Chimalgi Education Trust

Chimalgi Pre- University College of Science, Kalaburagi

Class XI

Laboratory Manual

Compiled By:
Mr. Khanderao Patil (M. Sc, B. Ed)
Lecturer
Exp No Name of the Experiment Page no
1a Vernier caliper (a) 5-6
1b Vernier caliper (b) 7-8
2a Screw Gauge (a) 9-10
2b Screw Gauge (b) 11
2c Screw Gauge (c) 12-13
3 Spherometer 14-15
4 Simple pendulum 16-17
5 Second’s pendulum 18-19
6 Angle of friction 20-21
7 Spring constant 22-23
8a Sonometer (a) 24-25
8b Sonometer (b) 26-27
9 Resonance coloumn 28-30
10 Beam balance 31-32
11 Concurrent forces in equilibrium 33-34
12 Specific heat 35-38
13 Newton’s law of cooling 39-40
14 Co-efficient of static friction 41-42
 Physics laboratory manual class XI

EXPERIMENT NO – 1(a)

Vernier Calliper (for measuring inner dimension)

Aim: To determine the diameter of a small cylindrical body using vernier callipers.

Apparatus: Vernier calliper, Hollow cylinder.

Principle: “The difference of one main scale division and one vernier scale division is called
least count of the vernier calliper”

i.e., least count = 1 M.S.D – V.S.D

𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
1. Least count (LC) = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

2. Total reading (TR) = MSR + (CVD x LC)

CVD = coinciding vernier division

LC = least count

Procedure:

To measure the outer diameter of a hollow cylinder

1. Find the least count of the vernier caliper

2. The Hollow cylinder is held firmly between the lower Jaws of the vernier caliper
3. The main scale reading just before the zero of the vernier scale and coinciding vernier
scale division are noted and the total reading is calculated using the formula:
Total reading (TR) = MSR + (CVD x LC)
4. The experiment is repeated by holding the Holding the Hollow cylinder in different
positions the mean reading gives the diameter.

Diagram:

Mr. Khanderao Patil, Chimalgi PU College, Kalaburagi Page 5

 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Tabular column:

Trial No MSR (cm) CVD TR

1
2
3
Mean diameter =
Result:

The diameter of given Hollow cylinder is ……………

Mr. Khanderao Patil, Chimalgi PU College, Kalaburagi Page 6

 Physics laboratory manual class XI

EXPERIMENT NO – 1(b)
Vernier Calliper
Aim: To measure the internal diameter and depth of a given calorimeter using calliper
and hence finding is volume.
Apparatus: vernier calliper, calorimeter
Principle: “The difference of one main scale division and one vernier scale division is
called least count of the vernier calliper”
Formulae:

𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

1. Least count (LC) = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

2. Total reading (TR) = MSR + (CVD) x LC)

Where MSR = main scale reading CVD = coinciding vernier division
LC = least count
𝜋𝑑2 ℎ
3. Volume of calorimeter = 4
where d = internal diameter of colorimeter and

h= depth of calorimeter

Procedure:

1. To measure the internal diameter of the calorimeter

a. Measure the least count of vernier caliper
b. Insert the upper jaws of the vernier caliper inside the calorimeter and adjust the
position of the movable jaw in such a way that, both fixed and movable jaws
touch the inner walls of the calorimeter without exerting undue pressure.
c. Note the main scale reading and coinciding vernier division and calculate the total
reading
d. Repeat this procedure 3 times and hence find the mean internal diameter of the
calorimeter.
2. To measure the depth of calorimeter
a. Insert the edge of the main scale of the vernier caliber on the mouth of the
calorimeter in such a way that the tip of the edge should just about touch the
bottom of the calorimeter.
b. Record the main scale reading and coinciding vernier division.
c. Repeat this procedure 3 times and hence find the mean depth of the colorimeter.
d. Finally calculate the volume of the calorimeter using the above formula.
Tubular column:
1. Internal diameter of the calorimeter:

Mr. Khanderao Patil, Chimalgi PU College, Kalaburagi Page 7

 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Trial No MSR (cm) CVD TR (cm)

1
2
3
Mean diameter =
2. Depth of the calorimeter.
Trial No MSR (cm) CVD TR(cm)
1
2
3
Mean depth =
Result: volume of calorimeter = …..m 3

Mr. Khanderao Patil, Chimalgi PU College, Kalaburagi Page 8

 Physics laboratory manual class XI

EXPERIMENT NO: 2(a)

Screw Gauge
Aim: To measure the diameter of given wire using screw gauge

Apparatus: screw gauge, wire

Principle: It is based on the principle of micrometer screw. The linear distance moved by the
screw is directly proportional to the rotations given to the linear distance moved by the screw
when it is rotated by on division of the circular scale is called the least count of the
instrument.

Formulae:

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

1. Pitch = 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
2. Least count (LC) = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

3. Total reading (TR) = PSR + (HSR x LC)

Where PSR = pitch scale reading/linear scale reading
HSR = head scale reading of circular reading
LC = least count

Procedure:

1. Calculate the least count of the screw gauge

2. The given wire is firmly held between the two studs of the screw gauge
3. The pitch scale reading (PSR) and the lead scale reading (HSR) are noted.
4. The diameter of the wire is found using the total reading formula given above.
5. Repeat the same experiments for different pails and calculate the mean diameter

Diagram:

Mr. Khanderao Patil, Chimalgi PU College, Kalaburagi Page 9

 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Tubular column

1. Diameter of the wire :

Trial No PSR (mm) HSR(mm) TR(mm)
1
2
3
Mean diameter =

Result: diameter of the wire ………m

Mr. Khanderao Patil, Chimalgi PU College, Kalaburagi Page 10

 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Experiment No: 2(b)

Screw Gauge
Aim: To measure the volume of spherical body using screw gauge

Apparatus: screw gauge, spherical body

Principle: It is based on the principle of micrometer screw. The linear distance moved by
the screw is directly proportional to the rotation given to it. The linear distance moved by
the screw when it is rotated by on division of the circular scale is called the least count of
the instrument

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

1. Pitch = 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
2. Least count (LC) = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

3. Total reading (TR) = PSR + (HSR) x LC)

Where PSR = pitch scale reading /linear scale reading
HSR = head scale reading or circular scale reading
LC = least count volume of sphere V= 43 𝜋𝑟 3 where r is radius

Procedure:

1. Calculate the least count of the screw gauge

2. The metallic sheet is firmly held between the two studs of the screw gauge
3. The pitch scale reading and the head scale reading (HSR) are noted.
4. The thickness of the sheets found as the total reading formula given above
5. Repeat the same experiment for different that’s and calculate the mean diameter

Tabular column:

1. Thickness of the metal sheet

Trial No PSR (mm) HSR TR (mm)
1
2
3
Mean thickness = ------
Result: Thickness of the metal sheet = ………..mm

Mr. Khanderao Patil, Chimalgi PU College, Kalaburagi Page 11

 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Experiment No: 2(c)

Screw Gauge
Aim : To measure the volume of an irregular lamina using screw gauge

Apparatus: screw gauge, irregular lamina of uniform thickness, a millimetre graph sheet

Principle: It is based on the principle of micrometer screw. The linear distance moved by
the screw is directly proportional to the rotations given to it. The linear distance moved by the
when it is rotated on division of the circular scale is called the least count of the instrument.

Formulae :

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

1. Pitch =
𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
2. Least count (LC) = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

3. Total reading (TR) = PSR + (HSR) x LC)

Where PSR = pitch scale reading /linear scale reading
HSR = head scale reading or circular scale reading

LC = least count

4. Volume = surface area x thickness

Observations:

1. No of squares lying completely inside the marked boundary (N1) = …. mm2

2. No. of squares lying on the boundary with more than half part inside it (N 2) = … mm2

Procedure:

1. Calculate the least count of the screw gauge and hence calculate the chickens of the
lamina.
2. Place the given lamina on the millimeter graph sheet and mark its boundary by a
sharply pointed pencil
3. Remove the lamina from the graph sheet. Count the number of full millimeter squares
living completely within the boundary of the lamina and note on the record book.
4. The squares on which the boundary line lies are counted as full if more than half part
lies inside the marked boundary and are neglected if less than half part lies inside the
marked boundary.

Mr. Khanderao Patil, Chimalgi PU College, Kalaburagi Page 12

 Physics laboratory manual class XI

5. Calculate the volume of the irregular lamina by using surface area obtained from the
graph and the thickness from the screw gauge.

Tabular column:

1. Thickness of the irregular lamina :

Trial No PSR (mm) HSR TR(mm)

1
2
3
Mean thickness = ------ mm

Result: Volume of irregular lamina is ......mm3

Mr. Khanderao Patil, Chimalgi PU College, Kalaburagi Page 13

 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Experiment No: 3

Spherometer
Aim: To measure the radius of curvature of a given spherical surface

Apparatus: Spherometer, plain glass plate, convex mirror / watch glass

Principle: it is based on the principle of micrometer screw. The linear distance moved by the
screw is directly proportional to the rotations given to it.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

1. Pitch = 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
2. Least count (LC) = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

3. Total reading (TR) = PSR + (HSR) x LC)

Where PSR = pitch scale reading /linear scale reading

CSR = circular scale reading

LC= least count

𝑖2 ℎ
4. R = 6ℎ+ 5

Where R = radius of curvature of spherical surface

I = length of legs

H = height of the curved surface

Observations:

1. Determination of length (i) of the fixed legs of a spherometer :

𝐴𝐵+𝐵𝐶+𝐶𝐴
Mean I = 3

Diagram:

Mr. Khanderao Patil, Chimalgi PU College, Kalaburagi Page 14

 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Procedure:

1. Calculate the least count of the spherometer by noting down the pitch and number of
divisions on the circular scale using above formula.
2. Place the spherometer on a plain sheet and press it lightly, so that impressions of the
tips are formed on the paper. Join these impressions to make a triangle and hence
calculate the mean value of the side (i)
3. Place the given spherical surface on the plain glass plate and then place the
spherometer on it by raising or on the surface.
4. Take the spherometer reading (h) for different trials and calculate the mean value of h.
5. Calculate the value or radius of curvature using the above formula.

Tubular column:

Trial No Spherometer reading for Spherometer reading for h = h1-h2 in

spherical surface h1 in mm plane glass surface, h2 in mm
mm
PSR(mm) CSR TR PSR CSR TR
(mm) (mm) (mm)
1
2
3
Result: The radius of curvature of given spherical surface is .......mm

Mr. Khanderao Patil, Chimalgi PU College, Kalaburagi Page 15

 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Experiment No: 4

Simple Pendulum

Aim: To measure the acceleration due to gravity at a given place using a simple pendulum

Apparatus: Pendulum bob, inextensible thread, vernier callipers, stand meter scale, split
cork and stop watch

Principle: The simple pendulum executes simple harmonic motion. This is because the
acceleration of the pendulum bob is constant. This acceleration is directly proportional to the
displacement from the mean position and is always directly towards the centre.

Formulae:

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑛 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

1. Time period of the pendulum bob T = 𝑛
𝐿
2. G = 4𝜋 2 (𝑇 2)

Where g = acceleration due to gravity

L = effective length of the pendulum
T = time period of the simple pendulum

Observations:

1. Radius of the pendulum bob r = …………m

2. Least count of the meter scale = …………m

Diagram:

Procedure:

1. Calculate the radius ( r) of the pendulum bob using vernier calipers.

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 Physics laboratory manual class XI

2. Set the pendulum to a fixed string length (i) and note its value. Then, start oscillations
with a small angular displacement.
3. Using a stop watch, find the time taken for a total of 20 (n=20) oscillations. Report
the same step twice and then find the mean time (t).
4. Now calculate the time period of the pendulum bob using the given formula, and also
𝐿
calculate the value of (𝑇 2)
𝑳
5. Now repeat steps 2 to 4 for different values of i. calculate the mean value of (𝑻𝟐 )

6. Calculate the acceleration due to gravity using given formula.

Tabular column:

Trial Length Effective Time for 20 Mean Time T2 𝑳

ms-2
𝑻𝟐
no. of lengthl+r osscilations in t(in period: (S2)
string seconds s) 𝒕
T=𝟐𝟎s
I
T1 T2 T3
1
2
3
Mean
𝑳
=…
𝑻𝟐
Result: Acceleration due to gravity at a given is = ……….ms-2

Mr. Khanderao Patil, Chimalgi PU College, Kalaburagi Page 17

 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Experiment No: 5

Second’s Pendulum.
Aim: To find the effective length of a second’s pendulum using appropriate graph

Apparatus: Pendulum bob, inextensible thread, vernier callipers, stand meter scale, split
cork, graph paper and stop watch

Principle: The simple pendulum executes simple harmonic motion. This is because the
acceleration of the pendulum bob is constant. This acceleration is directly proportional to the
displacement from the mean position and is always directed towards the centre.

A seconds pendulum is a simple pendulum which has length of 1m (on earth’s gravity) and a
time period of 2 seconds.

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑛 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

1. Time period of the pendulum bob T = 𝑛
𝑔𝑇 2
2. L = 4𝜋2

Where g = acceleration due to gravity

L = effective length of the pendulum
T = time period of the simple pendulum
Observations:
1. Radius of the pendulum bob r = …………m
2. Least count of the meter scale = …………m

Diagram and nature of graph:

Procedure:

Mr. Khanderao Patil, Chimalgi PU College, Kalaburagi Page 18

 Physics laboratory manual class XI

1. Calculate the radius (r) of the pendulum bob using vernier calipers.
2. Set the pendulum to a fixed string length (i) and note its value. Then, start oscillations
with a small angular displacement.
3. Using a stop watch, find the time taken for a total of 20 (n=20) oscillations. Report
the same step twice and then find the mean time (t).
4. Now calculate the time period of the pendulum bob using the given formula, and also
calculate the value of T2
5. Now repeat steps 2 to 4 for different values of l.
6. Plot the graph of effective length (L along x-axis) versus time period (T along y-
axis) also plot the graph of (T2)
7. By using the L-T2 graph calculate the effective length of the seconds pendulum.

Trial Length Effective Time for 20 Mean Time T2 𝑳

ms-2
𝑻𝟐
no. of lengthl+r oscillations in t(in period: (S2)
string seconds s) 𝒕
T=𝟐𝟎s
I
T1 T2 T3
1
2
3
Mean
𝑳
=…
𝑻𝟐

Result: The length of second’s pendulum is ...........m

Mr. Khanderao Patil, Chimalgi PU College, Kalaburagi Page 19

 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Experiment No: 6

Angle of friction
Aim: to find the downward force, along an inclined plane, acting on a roller due to gravity
and study its relationship with the angle of inclination by plotting graph between force and
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.

Apparatus: Inclined plane with protractor and pulley, roller, weight box, spring balance,
spirit level, pan and thread.

Principle: The force on the mass M1 when it is moving with a constant velocity v will be

𝑊 = M 1 𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝑓𝑟

Where 𝑓𝑟 is the force of friction due to rolling, Ml is the mass of roller and W is the total
tension in the string (W = weight suspended). Assuming there is no friction between the
pulley and the string.

Formula: Tension in the thread is given by,

𝑊 = 𝑀𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑓𝑟

Where, 𝑓𝑟 − 𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑀 − 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟

𝜃 − 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

𝑔 − 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

Diagram

Procedure:

1. Arrange the inclined plane, roller and the masses in the pan.
2. Ensure that the pulley is frictionless. Lubricate it using machine oil, if necessary.
3. To start with, let the value of W be adjusted so as to permit the roller to stay at the
top of the inclined plane at rest.
4. Start decreasing the masses in small steps in the pan until the roller just starts
moving down the plane with a constant velocity.

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 Physics laboratory manual class XI

5. Note W and also the angle 𝜃. Shows the free body diagram for the situation when
the roller just begins to move downwards.
6. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for different values of 𝜃. Tabulated your observations.

Observations:

Acceleration due to gravity, g = 𝑁/𝑚2

Mass of roller, m = (𝑀1 )𝑔

Mass of the pan = 𝑀2 𝑔

Tabular column:

Trial 𝜃° sin 𝜃 Mass added to pan Force W=(𝑀2 + 𝑀3 )𝑔 𝑁

no. 𝑀3
1
2
3

Result: Therefore within experimental error, downward force along inclined plane is directly
proportional to sin 𝜃 , where 𝜃 is the angle of inclination of the plane.

Mr. Khanderao Patil, Chimalgi PU College, Kalaburagi Page 21

 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Experiment No: 7

Spring Constant
Aim: To find the force constant and effective mass of a helical spring by plotting T 2-m graph
using method of oscillation.

Apparatus and material required: Light weight helical spring with a pointer attached at the
lower end and hook / ring for suspending it from a hanger, (diameter of the spring may be
about 1-1.5 cm inside or same as that in a spring balance of 100 g); a rigid support, hanger
and five slotted weights of 10 g each (in case the spring constant is of high value one may use
slotted weight of 20 g), clamp stand, a balance, a measuring scale (15-30 cm) and a stop-
watch (with least count of 0.1 s).

Principle: Spring constant (or force constant) of a spring is given by

Restoring force
Spring constant, K = Extension

Thus, spring constant is the restoring force per unit extension in the spring. Its value is
determined by the elastic properties of the spring. A given object is attached to the free end of
a spring which is suspended from a rigid point support (a nail, fixed to a wall). If the object is
pulled down and then released, it executes simple harmonic oscillations.

The time period (T) of oscillation of a helical spring constant K is given by the relation T,

Procedure:

1. Suspend the helical spring SA (having pointer P and the hanger H at its free end A),
from a rigid support ,
2. Set the measuring scale, close to the spring vertically. Take care that the pointer P
moves freely over the scale without touching it.
3. Find out the least count of the measuring scale (it is usually 1mm or 0.1 cm)
4. Familiarize yourself with the working of the stop-watch and find its least count.
5. Suspend the load or slotted weight with mass m1 on the hanger gently. Wait till the
pointer comes to rest. This is the equilibrium position for the given load. Pull the load
slightly downwards and then release it gently so that it is set into oscillations in a
vertical plane about its rest (or equilibrium) position. The rest position (x) of the
pointer P on the scale is the reference or mean position for the given load. Start the

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 Physics laboratory manual class XI

stop-watch as the pointer P just crosses its mean position (say, from upwards to
downwards) and simultaneously begin to count the oscillations.
6. Keep on counting the oscillations as the pointer crosses the mean position (x) in the
same direction. Stop the watch after n (say, 5 to 10) oscillations are complete. Note
the time (t) after taken by the oscillating load for n oscillations.
7. Repeat this observation at least thrice and in each occasion note the time taken (t 1),
for n oscillations and compute the time for one oscillation, i.e., the time period T 1
(= t1/n) of oscillating helical spring with a load m1.
8. Repeat steps 5 and 6 for two more slotted weights.
𝑡
9. Calculate time period of oscillation 𝑇 = 𝑛 for each weight and tabulate your
observations.
10. Compute the value of spring constant (K1, K2, K3) for each load and find out the
mean value of spring constant K of the given helical spring.
11. The value of K can also be determined by plotting a graph of T 2 vs m with T2 on y-
axis and m on x-axis.
12. Note: The number of oscillations, n, should be large enough to keep the error
minimum in measurement of time. One convenient method to decide on the number n
is based on the least count of the stop-watch. If the least count of the stop –watch is
0.1 s .then to have 1% error in measurement, the minimum time measured should be
10.0 s. Hence the number n for oscillations should be so chosen that oscillating mass
takes more than 10.0 s to complete them.

Observations:

1. Least count of the measuring scale =.... mm = ......cm

2. Pointer reading =......
3. Least count of the stop-watch =.....s
4. Mass of load 1, m1 =.....g =......kg
5. Mass of load 2, m2 =....g =......kg
6. Mass of load 3,m3 =......g =.....kg

Tabular column:

Sl. no Mass of the Mean Time for n Mean t in Time period

load m in kg position of oscillations t (sec) T=t/n
pointer, X (sec)
(cm)
𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡3

Result: Spring constant of the given helical spring = ........N/m

Effective mass of helical spring ........kg

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 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Experiment No: 8(a)

Sonometer
Aim: To study the relation between frequency and length of a give wire under constant
tension using a sonometer.

Apparatus: Sonometer, six tuning forks of known frequencies, meter scale, rubber pad,
paper rider, hunger with half-kilogram weights, wooden bridges.

Principle: The frequency n of the fundamental mode of vibration of a string is given by

1 𝑇
𝑛 = 2𝑙 √𝑚

Where m = mass per unit length of the string.

l = length of the string between the wedges

T = Tension in the string (including the weight of the hunger) = Mg

M = mass suspended, including the mass of the hanger

(a) For a given m and fixed T.

1
𝑛∝ 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝑙

(b) If frequency n is constant, for a given wire (m is constant),

𝑇
√ 𝑙 Is constant 𝑙 2 ∝ 𝑇.

Procedure:

1. Set up the sonometer on the table and clean the groove on the pulley to ensure that it
has minimum friction. Stretch the wire by placing a suitable load on the hanger.
2. Set a tuning fork of frequency n1 into vibrations by striking it against the rubber pad
and hold it near one of your ears. Pluck the sonometer wire and compare the two
sounds, one produced by the tuning fork and the other by the plucked wire. Make a
note of difference between the two sounds.
3. Adjust the vibrating length of the wire by sliding the bridge B till the two sounds
appear alike.
4. For final adjustment, place a small paper rider R in the middle of wire AB. Sound the
tuning fork and place its shank stem on the bridge A or on the sonometer box. Slowly

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 Physics laboratory manual class XI

adjust the position of bridge B till the paper rider is agitated violently, which indicates
resonance.
5. The length of the wire between A and B is the resonant length such that its frequency
of vibration of the fundamental mode equals the frequency of the tuning fork.
Measure this length with the help of a meter scale.
6. Repeat the above procedures for other five tuning forks keeping the load on the
hanger unchanged. Plot a graph between n and l.
1
7. After calculating frequency, n of each tuning fork, plot a graph between n and 𝑙 where
l is the resonating length. Tension (constant) on the wire (weight suspended from the
hanger including its own weight) T =.......N
Observation: Tension on the wire T =… N

Frequency 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛3 𝑛4 𝑛5 𝑛6
n of tuning
fork (Hz)
Resonating
length l
(cm)
1
𝑙
𝑐𝑚 −1
nl (Hz cm)

Result: For a given tension, the resonant length of a given stretched string varies as reciprocal
of the frequency.

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 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Sonometer 8(b)
Aim: To study the relation between the length of a given wire and tension for constant
frequency using a sonometer.

Apparatus: Sonometer, six tuning forks of known frequencies, meter scale, rubber pad,
paper rider, hunger with half-kilogram weights, wooden bridges.

Principle: The frequency n of the fundamental mode of vibration of a string is given by

1 𝑇
𝑛 = 2𝑙 √𝑚

Where m = mass per unit length of the string.

l = length of the string between the wedges

T = Tension in the string (including the weight of the hunger) = Mg

M = mass suspended, including the mass of the hanger

(a) For a given m and fixed T.

1
𝑛∝ 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝑙

(b) If frequency n is constant, for a given wire (m is constant),

𝑇
√ 𝑙 Is constant 𝑙 2 ∝ 𝑇.

Graph:

Procedure:

1. Select a tuning fork of a certain frequency (say 256 Hz) and hang a load of 1kg from
the hanger. Find the resonant length as before.
2. Increase the load on the hanger in steps of 0.5 kg and each time find the resonating
length with the same tuning fork. Do it at least four loads.
3. Record your observations.
4. Plot graph between 𝑙 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇

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 Physics laboratory manual class XI
Observation: i) Frequency of tuning fork……..Hz

ii) Acceleration due to gravity, g = …….𝑚𝑠 −2

Tension applied T= Mg (including

weight of the hanger) (N)
Resonating length l of the wire
𝑙 2 (𝑐𝑚 2 )
𝑇
𝑙2
(𝑁𝑐𝑚 −2 )

Result: The graph of 𝑙 2 verses T is found to be a straight line.

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 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Experiment No: 9

Resonance Coloumn
Aim: To determine the velocity of sound in air at room temperature using a resonance tube.

Apparatus: Resonance tube apparatus, a tuning fork of known frequency (preferably of 480
Hz or 512 Hz), a rubber pad, a thermometer, spirit level, a set- square, beaker and water.

Procedure:

1. Set the resonance tube vertical with the help of a spirit level and leveling screws
provided at the bottom of the wooden base of the apparatus.
2. Note the room temperature with a thermometer.
3. Note the frequency v of given tuning fork.
4. Fix the reservoir to the highest point of the vertical rod with the help of clamp.

De-termination of first resonance position.

5. Fill the water in the reservoir such that the level of water in the tube reaches up to its
open end.
6. Close the pinch cock and lower down the position of reservoir on the vertical rod.
7. Gently strike the given tuning fork on a rubber pad and put it nearly one can above the
open end of the tube. Keep both the prongs of the tuning fork parallel to the ground
and lying one cm above the open end of the tube. Keep both the prongs of the tuning
fork parallel to the ground and lying one above the other so that the prongs vibrate in

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 Physics laboratory manual class XI

the vertical plane. Try to listen the sound being produced in the tube. It may not be
audible in this position.
8. Slowly loosen the pinch cock to let the water level fall in the tube very slowly. Keep
bringing the tuning fork near the open end of the resonance tube; notice the increasing
loudness of the sound.
9. Repeat steps 7 and 8 till you get the exact position of water level in the tube for which
the intensity of sound being produced in the tube is maximum. This corresponds to
the first resonance position or fundamental node, if the length of air column is
minimum. Close the pinch cock at this position and note the position of water level or
length l1 of air column in the tube. This is the determination of first resonance position
while the level of water is falling in the tube.
10. Repeat steps (5) to (9) to confirm the first resonance position.
11. Next find out the first resonance position by gradually raising the level of water in
resonance tube, and holding the vibrating tuning fork continuously on top of its open
end. Fix the tube at the position where the sound of maximum intensity is heard.
12. Determination of second Resonance position
13. Lower the position of the water level further in the resonance tube by sliding down
the position of reservoir on the vertical stand and opening the pinch cock till the
length of air column in the tube increases about three times of the length l1.
14. Find out the second resonance position and determine the length of air column l2 in
the tube with the same tuning fork having frequency v1 and confirm the length l2 by
taking four readings, two when the level of water is falling and the other two when the
level of water is rising in the tube.
15. Repeat steps (5) to (13) with a second tuning fork having frequency v2 and determine
the first and second resonance positions.
16. Calculate the velocity of sounds in each case.

Observation:

1. Frequency of first tuning fork, v1 = ......Hz

2. Frequency of second tuning fork, v2 = .......Hz

Tabular column:

Frequency of tuning Sl. no Length l1 for the first Length l2 for the second
fork used resonance position of the tube resonance position of the tube
Water Water Mean Water Water Mean
level is level is length l1 level is level is length l2
falling rising cm falling rising cm
V1 =......Hz 1.
2.
V2 =.......Hz 1.
2.

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 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Calculation:

1. For first tuning fork having frequency v1 =......Hz

2. Velocity of sound in air v1 = 2 v1 (l2-l1) =..... ms-1
3. For second tuning fork having frequency v2 =......Hz
4. Velocity of sound in air v2 = 2 v2 (l2-l1) =..... ms-1
5. Obtain the mean velocity v of sound in air.

Result:
𝑣1+𝑣2
The velocity of sound v in air at room temperature is = ⋯ 𝑚𝑠 −1
2

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 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Experiment No: 10
Beam balance
Aim: To determine mass of two different objects using a beam balance.

Apparatus: Beam balance, weight box with a set of milligram masses and forceps, spirit level and
two objects whose masses are to be determined.

Principle: The moment of force in the clockwise direction is equal to moment of force in
anticlockwise direction about the fulcrum when the beam is in equilibrium position.

Formula: The mass of object in one pan = the sum of the standard masses in the other pan when the
beam is balanced.

Procedure:

1. The balance is leveled by adjusting the leveling screws so that the plumb line is
vertical.
2. The screw nuts at the ends of the beam are to be shifted in or out till the pointer
swings equally on both sides of the central line of the scale.
3. The body whose mass is to be determined is then placed at the centre of the left pan.
Suitable standards masses including milligram masses are placed at the centre of the
right pan until the pointer swings equal or nearly equal number of divisions on either
side of the central zero mark in the scale.
4. In the equilibrium positions, the pointer comes to rest at the centre zero mark. The
door of the glass cover is closed to prevent disturbance due to air draughts. The
balance is arrested and masses are taken out from the right hand pan, one by one and
total mass is noted in the tabular column.
5. The experiment is repeated for two more times for the same object. The mean mass
𝑚1 is found.
6. Similarly the mass of second object is determined. The observation for the second
object is recorded in the tabular column. The mean mass 𝑚2 is found.

Note: Usually a physical balance is designed to measure masses up to 250g.

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 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Tabular column:

Object 1:

Trial no. Standard mass Mass of the object

Gram x in g Milligram y in [𝑥 + (𝑦 × 10−3 𝑖𝑛 𝑔)]
mg

Mean mass of the first object, 𝑚1 = ........g

Object 2:

Trial no. Standard mass Mass of the object

Gram x in g Milligram y in [𝑥 + (𝑦 × 10−3 𝑖𝑛 𝑔)]
mg

Mean mass of the second object, 𝑚2 = ........g

Result: The mass of the first given object, 𝑚1 = ..............gm = .........km.

The mass of the second given object, 𝑚2 = ..............gm = .........km.

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 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Experiment No: 11

Concurrent forces in equilibrium

Aim: To measure the weight of a given body (a wooden block) using the parallelogram law
of vector addition.

Apparatus: Given body with hook, parallelogram law of vector apparatus (Gravesand’s
apparatus), strong thread, slotted weights (two sets), white paper, thin mirror strip, sharp
pencil.

Principle: The parallelogram law of vector addition: When two forces act simultaneously at
a point and are represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent side of a
parallelogram, then the resultant force can be represented both in through the point of
application of the two forces.

Formula: The resultant of two forces P and Q is given by, 𝑅 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 + 2𝑃𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Where 𝜃 → angle between the two forces P and Q.

Procedure:

1. Gravesand’s apparatus board is fixed in a vertical position by using a plumb line and a
sheet of white paper is fixed on the wooden board with drawing pins.
2. Sufficiently long piece of thread is taken and tie the two hangers at its ends. Another
shorter thread is tied in the idle of the first thread to make a knot at ‘O’. The body of
unknown weights is tied at the other end of the shorter thread. They are arranged on
the pulleys as shown in the figure. With slotted weights on the hungers.
3. Weights are added to the hangers such that the junction ‘O’ of the thread is in
equilibrium in the lower half of the paper.
4. To take the direction of the force ⃗⃗⃗
𝑃, acting along a thread OP2 mirror strip is placed
below the thread on the paper. The position of the eye is adjusted such that there is no
parallax between the string and its image. The two points A1 and A2 at the edges of
the mirror where the image of the thread leaves the mirror are marked.

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 Physics laboratory manual class XI

5. Similarly, the direction of other two forces is 𝑄⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗

𝑅′ marked by points B1 and B2
and by points X1 and X2 along the threads OP1 and OX respectively.
6. The sheet is removed and the lines are drawn through each pair of points to meet at O.
𝑃, 𝑄⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗
These three lines represents the directions of ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑅′ .
⃗⃗⃗
7. A suitable scale is chosen and length OA and OB are cut off to represent the forces 𝑃
and 𝑄⃗ respectively acting at O. A parallelogram OACB is completed. Taking OA and
OB as adjacent sides.
8. The points O and C are joined. The length of OC measures the weight of the given
body. If OC is not along OD then extend OD meets BC at a point 𝐶 ′ . The angle CO𝐶 ′
is measured.
9. The experiment is repeated by suspending two different sets of weights. The mean
value of the unknown weight is calculated.

Observation:

1. Weight of the each hanger = ..........kg wt

2. Scales, S = 1cm = .................kg wt

Tabular column:

Trial no. Force P = wt of Force Q = wt Length Unknown Angle

the (hanger+ of the (hanger OC=L in cm weight = CO𝐶 ′
slotted weights) + slotted L×S in kg wt
weights)
P in kg OA Q in kg OA
wt in wt In
cm cm

Mean unknown weight = ...............kg wt

Result: weight of the given body is found to be ..............kg wt

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 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Experiment No: 12

Specific heat
Aim: To determine the specific heat capacity of a given solid and a liquid by the method of
mixture.

Apparatus: Copper calorimeter with lid, stirrer and insulating box, thermometer, metal piece,
beakers, physical balance, weight box, water and tripod stand and wire gauze.

Principle: Principle of calorimeter: When two bodies of different temperatures are bought in
thermal contact at thermal contact at thermal equilibrium the amount of heat lost by the body
at higher temperature is equal to the amount of heat gained by the body at lower temperature
provided that no heat is lost to the surrounding.

Diagram:

I. Specific heat capacity of a given solid by the method of mixtures:

Formula: Specific heat of the solid,

[(𝒎𝟐 −𝒎𝟏 )𝑺𝒘 +𝒎𝟏 𝑺𝒄 ](𝒕𝟑 −𝒕𝟏 )

𝑺𝒔 = 𝑱𝒌𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏
𝒎𝟑 (𝒕𝟐 −𝒕𝟑 )

Where 𝒎𝟏 − mass of the empty calorimeter with stirrer.

𝒎𝟐 − Mass of the calorimeter with water.

𝒎𝟑 − Mass of solid.

𝒕𝟏 − Initial temperature of the water.

𝒕𝟐 − Temperature of the solid in boiling water.

𝒕𝟑 − Temperature of mixture.

𝑺𝒄 − Specific heat capacity of material of calorimeter

𝑺𝒘 − Specific heat capacity of water.

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 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Procedure:

1. The physical balance is set and made sure there is no zero error.
2. The mass 𝑚1 of the calorimeter with stirrer is measured using physical balance.
3. The calorimeter is filled with water to 2/3rd of its volume and mass 𝑚2 is found.
4. Initial temperature 𝑡1 of water is noted using thermometer.
5. The solid is dipped in the beaker filled with water and taken out and shaken it well.
Then mass 𝑚3 of the solid is measured.
6. The solid is tied tightly by a thread at its midpoint and put in the water in a beaker.
7. The water is heated for about 10 minutes and the temperature 𝑡2 of hot water is noted.
8. The solid from hot water is taken out and shaken well and put in the water in
calorimeter covered with insulated box immediately. The water is stirred and the
temperature 𝑡3 of the mixture is noted when equilibrium is attained.
9. The specific heat capacity of the solid is calculated using the formula,
[(𝒎𝟐 −𝒎𝟏 )𝑺𝒘 +𝒎𝟏 𝑺𝒄 ](𝒕𝟑 −𝒕𝟏 )
𝑺𝒔 = 𝑱𝒌𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏
𝒎𝟑 (𝒕𝟐 −𝒕𝟑 )

Observation:

Laboratory temperature, t =................℃

Mass of the empty calorimeter with stirrer, 𝑚1 =............. × 10−3 𝑘𝑔

Mass of the calorimeter with water, 𝑚2 =............. × 10−3 𝑘𝑔

Mass of solid 𝑚3 =............. × 10−3 𝑘𝑔

Initial temperature of the water, 𝑡1 =............. ℃ .................K

Temperature of the solid in boiling water, 𝑡2 =............. ℃ .................K

Temperature of mixture, 𝑡3 =............. ℃ .................K

Specific heat capacity of material of calorimeter, 𝑆𝑐 =............. 𝐽𝑘𝑔 −1 𝐾 −1

Specific heat capacity of water, 𝑆𝑤 =............. 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1

Calculation:

1. Mass of the water in calorimeter,(𝑚1 − 𝑚1 ) = ............kg

2. Change in temperature of water and calorimeter, (𝑡3 − 𝑡1 ) = ............K
3. Change in temperature of solid, (𝑡2 − 𝑡3 ) = ............K

Result: The specific heat capacity of the given solid, 𝑆𝑠 =............. 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 within
experimental error.

II. Specific heat capacity of a given liquid by the method of mixtures:

Formula: Specific heat of the liquid,

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 Physics laboratory manual class XI
𝑺𝒔 𝒎𝟑 (𝒕𝟐 −𝒕𝟑 )−𝒎𝟏 𝑺𝒄 (𝒕𝟑 −𝒕𝟏 )
𝑺𝒍 = (𝒎𝟐 −𝒎𝟏 )(𝒕𝟑 −𝒕𝟏 )
𝑱𝒌𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏

Where 𝒎𝟏 − mass of the empty calorimeter with stirrer.

𝒎𝟐 − Mass of the calorimeter with water.

𝒎𝟑 − Mass of solid.

𝒕𝟏 − Initial temperature of the water.

𝒕𝟐 − Temperature of the solid in boiling water.

𝒕𝟑 − Temperature of mixture.

𝑺𝒄 − Specific heat capacity of material of calorimeter

𝑺𝒔 − Specific heat capacity of solid.

Procedure:

1. The physical balance is set and made sure there is no zero error.
2. The mass 𝑚1 of the calorimeter with stirrer is measured using physical balance.
3. The calorimeter is filled with water to 2/3rd of its volume and mass 𝑚2 is found.
4. Initial temperature 𝑡1 of water is noted using thermometer.
5. The metallic solid is dipped in the beaker filled with water and taken out and shaken it
well. Then mass 𝑚3 of the solid is measured.
6. The solid is tied tightly by a thread at its midpoint and put in the water in a beaker.
7. The water is heated for about 10 minutes and the temperature 𝑡2 of hot water is noted.
8. The solid from hot water is taken out and shaken well and put in the water in
calorimeter covered with insulated box immediately. The water is stirred and the
temperature 𝑡3 of the mixture is noted when equilibrium is attained.
9. The specific heat capacity of the solid is calculated using the formula,

Ss m3 (t2 −t3 )−m1 Sc(t3 −t1 )

Sl = (m2 −m1 )(t3 −t1 )
Jkg −1K −1

Observation:

Laboratory temperature, t =................℃

Mass of the empty calorimeter with stirrer, 𝑚1 =............. × 10−3 𝑘𝑔

Mass of the calorimeter with water, 𝑚2 =............. × 10−3 𝑘𝑔

Mass of solid 𝑚3 =............. × 10−3 𝑘𝑔

Initial temperature of the water, 𝑡1 =............. ℃ .................K

Temperature of the solid in boiling water, 𝑡2 =............. ℃ .................K

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 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Temperature of mixture, 𝑡3 =............. ℃ .................K

Specific heat capacity of material of calorimeter, 𝑆𝑐 =............. 𝐽𝑘𝑔 −1 𝐾 −1

Specific heat capacity of water, 𝑆𝑠 =............. 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1

Calculation:

1. Mass of the water in calorimeter,(𝑚1 − 𝑚1 ) = ............kg

2. Change in temperature of water and calorimeter, (𝑡3 − 𝑡1 ) = ............K
3. Change in temperature of solid, (𝑡2 − 𝑡3 ) = ............K

Formula: Specific heat of the liquid,

𝑺𝒔 𝒎𝟑 (𝒕𝟐 −𝒕𝟑 )−𝒎𝟏 𝑺𝒄 (𝒕𝟑 −𝒕𝟏 )

𝑺𝒍 = (𝒎𝟐 −𝒎𝟏 )(𝒕𝟑 −𝒕𝟏 )
𝑱𝒌𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏

Result: The specific heat capacity of the given solid, 𝑆𝑙 =............. 𝐽𝑘𝑔 −1 𝐾 −1 within
experimental error.

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 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Experiment No: 13
Newton’s Law of Cooling
Aim: To study the relationship between the temperature of a hot body and time by plotting a
cooling curve.
Apparatus: Newton’s law of cooling apparatus, two Celsius thermometers, a stop clock,
liquid (water).
Principle: The rate at which a hot body loses heat is directly proportional to the difference
between the temperature of the hot body and that of its surroundings and depends on the
nature of material and the surface area of the body. This is Newton’s law of cooling.
Diagram and Nature of graph

Procedure:
1. Find the least counts of thermometers T1 and T2. Take some water in a beaker and
measure its temperature (at room temperature θo) with one (sayT1) of the
thermometers.
2. Pour water into the double- walled container (enclosure) at room temperature. Insert
the other thermometer T2 in water contained in it, with the help of the clamp stand.
3. Heat some water separately to a temperature of about 40oC above the room
temperature θo. Pour hot water in calorimeter up to its top. Put the calorimeter, with
hot water, back in the enclosure and cover it with the lid having holes. Insert the
thermometer T1 and the stirrer in the calorimeter through the holes provided in the lid,
as shown in Fig.
4. Note the initial temperature of the water between enclosures of double wall with the
thermometer T2, when the difference of readings of two thermometers T 1 andT2 is
about 30oC. Note the initial reading of the thermometer T1.

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 Physics laboratory manual class XI

5. Keep on stirring the water gently and constantly. Note the reading of thermometer T1,
first after about every half a minute, then after about one minute and finally after two
minutes duration or so.
6. Keep on simultaneously noting the reading of the stop-watch and that of the
thermometer T1, while stirring water gently and constantly, till the temperature of
water in the calorimeter falls to a temperature of about 5 oC above that of the
enclosure. Note the temperature of the enclosure, by the thermometer T2.
7. Record observations in tabular form. Find the excess of temperature (θ- θo) for each
reading; Record these values in the corresponding columns in the table.
8. Plot a graph between time t, taken along x-axis and (θ- θo) taken along y-axis.
Interpret the graph.
Observation Table
Sl. No Time (t) in sec Temperature of hot Excess Temperature
water of hot water(θ- θo)°C
θ °C

Result: It is observed from the graph that the cooling curve is an exponential
Decay curve.

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 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Experiment No: 14
Co-Efficient of Static Friction
Aim: To study the relation between force of limiting friction and normal reaction and to find
the coefficient of friction between surface of a moving block and that of a horizontal surface.
Apparatus: A wooden block with a hook, a horizontal plane with a glass or laminated table
top a frictionless pulley , spirit level, a scale, pan, thread or string, weight box
Principle: The ratio of the magnitude of the limiting friction, FL, to the magnitude of the
normal force, R, is a constant known as the coefficient of limiting friction (μ L) for the given
pair of surfaces in contact.

Procedure:
1. Measure the mass (M) of the given wooden block with hooks on its sides and the
scale pan (m) with the help of the spring balance.
2. Fix a frictionless pulley on one edge of table-top as shown in fig .To ensure that the
table-top surface is horizontal use a spirit level.
3. Tie one end of a string of suitable length (in accordance with the size and the height
of the table) to a scale pan and tie its other end to the hook of the wooden block.
4. Put some mass (q) on the scale pan. Tap the table-top gently with your finger. Check
whether the wooden block starts moving
5. Keep on increasing the mass (q) on the scale pan till the wooden block just starts
moving on gently tapping the glass top. Record the total mass kept on the scale pan in
Table
6. Place some known mass (say p) on the top of wooden block and adjust the mass (q /)
on the scale pan so that the wooden block along with mass p just begins to slide on
gently tapping the table top. Record the values of p/ and q/
7. Repeat step 6 for three or four more values of p and record the corresponding values
of q
Diagram:

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 Physics laboratory manual class XI

Observations:
Mass of the scale pan, (m) = ... g
Mass of the wooden block (M) = ... g
Acceleration due to gravity (g) at the place of experiment= ... m/s2
Observation Table:
Sl. no Mass on Normal Mass on Force of Coefficient of Mean
the force R the pan limiting Friction 𝜇𝐿
wooden due (q) g friction
block to mass FL
(p) (g (M+p)
(g) (kg) N (g) (kg) (N)

Result
The value of coefficient of limiting friction μ L between surfaces of wooden block and the
table-top is……….

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