherford (1871-1937)designed
University of Manchester. an elegantexperimentto probe the structure of atoms.As shown in Figure 1.12
on the next page,Rutherford's apparatusdirected a stream of alpha particles
from a shielded sampleof radioactive polonium toward a very thin gold foil.
Collisions with gold atoms, or pans of gold atoms, in the foil were expected
to causethe alpha particles to changedirection slightly and hit different parts
of a fluorescentscreenplacednear the foil. Rutherford observedthis deflection.
He observedsomethingelse,aswell. A small number of alphaparticlesbounced
backfrom the gold foil. Rutherford did not expectthis result.

16 MHR . Unit 1 Energy and Matter in Cheinical Change


5. some alpha
particles were
6. a few alpha particles deflected off
~
bounced backward course (deflection
'" exaggerated here)

1. polonium source /
(emits alpha particles) /
/
/
2. fluorescent screen
(lights up when struck 3. very thin
by an alpha particle) gold foil 4. most alpha
particles
went straight
through the foil

Rutherfordrealizedthat alphaparticles,muchmoremassivethanelectrons,would
not besignificantlydeflectedwhentheypassedby,or evencollidedwith, electronsin the gold pidYouKnow?
In 1904,a Japanese
scientist
foil. "Clouds"of positivecharge,as proposedin the Thomsonmodel,couldcauseslightchanges calledHantaro Nagaoka proposed
of direction.Rutherfordreasoned, however,that the alphaparticleswouldinteractwith many anatomicmodelthatwassimilar
atomson theirwaythroughthe foil. Thus,the effectsof manyrandomdeflectionswouldtend to Rutherford's.Nagaoka's
model
to canceloneanother,andthe overalldeflectionwouldnot beverygreat. described a disk-shaped
atom
withnegatively chargedatoms
orbitinga positively
charged
Basedon his observations,Rutherford developeda new atomic theory. nucleus.WhenRutherford wrote
This theory included both electrons and positively-chargedparticles. The abouthisatomicmodelin 1911,
henotedthathisresultswould
theory also explainedthe surprising alpha particle rebounds that he had bethesameif Nagaoka's model
observed.You can follow Rutherford's logic by examining Figure 1.13. werecorrect.

.\

Chapter 1 Atoms, Elements, and Compounds. MHR 17


one isotope of neon another isotope of neon ?
(neon-10) (neon-12) Thealphaparticlesusedin
/ proton Rutherford's
experiment,
which
hadthesamechargeastwo
protons,werefourtimesmore
massivethanhydrogen atoms.
neutron Alphaparticles
arenowknownto
beheliumnuclei,eachconsisting
of twoprotonsandtwo neutrons.

All neonatomshave10 protons.Theisotopeon the left has10 neutrons,


however,
whilethe otherisotopehas12 neutrons.

Becausethey have no electric charge,neutrons were extremely difficult to


isolate and study. In 1932 Rutherford and his colleagueEnglish physicist
JamesChadwick(1891-1974)gaveclearexperimentalevidenceof the existence
of neutrons.

Evidence of Energy Levels


Two of the main objectionsto Rutherford's"solar-system"atom camefrom
other physicists.According to physical theory, electronsmoving around a
nucleusshouldconstantlyemit energyin the form of light or radio waves.This
processwould causethe electronsto spiral into the nucleus,and the atom would
collapse.Atoms, however,do not collapse.There is alsono evidencethat their
electronsemit energyunder normal conditions.
In a gasdischargetube, however,gasesdo emit light, but only when electrical
energyis suppliedto them. As well, eachelementemits specificcolours of light.
These colours are different for eachelement. The colours of light correspond
to specificwavelengths.This meansthat the colours have different energies.
Rutherford's atomic theory had no explanationfor this behaviour.Figure 1.17
on the next pageshowshow instrumentscalledspectroscopes
separatelight into
different colours. Figure 1.18 showsthe spectrum of light from hydrogen gas
in a gasdischargetube.
The Danish physicist Niels Bohr (1885-1962) cameup with an explanation atom.In laterlife, Bohrwas
for theseobservations.He hypothesizedthat electronsin an atom have certain a leadingadvocateof international
allowed energiesthat enablethe atom to remain stable.These allowed energies co-operationin developing
peaceful
could be thought of as electron shells or energy levels. Electrons would be usesof atomicenergy.
associatedwith specific energy levels.In addition, electrons could move only
from one allowed energy level to another. They could not exist between the
energy levels.By absorbing a specific quantity of energy,an electron could
move to a higher energy level. By emitting the samequantity of energy,the
electron could move back to its original energy level. Figure 1.19 showshow
Bohr pictured electron energy levels.The diagram showsthe energy levels
in two dimensionsfor simplicity. In three dimensions,they would have the
shapeof spherical shells.

Chapter Atoms. Elements, and Compounds. MHR 19


Instrumentscalledspectroscopes
separatelight into differentcolours.

~ Eachcolouredlinein this hydrogenspectrumis producedby


light with a certainenergy.

Bohr proposedthis new atomic theory in 1913.The theory fit very well
with observationsof light emitted from dischargetubes.It seemedreasonable
that electronsin atoms of different elementswould have different allowed
energylevels,and would therefore absorband emit light of different energies
(different colours).
The energy levels of electronsin an atom are the keyfeature of Bohr} theory. Bohr
showedhow to derivemathematicalequationsthat describedtheseenergylevels.
In Bohr'satom, The equationscould be solvedfor the hydrogen atom (the simplestatom) by
electronscanexistonlyat assumingthat electronsmoved in circular paths.As the electron absorbed
certainenergylevels. energy,the equation showedthat it could move farther from the positively
chargednucleus.Bohr calculatedthe averagedistanceof electronsin different
energylevelsfrom the nucleusof a hydrogen atom.
Table1.1 MaximumNumberof Atoms with more than one electron were too complex for Bohr to analyze
Electronsin FirstTwoEnergyLevels mathematically in the sameway as hydrogen. He did establish,however,that
atomswith two or more electronscould haveonly a certain number of electrons
in each energy level. This meant that atoms of each element would have a
characteristic arrangement of electrons in different energy levels.Table 1.1
showsthe maximum number of electrons that can occupy the first two
energy levels.

Atomic Theory Evolves


Current modelsof the atom are far more complex
than Bohr'selectronenergylevels and Rutherford's
nuclearmodel. For example,electronenergylevels
are now thought to be divided into sublevels.In
many cases,electronsin the sameenergy level are
grouped in pairs. In addition, scientistsnow believe
that neutrons and protons are made of even smaller

20 MHR . Unit 1 Energy and Matter in Chelnical Change


Find Out
Presenting the Atom
It is often easier to understand a concept if you . a poster summarizing the key points
can see it representedvisually. In this activity, your of the theory
group will research an atomic theory. Your group Decide how to divide up the work among
will then use three methods of communication to group members.
explain its details to the rest of your class.
3. Use this textbook to do your research. As time
Materials permits, use other texts or Internet resources
modelling materials, such as polystyrene balls, to supplement your research. The information
marbles, cardboard, modelling clay, and wire you present should include:
posterboard and drawing materials such . information about the key experiment or
as markers experiments that provided evidence for
computer three-dimensional modelling software the theory
. details of the theory itself
(optional)
. explanation of why the theory needed to
Procedure - :~~Ull1'tIl~!']iiiJJi"!"'~f[~~nl!.!j~l~ij~ be modified (i.e., what observations did
1. Your teacher will divide the class into the theory fail to explain?)
four groups. Each group will present an
atomic theory according to one of the
following scientists: 1. Based on your group's research and on the
. Dalton presentations of other groups, create a
. Rutherford point-form summary of the development
. Thomson of atomic theory.
. Bohr 2. Each of the models of the atom that you have
studied has some flaws. In other words, not all
2. Each group will learn about atomic theory
observations of matter can be explained using
according to Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, or
these models. Without knowing the details, do
Bohr. As a group, you will communicate what
you think that the most modern atomic theory
you have learned in the following three ways:
is likely to represent the best description of
. a 1a-minute presentation
reality? Explain your answer.
. a 3-D model or computer simulation
showing how the scientist you researched 3. Although Bohr's atomic theory has flaws, it
might have pictured the atom is still used today. Explain why a theory with
known flaws is still taught and used.

particles called quarks.Instead of just three subatomicparticles (neutrons,


protons, and electrons),scientistshaveidentified dozensof fundamentalparticles.
It seemslikely that with new observationsand discoveries,theories of the atom
will continue to evolve.

Chapter Atoms, Elements, and Compounds. MHR 21


A Working Model of the Atom
Physicistsand chemistshave developeda complex and detailed model of the
atom. A more simplified version explainsmany observationsabout chemicals
and chemical changes.What are the key featuresof this model?
Protons and neutrons cluster together to form the central core, or nucleus,
of an atom. For this reason,protons and neutronsare callednucleons. Electrons
occupy the spacethat surroundsthe nucleusof the atom. Table 1.2 and Figure
1.20 summarizethe general featuresand properties of atoms and their three
types of subatomicparticles.
Table1.2 Propertiesof Protons,Neutrons,andElectrons

approximately 10-14 m
B nucleus
An averageatom is about 10-10 m in diameter. Such a tiny size is hard to
visualize. If an averageatom were the size of a grain of sand,a strand of
~ Thisillustration
your hair would be about 60 m in diameter!
showsa simplifiedmodernmodel
of an atom.Noticethat a fuzzy,
cloud-likeregionsurroundsthe Nuclear Notation
atomicnucleus.Electronsexist As you havelearned,elementsoften havetwo or more isotopes.In other words,
in this regionat certainallowed atoms of a given element alwayshave the samenumber of protons, but may
energylevels.
have differing numbers of neutrons.
How do scientistskeep track of the number of protons and neutrons in an
atom?The compositionof an atom is often representedusingjust two numbers.
The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus,which identifies
the element. The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons.
Along with the atomic number, the massnumber identifies a particular isotope
of the element. Figure 1.21 showshow to use thesenumbers.

1 proton 1 proton 1 proton


/ 0 neutrons / 1 neutron /2 neutrons
mass number - 1
atomicnumber- 1 H ~H ~H
hydrogen-1 hydrogen-2 hydrogen-3
(deuterium) (tritium)

6 protons 6 protons
/7 neutrons /8 neutrons

13C
6 14C
6
carbon-13 carbon-14
Scientistsrepresentisotopesusingelementsymbolsandby addingthe mass
numberto an elementname.Theseexamplesshowhowto representisotopesof carbonand
hydrogen.Hydrogen-2andhydrogen-3aremorecommonlyknownas deuteriumandtritium.

22 MHR . Unit 1 Energy and Matter in Chemical Change


.

You can detennine the number of neutrons in a nucleusby subtracting the


atomic number from the massnumber.

For example,how many neutrons are in lithium-7?


. The number 7 in its nametells you that lithium- 7 hasa massnumber of 7.
. Determine the atomic number of lithium by examining the periodic table
in Appendix B.
Since lithium is the third element on the periodic table, its atomic number
is 3. Therefore, the number of neutrons in lithium-7 is:
number of neutrons = 7 - 3 = 4
What about electrons?Atoms are electrically neutral, so they have no charge.
Therefore, the number of negatively chargedelectronsmust equal the number
of positively chargedprotons. The atomic number of a neutral atom, then, is
the sameasthe number of electronsin that atom. Answerthe PracticeProblems
below to be sure you understand how to work with nuclear notation.

Section 1.2 Summary


In this section,you examinedsomeof d1eevidenced1atled to an atomic d1eory
d1atinvolves protons and neutrons in a nucleus surrounded by electronsin
energy levels.In d1enext section, you will seehow d1earrangementof d1ese
electrons affectshow compoundsform.

Chapter1 Atoms,Elements,andCompounds. MHR 23


Check Your Understanding
1. Make a table that summarizesthe following featuresof the electron,proton,
and neutron: location within the atom, relative mass,and electricalcharge.
2. Explain why Thomson's theory of the atom could not explain the results
of Rutherford's gold foil experiment.
3. Explain how the following observationsprovided evidencefor the existence
of neutrons.
(a) A helium atom has four times the massof a hydrogen atom.
(b) Different atoms of the sameelement can have different masses.
4. In your notebook,copyandcompletethe followingtable.

5. Describe the reasoningthat links eachobservation-hypothesispair below.

6. Thinking Critically Give an examplefrom the developmentof atomic


theory that illustrates eachof the following featuresof scientific thought.
(a) A hypothesisallows you to make predictions that can be tested.
(b) Theories must explainexperimentalobservations.
7. Thinking Critically Rutherford studied for his undergraduatedegreein
New Zealand,did graduatestudiesto get a Ph.D. at CambridgeUniversity
in England, did further researchat McGill University in Montreal, and
then returned to England, to Manchester University. Do you think all
this moving around was a disadvantageor an advantageto Rutherford
as a scientist?Explain your answer.
8. Apply If an element contains two or more naturally occurring isotopes,
is it a pure substance?Explain your answer.

24 MHR . Unit 1 Energy and Matter in Chemical Change

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