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3. It simulates the real world entity. So It doesn't simulate the real world. It
real-world problems can be easily works on step by step instructions
solved through oops. divided into small parts called
functions.

4. It provides data hiding. So it is more Procedural language doesn't provide

secure than procedural languages. You any proper way for data binding, so it
cannot access private data from is less secure.
anywhere.

5. Example of object-oriented Example of procedural languages are:

programming languages is C++, Java, C, Fortran, Pascal, VB etc.
.Net, Python, C#, etc.

5.2 Features of Object oriented programming

Q3. Explain features of OOP.
Or
Q3. Write a note on: 1.___ 2.____ 3.____

1. Classes
 A class is user-defined data type used to describe something in the world, such
as occurrences, things, external entities, and so on.
 A class describes template or blueprint that describes the structure and behavior
of a set of similar objects.
 Once we have definition for a class, a specific instance of that class can be easily
created.
 For eg. Consider a class student. A student has attributes such a roll_no, name,
course and aggregate. The operations that can be performed on its data may
include ‘getdata’, ‘setdata’,’editdata’ and so on.
 A class is collection of objects.

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2. Objects
 Object is basic unit of object-oriented programming.
 Object is basic run-time entity in an object-oriented system.
 Anything having its own properties can be considered as an object.
 For example flower is an object having properties such as name, fragrance, etc.
 An object is a collection of data members and associated member function also
known as methods shown in figure1 below:

Object Name
Attribute 1
Attribute 2

.........
Attribute N
Function 1
Function 2

.........
Function N
Fig1. Representation of an Object

3. Methods and Message passing

Methods
 A method is a function associated with class.
 It defines the operations that the object can execute when it receive a message.
 In object oriented language, only methods of the class can access and
manipulate the data stored in an instance of the class (or object).
 Figure2 shows how a class is declared using its data members and member
functions.

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Figure2. Objects sending a message

Message Passing
 Two objects communicate with each other though messages.
 An object asks another object to involve one of its methods by sending it a
message.
 In figure2 sender object is sending message to the receiver object to get details
of a student. i.e. the sender is passing some specific information to the receiver
so that the receiver can send the correct and precise information to the sender.
The data that is transferred with the message is called parameters. Here, roll_no
1 is the parameter.
 The messages that are sent to other objects consist of three aspects-the receiver
object, the name of the method that the receiver should invoke, and the
parameters that must be used with the method.

4. Inheritance (‘is-a’ relation)

 Inheritance is a concept of OOP in which a new class is created from an existing
class.
 The new class, often known as a subclass, contains the attributes and methods of
the parent class. (the exiting class from which the new class is created).
 The new class, known as a subclass or derived class, inherits the attributes
and behaviour of pre-existing class, which is referred to as superclass or
parent class. (refer figure3.)

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Figure3: Child, derived or subclass

 The inheritance relationship of a subclasses and superclasses generates a

hierarchy. Therefore inheritance relation is also called as ‘is-a’ relation.
 A subclass not only has all the states and behavior associated with superclass but
has other specialized features (additional data or methods) as well.
 The main advantage is ability to reuse the code.
 For example, we have a class student with following members:
Properties: rollno, name, course, marks
Methods: getdata, setdata

Student

Undergraduate Postgraduate
Student Student

Figure4. Example of Inheritance

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 We can inherit two classes from the class student- undergraduate students and
postgraduate students (refer figure4). These two classes will have all the
properties of class students and in addition to that it will have even more
specialized members.
 When a derived class receives a message to execute a method, it finds the
method in its own class. If it finds the method, then it simply executes it. If the
method is not present, it searches for that method in its superclass. If the method
is found, it is executed; otherwise, an error message is reported.

5. Polymorphism
 Polymorphism refers to having several different forms.
 While inheritance is related to classes and their hierarchy, polymorphism on
other hand, is related to methods.
 Polymorphism is a concept that enables the programmers to assign a different
meaning or usage to a method in different context.
 Polymorphism exist when a number of subclasses is defined which have
methods of same name.
 Polymorphism can also be applied to operators.

6. Containership (composition or has-a’ relationship )

 Containership is ability of a class to contain object(s) of one or more classes a
member data.
 For example, class Person can have an object of class Student as its data
member. This would allow the object of class Person to call the public functions
of class Student. Here class Person becomes the container, whereas class
Student becomes the contained class.
 Containership is also called composition because as in given example, class
Person is composed of class Student.
 In OOP, containership represents a ‘has-a’ relationship.

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7. Reusability
 Reusability means developing codes that can be reused either in the same
program or in the different programs.
 Reusability is attained through inheritance, containership and polymorphism.

8. Delegation
 To provide maximum flexibility to programmers and to allow them to generate a
reusable code, object oriented languages also support delegation.
 In composition, an object can be composed of other objects and thus, the object
exhibits a ‘has-a’ relationship.
 In delegation, more than one object is involved in handling a request. The object
that receives the request for a service, delegates it to another object called its
delegate.
 Delegation means that one object is dependent on another object to provide
functionalities.
 The property of delegation emphasizes on the ideology than a complex object is
made of several simpler objects.
 For example, our body is made up of brain, heart, hands, eyes, ears, etc. The
functioning of the whole body as a system rests on the correct functioning of the
parts it is composed of.
 Delegation is different from inheritance in the way that two classes that
participates in inheritance share ‘is-a’ relationship; however, in delegation, they
have a ‘has-a’ relationship.

9. Data Abstraction
 Data Abstraction refers to the process by which data and functions are defined
in such a way that only essential details are revealed and the implementation
details are hidden.
 The main focus of data abstraction is to separate the interface and
implementation of a program.

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 For example, as user of television sets, we can switch it on or off, change the
channel, set the volume and add external devices such as speakers and CD or
DVD players without knowing the details how its functionality has been
implemented. Therefore the implementation is completely hidden from external
world.

10. Encapsulation (Data hiding)

 Data encapsulation, also called data hiding, is the technique of packing data and
functions into a single component (class) to hide implementation details of a
class from users.
 Users are allowed to execute only a restricted set of operations (class methods)
on the data members of the class.
 Therefore encapsulation organizes the data and methods into a structure that
prevents data access by any function (or method) that is not specified in the
class. This ensures the integrity of the data contained in the object.
 Encapsulation defines three access levels for data variables and member
functions of the class. These access levels specify the access rights, explained as
follows:
o Any data of function with access level as public can be accessed by any
function belonging to any class. This is lowest level of data protection.
o Any data of function with access level as protected can be accessed only
by that class or by any class that is inherited from it.
o Any data of function with access level as private can be accessed only
by the class in which it is declared. This is highest level of data
protection.

5.3 Classes and Object

Q4. Explain class and object with suitable examples.
Ans.
 A class creates new data type and object is an instance (or variable) of the class.
 Classes provide a blueprint or a template using which objects are created.
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Encapsulation (Data hiding)

 Data encapsulation, also called data hiding, is the technique of packing data and
functions into a single component (class) to hide implementation details of a
class from users.
 Users are allowed to execute only a restricted set of operations (class methods)
on the data members of the class.
 Therefore encapsulation organizes the data and methods into a structure that
prevents data access by any function (or method) that is not specified in the
class. This ensures the integrity of the data contained in the object.
 Encapsulation defines three access levels for data variables and member
functions of the class. These access levels specify the access rights, explained as
follows:
o Any data of function with access level as public can be accessed by any
function belonging to any class. This is lowest level of data protection.
o Any data of function with access level as protected can be accessed only
by that class or by any class that is inherited from it.
o Any data of function with access level as private can be accessed only
by the class in which it is declared. This is highest level of data
protection.

5.5 Class Method and Self objects

Q6. What does the self argument signify in the class methods?
Ans.
 Class Method definition is nothing but Function Definitions, exactly same as
ordinary functions.
 Syntax:
Class Class_name:
def function_name(self):
Statement 1
Statement 2
.

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.
Statement n

 Class method must have the first argument named as self. Moreover we do not pass
any value for this parameter.
 When we call the method, python provide its value automatically. Self-argument
refers to the object itself.
 This means that even that method that takes no arguments, it should be defined to
accept the self.
 self is just a parameter in function and user can use any parameter name in place of
it. But it is advisable to use self because it increase the readability of code.
 Example:

class student: #Class Definition

rollno=10 # Class Variable
def display(self): # Class Method
print("Roll no of Student is",self.rollno)

obj=student() #Object Creation

obj.display() #Method call

Output:
Roll no of Student is 10

5.6 The __init__() Method (The class constructor)

Q7. Explain the significance of __init__( ) method.
Ans.
 Python supports a very unique method named as __init__() method. This method
gets executed when instance of a class gets created (i.e.- when objects get created).

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 It is also called as an initializer method or constructor in object oriented

programming.
 It is useful to initialize the variables of the class objects.
 First parameter of this method is called as self, means instance/object of the class.
 This method is prefixed as well as suffixed with double underscore symbol
 Syntax:
Class Class_name:
def __init__(self [,argument list]):
Statement 1
Statement 2
.
.
Statement n

class student: #class Defination

def __init__(self, marks): # Class Method (Constructor)
self.marks=marks
print ("Marks of a Student is",self.marks)

obj1=student(70) #Object 1 Created

obj2=student(80) #Object 2 Created

5.7 Class variables and Object variables

Q8. Write a note on class variables and object variables with example.
Ans.
Class Variable:
 Class variables are used to declare within a class. These variables have same value
across all instances (objects). These variables are also called as static variables.
 All the objects/Instance of the class will share the class variable.
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 Since there exist only one copy of the class variable, any changes made to the class
variable by an object will be reflected in all other objects/instances.
 Syntax to access class variable:
className. Class_variable
 here className is the name of the class and class_variable is the class variable
defined in the class
 Example1:

Class student: # Class definition

rollno =10 # Class Variable

print("class variable value is ", student.rollno) #printed class variable

 Class variables are created and assigned values within declaration itself.
 You can also access class variables with an object created within a class
 Example 2:

Class student: # Class definition

rollno =10 # Clas Variable
def display(self):
print("class variable value is ", self.rollno) #printed class
variable

obj= student()

Object Variable:
 Object variable or instance variable have different value for each new instance.
 If a class has N instances/Objects, then there will be a N separate copies of the object
variable as each object/instances have its own object variable.
 Object variables are not shared between other objects.

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 A change made to the object variable by one object, will not be replicated in other
objects.
 Example1:
class student: #class Defination
serial_No=0 # Class Variable
def __init__(self, marks): # Class Method (Constructor)
student.serial_No+=1
self.marks=marks
print(("Serial number is" , self.serial_No)
print ("Marks of a Student is",self.marks)

obj1=student(70) #Object 1 Created

obj2=student(80) #Object 2 Created

 Example 2:
class student: #class Defination
serial_No=0 # Class Variable
def display(self, marks): # Class Method
student.serial_No+=1
self.marks=marks
print(("Serial number is", self.serial_No)
print ("Marks of a Student is",self.marks)

obj1=student() #Object 1 Created

obj2=student() #Object 2 Created
obj1.display(70) #Method call
obj2.dispaly(80) #Method call

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Q9. Differentiate between class variables and instance variables.

Ans: We have seen that a Class can have variables defined in it. Basically these variables
are of two types:
a) Class Variables
b) Instance Variables
As the name suggests the class variables are owned by the class and Instance (Object)
variables are owned by each object.
Important points are as follows:
 If a class has n objects, then there will be n separate copies of the object variable as
each object will have its own object variable.
 The object variable is not shared between objects.
 A change made to the object variable by one object will not be reflected in other
objects.
 If the class has one class variable, then there will be one copy only for that variable.
All the objects of that class will share the class variable.
 Since there exists only one copy of class variable, any change made to the class
variable will be reflected in all other objects.
Program to differentiate between object and class variables
class Car:
wheels = 4 #Class Variable
def __init__(self, comp):
self.company = comp # Object/Instance Variable
print("The company(Object Var) : ", self.company)
print("The Wheels(Class var) : ", Car.wheels)
obj1 = Car("Mercedez")
obj2 = Car("BMW")
Output:
The company(Object Var) : Mercedez
The Wheels(Class var) : 4
The company(Object Var) : BMW
The Wheels(Class var) : 4

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del obj1 # Deleting obj1 explicitly, __del__() get called

del obj2 # Deleting obj2 explicitly, __del__() get called

Output:
The object value is = 10
The object value is = 20
Object with value 10 is going out of scope
Object with value 20 is going out of scope

 In the above program __init__() method is automatically called when object is

created.
 __del__() method is also automatically called when object is deleted.
 We are deleting object explicitly, by del objectName. So while object is getting
deleted __del__() method is called.

5.9 Public and Private Members

Q11. Explain public and private members with suitable example.
Ans.
Ans:
 Public variables are the variables which are declared inside class and can be accessed
from anywhere in the program using the dot (.) operator.
 It means public variables can be accessed from within the class as well as from
outside the class in which it is defined.
 Private Variables are defined in the class with double underscore prefix ( __ ).
 Private variables are accessible from only within the class and from nowhere outside
the class.
class ABC:
def __init__(self, val1, val2):
self.var1 = val1 # var1 is public variable
self.__var2= val2 # __var2 is private variable

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def display(self):
print("From class method var1=", self.var1) # var1 is accessible within class
print("From class method var2=", self.__var2) # __var2 is accessible within class
obj=ABC(10,20)
obj.display()
print("From main module, var1 =", obj.var1) # var1 is public, accessible outside class
print("From main module, var2 =", obj.__var2) #Will give Error as __var2 is private
Output:
From class method var1= 10
From class method var2= 20
From main module, var1 = 10
Error Message displayed

 As a good programming habit, you should never try to access a private variable from
anywhere outside the class.
 But if for some reason, you want to access the private variables outside the class, use
following Syntax:
objectName._className__privatevariable
 So to remove error from above code, you shall write last statement as
print("From main module, var2 =", obj._ABC__var2)

Private Methods:
 We know that private attributes should not be accessed from anywhere outside the
class.
 Similarly, you can have private methods in your class. Which are accessible only
within the class.
class ABC:
def __init__(self, var1, var2):
self.var1 = var1 # var1 is public variable
self.__var2= var2 # var2 is private variable

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def update(self, var1): #Public Method

self.var1 = var1 # var1 is accessible within class
self.__display() #Accessing private method within the class

def __display(self): #Private Method

print("From class method var1=", self.var1)
print("From class method var2=", self.__var2)

obj=ABC(10,20) # Creating obj as object of class ABC

obj.update(30) # Accessing public method outside the class
obj._ABC__display() #Accessing private method outside the class

Output:
From class method var1= 30
From class method var2= 20
From class method var1= 30
From class method var2= 20

5.10 Calling a class method from another class method

Q12 How to call class method from another class method.

Ans: You can call one class method from another class method by using self. Below
program shows how can we do it.

class ABC():
def method1(self):
print("This is from method1")

def method2(self):
print("Executed method 2")
self.method1() #method1() called in method2

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obj1=ABC()
obj1.method2()

Output:
From method 2
This is from method1

Note: In the above program we have called method2 only. Method 2 consist a call for
method 1. So method 1 will also get executed.

5.11 Class Methods

Q13. With the help of an example explain the concept of class methods.
Ans.
 Class methods are a little different from ordinary methods.
 Class methods are called by a class (not by instance of a class).
 The first argument of class method is cls, not the self.
 Class methods are widely used for factory methods, which instantiate an instance of
a class, using different parameters from those usually passed to the class constructor.
 Class methods are marked with a classmethod decorator.

Example:
class Rectangle:
def __init__(self,length,breadth):
self.length=length
self.breadth=breadth

def area(self):
return self.length*self.breadth

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@classmethod
def Square(cls,side):
return cls(side,side)

S=Rectangle.Square(10)
print("Area=",S.area())

Output:
Area= 100

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