POPULATION

AND
COMMUNITY
ECOLOGY
Chapter 2
Objectives
Identify patterns of population
growth.

Analyze population growth patterns

and community organizations.

Identify the various interactions of

species happening in a community.
Every second, on
average, four or five
children are born,
somewhere on the
earth. In that same
second, two other
people die. This
difference between
births and deaths
means a net gain
roughly 2.3 more
humans per second in
the world’s population.
Population and Community Ecology
• Humans are now the most numerous vertebrate species on the
earth. We are also more widely distributed and manifestly have a
greater global environmental impact than any other species.
Many people worry that overpopulation will cause or perhaps
already is causing- resource depletion and environmental
degradation that threat the ecological life- support systems on
which we all depend. These fears often leads to the demands for
immediate, worldwide birth control programs to reduce fertility
rates and eventually stabilize or even shrink the total number of
humans.
Population Ecology
• It is the study of distribution, density, numbers of individuals and
structure (gender, age), rates of natality and mortality, factors
that affect growth.
• Zebras that live together in a herd are members of the same
species and thus population may change considerably
especially when food is plentiful.
• The population may decrease in size during severe environmental
conditions such as drought or if the population of predators who
feed on zebras will increase significantly.
 Population
• Defined as the number of individuals of a
particular species in a given area. When
population in an ecosystem changes, one
population of a certain species can also
change. The study of the variables that
determine the abundance and distribution
of a population in time and space. Group
of individuals belonging to the same
species that inhabit a specific geographic
location at a specific point in time.
Characteristics of Populations
• A population’s gene pool is the basis
for characteristics ranges of
morphological, physiological, and
behavioral traits. When studying a
population, ecologists consider its
genetic make-up as well as
reproductive modes and overall
behavior. They also consider
demographics, or vital statistics of the
populations, which include
population size, density, distribution
and age structure.
Density and Numbers
Counting individuals to determine density and population size. Rarely
able to count the entire population, instead – count all the individuals in
a prescribed area.
1. Simple counts (# seals/ islands, # burrows/ area, # wildebeest/herd)
2. Mark-recapture technique
• capture individuals
• mark Individuals
• recapture at a later point in time – provide estimate of population size for a given area

3. Census techniques – transect methods, walk or drive a line (transect) and

count the number of individuals at specific locations, evenly distributed along the
line.
Density and Numbers
Calculation = (total number marked)(total number recaptured)
(number of recapture that were marked)
Example:
initial capture of 50 individuals
second capture of 100 individuals10 of the 100 were marked from
the first capture
estimated population size = 50(100)/10 =
Population Density
Defined as the number of
individuals of a certain species
per unit area or volume. It is
derived by dividing the number
of individuals of a certain species
by the area they occupy. Most
of the people live in cities where
the number of people per unit
per area is significantly higher
than in the provinces.
Natural Factors that affect Population Density:
A. Natural Factors High Density Low Density

1. Relief (shape and Low land which is flat (e.g. High land that is mountainous
Central Luzon) (Mountain Province)
height of land)

2. Resources Areas rich in resources such Areas with few resources (e.g.
as coal, oil, wood, fishing etc. The Sahel)
(e.g. Western Europe)

3. Climate Areas with temperate Areas with extreme climates

climates as there is enough of hot and cold (e.g. The
rain and heat to grow crops Sahara Desert; North and
e.g. UK, New Zealand) South Pole)
Human Factors that affect Population Density:
A. Natural Factors High Density Low Density

1. Political Countries with stable

government (e.g. Singapore)
Unstable countries as people
migrate to other countries
(e.g. Afghanistan)

2. Social Groups of people want to

live to close each other for
Other groups of people
prefer to be isolated (e.g.
security (e.g. USA) Scandinavians)

3. Economic Good job opportunities

encourage high population,
Limited job opportunities
cause some areas to be
particularly in large around sparsely populated (e.g.
the world Amazon Rainforest)
Population Distribution
• The pattern of dispersal of certain species within the area
occupy. It can be said that places which are sparsely populated
contain few people and tend to be difficult to live. While places
which are densely populated contain many people contains
habitable environments.
Distribution Patterns
• To give a better picture of population density, distribution within the area needs to be
known. Community structure refers to patterns of spatial distribution of individuals and
populations within a community, as well as the relation of a particular community to its
surroundings. At the local level, even in a relatively homogenous environment
individuals can be distributed randomly, clumped together or highly in regular
patterns.
 Three Patterns of Dispersion:
• 1. Random distribution – (patchy distribution of resources) pattern to
be expected when there is no special force acting on the spatial
distribution because members of the species do not frequently
interact with another.
• 2. Uniform – (territorial species) pattern that result when members of
the species are equally spaced apart because of the interactions
among members of the species.
• 3. Clumped – (random distribution of resources) pattern that results
from the restricted availability of suitable habitat or uneven
distribution resources. The clumped pattern may also be linked with
the defense behaviour of the organism as in “safety in numbers.”
Population Age Structure
• The population age structure can tell more about population dynamics than either
density or distribution.

1. Functional age classes – because of the

difference in life spans, the ages of these groups
can be very different from one group animals to
another.
• a. Pre-reproductive – too young to reproduce
• b. Reproductive – able to reproduce
• c. Post reproductive – too old to reproduce

2. Population age profile – an estimation of the

number of individuals in each age class
 Population Size
• - the number of individuals in
a population. Genetic
relationship is used to single
out a certain organism or
individual if it belongs to a
population or not. Changes
over time just like population
density and distribution.
The factors that contribute to the
fluctuation of population size are:
• 1. Natality (rate of birth) – the ratio of the number of births in a
given time to the total population.
• 2. Mortality (rate of death) – the ratio of the number of deaths in
a given time to the total population.
• 3. Immigration – is the movement of individuals into an area
occupied by an existing population.
• 4. Emigration – is the movement of individuals out of an area
where a population is located.
 Growth pattern
• To understand how populations grow, visualize
what happens to population under ideal
conditions. Suppose you put a single
bacterium in a nutrient-rich culture dish then
Incubate the dish under conditions ideal for
bacterium to grow.

There are two general of population

growth:
1. Organisms that reproduce only once and
cease to grow as adults. They expand all
their energy in one reproduction then die.
2. Organisms that reproduce throughout their
lifetime and invest all energy for future
survival.
 Population regulation two factors
affect population growth:
• 1. Density – dependent – depend on the number
of individuals in the population (food, mates,
increased rates of predation and parasitism,
stress and behavioural problems due to
overcrowding, available nesting habitat, water,
oxygen, waste build up)
• 2. Density – independent – do not depend on the
number of individuals in the population (weather
and climate: drought, typhoon, hurricane,
excessive rain or snow, etc. geological
disturbances: earthquake, tidal wave, volcanic
eruption, etc.)
 Mathematical Models of Population Growth:

•Exponential growth
- A population could reach its biotic potential, the
maximum growth rate of which a population is
physiologically capable, if these conditions are
met:
- (a) environmental conditions are ideal;
- (b) there are no restrictions on reproduction; and
- (c) mortality rate is kept extremely low
Mathematical Models of Population Growth:
•Biotic potential
- Maximum rate at which a
population can increase when
resources are unlimited and
environmental conditions are ideal.
Varies due to difference in:
(1) reproductive span;
(2) frequency of reproduction;
(3) litter size; and
(4) survival rate
Mathematical Models of Population Growth:

•Limiting factors
- Environmental influences that
restrict the growth of populations.
May include the availability of
food, shelter, water, and space. If
the predatory species were not
controlled by a particular limiting
factor then the prey species will
eventually decrease in number.
 Mathematical Models of Population Growth:
• Carrying capacity
- The number of individuals in a
population that the environment can
sustain over a relatively long period of
time. if the limiting factor is the supply of
food, if it eventually dwindles, birth rate
will slow down and death rate will
speed up. If the carrying capacity of
the environment is reached, population
will level off. It means that the birth and
death will evenly balanced. Thus,
population will stabilize, carrying
capacity
Mathematical Models of Population Growth:

• Age distribution
- Growing populations have
a large percentage of
young individuals while
declining populations have
a large percentage of
elderly individuals.
 There are two typical age structure diagrams:
Expansive population distribution - is Stable population distribution -– is typical
typical in developing countries such as in in industrialized countries such as United States of
African and Asian countries. A pyramid shaped
diagram is expected when birth rate is higher America. A bell shaped diagram results when
than death rate. there is a balance birth rate and death rate.
Community Ecology
• Each living thing in a
community carries out its own
unique role. The resources
such food, water, sunlight,
territory, shelter, nesting sites,
and so on are the things the
organism needs to survive.
Often, the amounts of these
resources are in limited
supply. Due to this,
competition occurs.
1. Competition –
organisms in a
community compete
with other species for
food, shelter, water,
and other survival
needs of the species.
Two Types of Competition are:
• a. Intraspecific – competition occurs between members of the
same species. This will limit how large a population in a
community can be.
• b. Interspecific – competition occurs between individuals of
different species. As an example, trees in dense forest compete
for sunlight. Technically, taller trees can be absorb more sunlight
than shorter trees. Lions and tigers feed on the same prey, and
both species are negatively impacted by the presence of the
other because they will limited supply of food.
2. Predation –
the consumption of
one organism by
another where the
consumed organism
(prey) was alive when
the predator first
attacked it.
Symbiotic
Relationship
-are those in which two
entirely different
organisms live in a close
association that benefits
at least one of them.
Symbiosis are classified
into three different kinds:
parasitism,
mutualism and
commensalism
• 1. Parasitism – a relationship
between two species in which the
host is harmed, but not killed
immediately, and the species
feeding on it (parasite) is benefited.
A parasite is an organism that
obtains its organic nutrients from the
host’s body without causing instant
death. Examples of parasites that
live inside a host’s body includes
tapeworms, liver flukes, and
pinworms.
• 2. Mutualism – a relationship
between species that have
developed a positive impact and
dependency on each other. Two
species interact in a way that
benefits each other. As an example,
cows have microorganisms in their
digestive tract. These microorganisms
help the cows digest grass, and other
plant materials.
• 3. Commensalism – a
relationship between species
where one organism benefits
from the association and the
other organism is neither
helped or harmed. An
example is the relationship of
barnacles and whales.
Barnacles attached
themselves on the skin of the
whale and obtain food by
filtering the water. The whale
is neither harmed nor helped
in this interaction.
Succession in Communities
• Ecological succession is the process by which natural communities replace (or
“succeed”) one another over time. For example, when an old farm field in the
midwestern U.S. is abandoned and left alone for many years, it gradually
becomes a meadow, then a few bushes grow, and eventually, trees
completely fill in the field, producing a forest.
• Each plant community creates conditions that subsequently allow different
plant communities to thrive. For example, early colonizers like grasses might
add nutrients to the soil, whereas later ones like shrubs and trees might create
cover and shade. Succession stops temporarily when a “climax” community
forms; such communities remain in relative equilibrium until a disturbance
restarts the succession process
 2 Types of Succession in Communities
• Primary succession happens when a new patch of land is created or exposed
for the first time. This can happen, for example, when lava cools and creates new
rocks, or when a glacier retreats and exposes rocks without any soil. During primary
succession, organisms must start from scratch. First, lichens might attach themselves to
rocks, and a few small plants able to live without much soil might appear. These are
known as “pioneer species.”
2 Types of Succession in Communities
• Secondary succession happens when a climax community or
intermediate community is impacted by a disturbance. This restarts the cycle
of succession, but not back to the beginning—soil and nutrients are still present
What is a climax community?
• A climax community is the “endpoint” of succession within the context of a particular
climate and geography. In the midwestern U.S., for example, such a community might
be a hardwood forest with oaks and hickories as the dominant tree species.
Apply What You Have Learned
After finishing the lesson, you are now confident in answering the following questions. Be
as specific as you can be.

• 1. What do you think the maximum and optimum capacities for

humans are? Why is designing experiments human demography
difficult?
• 2. Do a population survey in your community and apply the
concepts given this module to come up with an analysis of you
community population.
• 3. Determine how the population affects the resources.
END OF CHAPTER 2