Baroque music

Baroque music (UK: /bəˈrɒk/ or US: /bəˈroʊk/) refers to

the period or dominant style of Western classical music
composed from about 1600 to 1750.[1] The Baroque
style followed the Renaissance period, and was
followed in turn by the Classical period after a short
transition (the galant style). The Baroque period is
divided into three major phases: early, middle, and late.
Overlapping in time, they are conventionally dated from
1580 to 1650, from 1630 to 1700, and from 1680 to
1750. Baroque music forms a major portion of the
"classical music" canon, and is widely studied,
performed, and listened to. The term "baroque" comes Painting by Evaristo Baschenis of Baroque
from the Portuguese word barroco, meaning "misshapen instruments, including a cittern, viola da gamba,
". [2] The works of , violin, and two lutes
pearl Antonio Vivaldi George
Frideric Handel and Johann Sebastian Bach are
considered the pinnacle of the Baroque period. Other
key composers of the Baroque era include Claudio Monteverdi, Domenico Scarlatti, Alessandro Scarlatti,
Alessandro Stradella, Tomaso Albinoni, Johann Pachelbel, Henry Purcell, Georg Philipp Telemann, Jean-
Baptiste Lully, Jean-Philippe Rameau, Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Arcangelo Corelli, François Couperin,
Johann Hermann Schein, Heinrich Schütz, Samuel Scheidt, Dieterich Buxtehude, Gaspar Sanz, José de
Nebra, Antonio Soler, Carlos Seixas and others.

The Baroque saw the creation of common-practice tonality, an approach to writing music in which a song
or piece is written in a particular key; this type of harmony has continued to be used extensively in Western
classical and popular music. During the Baroque era, professional musicians were expected to be
accomplished improvisers of both solo melodic lines and accompaniment parts. Baroque concerts were
typically accompanied by a basso continuo group (comprising chord-playing instrumentalists such as
harpsichordists and lute players improvising chords from a figured bass part) while a group of bass
instruments—viol, cello, double bass—played the bassline. A characteristic Baroque form was the dance
suite. While the pieces in a dance suite were inspired by actual dance music, dance suites were designed
purely for listening, not for accompanying dancers.

During the period composers experimented with finding a fuller sound for each instrumental part (thus
creating the orchestra),[2] made changes in musical notation (the development of figured bass as a quick
way to notate the chord progression of a song or piece), and developed new instrumental playing
techniques. Baroque music expanded the size, range, and complexity of instrumental performance, and also
established the mixed vocal/instrumental forms of opera, cantata and oratorio and the instrumental forms of
the solo concerto and sonata as musical genres. Dense, complex polyphonic music, in which multiple
independent melody lines were performed simultaneously (a popular example of this is the fugue), was an
important part of many Baroque choral and instrumental works. Overall, Baroque music was a tool for
expression and communication.[1]

Etymology and definition

The etymology of baroque is likely via the French baroque (which
originally meant a pearl of irregular shape), and from the
Portuguese barroco ("irregular pearl"); also related are the Spanish
barrueco and the Italian barocco. The term is of uncertain ultimate
origin, but possibly from Latin verrūca ("wart") or possibly from
Baroco, a technical term from scholastic logic.[3]

The term "baroque" is generally used by music historians to

describe a broad range of styles from a wide geographic region,
mostly in Europe, composed over a period of about 150 years.[1]
Though it was long thought that the word as a critical term was first
applied to architecture, in fact it appears earlier in reference to
music, in an anonymous, satirical review of the première in October
1733 of Rameau's Hippolyte et Aricie, printed in the Mercure de
France in May 1734. The critic implied that the novelty in this
opera was "du barocque", complaining that the music lacked Johann Sebastian Bach, 1748
coherent melody, was filled with unremitting dissonances,
constantly changed key and meter, and speedily ran through every
compositional device.[4]

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who was a musician and composer as well as philosopher, wrote in 1768 in the
Encyclopédie: "Baroque music is that in which the harmony is confused, and loaded with modulations and
dissonances. The singing is harsh and unnatural, the intonation difficult, and the movement limited. It
appears that term comes from the word 'baroco' used by logicians."[5] Rousseau was referring to the
philosophical term baroco, in use since the 13th century to describe a type of elaborate and, for some,
unnecessarily complicated academic argument.[6][7]

The systematic application by historians of the term "baroque" to music of this period is a relatively recent
development. In 1919, Curt Sachs became the first to apply the five characteristics of Heinrich Wölfflin's
theory of the Baroque systematically to music.[8] Critics were quick to question the attempt to transpose
Wölfflin's categories to music, however, and in the second quarter of the 20th century independent attempts
were made by Manfred Bukofzer (in Germany and, after his immigration, in America) and by Suzanne
Clercx-Lejeune (in Belgium) to use autonomous, technical analysis rather than comparative abstractions, in
order to avoid the adaptation of theories based on the plastic arts and literature to music. All of these efforts
resulted in appreciable disagreement about time boundaries of the period, especially concerning when it
began. In English the term acquired currency only in the 1940s, in the writings of Bukofzer and Paul Henry
Lang.[1]

As late as 1960, there was still considerable dispute in academic circles, particularly in France and Britain,
whether it was meaningful to lump together music as diverse as that of Jacopo Peri, Domenico Scarlatti, and
Johann Sebastian Bach under a single rubric. Nevertheless, the term has become widely used and accepted
for this broad range of music.[1] It may be helpful to distinguish the Baroque from both the preceding
(Renaissance) and following (Classical) periods of musical history.

History
Throughout the Baroque era, new developments in music originated in Italy, after which it took up to 20
years before they were broadly adopted in rest of the Western classical music practice. For instance, Italian
composers switched to the galant style around 1730, while German composers such as Johann Sebastian
Bach largely continued to write in the baroque style up to 1750.[9][10]
 Phases of Baroque music[9][10]
Subperiod Time In Italy Elsewhere
1580– Gabrieli · Monteverdi · M. Praetorius · Sweelinck · O. Gibbons ·
Early baroque
1650 Frescobaldi Schütz

Middle 1630–
Carissimi · Legrenzi Lully · Biber · Buxtehude · Purcell · Pachelbel
baroque 1700

1680–
Late baroque Corelli · Vivaldi · Pergolesi Telemann · Rameau · Handel · J. S. Bach
1750

Early baroque music (1580–1650)

The Florentine Camerata was a group of humanists, musicians,

poets and intellectuals in late Renaissance Florence who gathered
under the patronage of Count Giovanni de' Bardi to discuss and
guide trends in the arts, especially music and drama. In reference to
music, they based their ideals on a perception of Classical
(especially ancient Greek) musical drama that valued discourse and
oration.[11] Accordingly, they rejected their contemporaries' use of
polyphony (multiple, independent melodic lines) and instrumental
music, and discussed such ancient Greek music devices as monody,
which consisted of a solo singing accompanied by a kithara (an
ancient strummed string instrument).[12] The early realizations of
these ideas, including Jacopo Peri's Dafne and L'Euridice, marked
the beginning of opera,[13] which was a catalyst for Baroque
music.[14]
Claudio Monteverdi in 1640
Concerning music theory, the more widespread use of figured bass
(also known as thorough bass) represents the developing
importance of harmony as the linear underpinnings of polyphony.[15] Harmony is the end result of
counterpoint, and figured bass is a visual representation of those harmonies commonly employed in musical
performance. With figured bass, numbers, accidentals or symbols were placed above the bassline that was
read by keyboard instrument players such as harpsichord players or pipe organists (or lutenists). The
numbers, accidentals or symbols indicated to the keyboard player what intervals are to be played above
each bass note. The keyboard player would improvise a chord voicing for each bass note.[16] Composers
began concerning themselves with harmonic progressions,[17] and also employed the tritone, perceived as
an unstable interval,[18] to create dissonance (it was used in the dominant seventh chord and the diminished
chord). An interest in harmony had also existed among certain composers in the Renaissance, notably Carlo
Gesualdo;[19] However, the use of harmony directed towards tonality (a focus on a musical key that
becomes the "home note" of a piece), rather than modality, marks the shift from the Renaissance into the
Baroque period.[20] This led to the idea that certain sequences of chords, rather than just notes, could
provide a sense of closure at the end of a piece—one of the fundamental ideas that became known as
tonality.

By incorporating these new aspects of composition, Claudio Monteverdi furthered the transition from the
Renaissance style of music to that of the Baroque period. He developed two individual styles of
composition—the heritage of Renaissance polyphony (prima pratica) and the new basso continuo technique
of the Baroque (seconda pratica). With basso continuo, a small group of musicians would play the bassline
and the chords which formed the accompaniment for a melody. The basso continuo group would typically
use one or more keyboard players and a lute player who would play the bassline and improvise the chords
and several bass instruments (e.g., bass viola, cello, double bass) which would play the bassline. With the
writing of the operas L'Orfeo and L'incoronazione di Poppea among others, Monteverdi brought
considerable attention to this new genre.[21] This Venetian style was taken handily to Germany by Heinrich
Schütz, whose diverse style also evolved into the subsequent period.

Idiomatic instrumental textures became increasingly prominent. In particular, the style luthé—the irregular
and unpredictable breaking up of chordal progressions, in contrast to the regular patterning of broken
chords—referred to since the early 20th century as style brisé, was established as a consistent texture in
French music by Robert Ballard,[22][23] in his lute books of 1611 and 1614, and by Ennemond Gaultier.[24]
This idiomatic lute figuration was later transferred to the harpsichord, for example in the keyboard music of
Louis Couperin and Jean-Henri D'Anglebert, and continued to be an important influence on keyboard
music throughout the 18th and early 19th centuries (in, for example, the music of Johann Sebastian Bach
and Frédéric Chopin).[23]

Middle baroque music (1630–1700)

The rise of the centralized court is one of the economic and political features of what is often labelled the
Age of Absolutism, personified by Louis XIV of France. The style of palace, and the court system of
manners and arts he fostered became the model for the rest of Europe. The realities of rising church and
state patronage created the demand for organized public music, as the increasing availability of instruments
created the demand for chamber music, which is music for a small ensemble of instrumentalists.[25]

One pre-eminent example of a court style composer is Jean-Baptiste

Lully. He purchased patents from the monarchy to be the sole
composer of operas for the French king and to prevent others from
having operas staged. He completed 15 lyric tragedies and left
unfinished Achille et Polyxène.[26] Lully was an early example of a
conductor; he would beat the time with a large staff to keep his
ensembles together.

Musically, he did not establish the string-dominated norm for

orchestras, which was inherited from the Italian opera, and the
characteristically French five-part disposition (violins, violas—in
hautes-contre, tailles and quintes sizes—and bass violins) had been
used in the ballet from the time of Louis XIII. He did, however,
introduce this ensemble to the lyric theatre, with the upper parts
often doubled by recorders, flutes, and oboes, and the bass by
Jean-Baptiste Lully by Paul Mignard
bassoons. Trumpets and kettledrums were frequently added for
heroic scenes.[26]

The middle Baroque period in Italy is defined by the emergence of the vocal styles of cantata, oratorio, and
opera during the 1630s, and a new concept of melody and harmony that elevated the status of the music to
one of equality with the words, which formerly had been regarded as pre-eminent. The florid, coloratura
monody of the early Baroque gave way to a simpler, more polished melodic style. These melodies were
built from short, cadentially delimited ideas often based on stylized dance patterns drawn from the
sarabande or the courante. The harmonies, too, might be simpler than in the early Baroque monody, to
show expression in a lighter manner on the string and crescendos and diminuendos on longer notes. The
accompanying bass lines were more integrated with the melody, producing a contrapuntal equivalence of
the parts that later led to the device of an initial bass anticipation of the aria melody. This harmonic
simplification also led to a new formal device of the differentiation of recitative (a more spoken part of
opera) and aria (a part of opera that used sung melodies). The most important innovators of this style were
the Romans Luigi Rossi and Giacomo Carissimi, who were primarily composers of cantatas and oratorios,
respectively, and the Venetian Francesco Cavalli, who was principally an opera composer. Later important
practitioners of this style include Antonio Cesti, Giovanni Legrenzi, and Alessandro Stradella, who
additionally originated the concerto grosso style in his Sonate di viole.[27]

Arcangelo Corelli is remembered as influential for his achievements on the other side of musical technique
—as a violinist who organized violin technique and pedagogy—and in purely instrumental music,
particularly his advocacy and development of the concerto grosso.[28] Whereas Lully was ensconced at
court, Corelli was one of the first composers to publish widely and have his music performed all over
Europe. As with Lully's stylization and organization of the opera, the concerto grosso is built on strong
contrasts—sections alternate between those played by the full orchestra, and those played by a smaller
group. Fast sections and slow sections were juxtaposed against each other. Numbered among his students is
Antonio Vivaldi, who later composed hundreds of works based on the principles in Corelli's trio sonatas
and concerti.[28]

In contrast to these composers, Dieterich Buxtehude was not a creature of court but instead was church
musician, holding the posts of organist and Werkmeister at the Marienkirche at Lübeck. His duties as
Werkmeister involved acting as the secretary, treasurer, and business manager of the church, while his
position as organist included playing for all the main services, sometimes in collaboration with other
instrumentalists or vocalists, who were also paid by the church. Entirely outside of his official church duties,
he organised and directed a concert series known as the Abendmusiken, which included performances of
sacred dramatic works regarded by his contemporaries as the equivalent of operas.[29]

France:

Denis Gaultier[30]
Jean-Henri d'Anglebert[31]
Jacques Champion de Chambonnières[32]
Louis Couperin[33]

Late baroque music (1680–1750)

The work of George Frideric Handel, Johann Sebastian Bach and their contemporaries, including
Domenico Scarlatti, Antonio Vivaldi, Tomaso Albinoni, Jean-Philippe Rameau, Georg Philipp Telemann,
and others advanced the Baroque era to its climax,[34] the High Baroque.

Onset

Italy:

Alessandro Scarlatti (Neapolitan School, Neapolitan mass)

Arcangelo Corelli (Trio sonata, Concerto grosso, La Folia)
Giuseppe Torelli (Solo concerto)

France:

Henri Dumont
Pierre Robert
François Couperin
 André Campra
Michel-Richard Delalande
Marc-Antoine Charpentier
Henri Desmarest
Marin Marais
Jean Féry Rebel

Wider adoption

Italy:

Giovanni Bononcini
Antonio Vivaldi
Tomaso Albinoni
Benedetto Marcello
Francesco Geminiani
George Frideric Handel
Pietro Locatelli
Giovanni Battista Pergolesi
Nicola Porpora
Giuseppe Tartini
Francesco Maria Veracini

Proliferation:

Erdmann Neumeister
Estienne Roger, L'estro armonico
Visiting Italy, e.g. Johann Kuhnau, Johann David
Heinichen, Gottfried Heinrich Stölzel
Italians abroad, e.g. Domenico Scarlatti, Antonio
Caldara, Antonio Lotti, Pietro Torri

France:

Jean-Philippe Rameau Marc-Antoine Charpentier

Jean-Marie Leclair
Jean Joseph de Mondonville
Jean-Baptiste Senaillé
Joseph Bodin de Boismortier
Michel Corrette
French abroad: e.g. Louis Marchand

Central Europe:

Johann Georg Pisendel

Georg Philipp Telemann
Johann Sebastian Bach
Johann Friedrich Fasch
Jan Dismas Zelenka
 Johann Joseph Fux
Johann Pachelbel
Christoph Graupner
Johann David Heinichen
Sylvius Leopold Weiss
Germans abroad, e.g. George Frideric Handel, Johann Adolf Scheibe

Transition to Classical era

Galant music:

Johann Mattheson
Jean-Marie Leclair
Johann Joachim Quantz
Johann Adolph Hasse
Carl Heinrich Graun
Giovanni Battista Sammartini
Baldassare Galuppi

Bach's elder sons and pupils:

Wilhelm Friedemann Bach

Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (empfindsamer Stil)
Johann Gottlieb Goldberg[35]

Mannheim school:
 Johann Stamitz

Timeline of composers
Instruments

Strings
Violino piccolo
Violin
Viol
Viola
Viola d'amore
Viola pomposa
Tenor violin
Cello
Violone
Bass violin
Contrabass
Lute
Theorbo
Double-manual harpsichord by Vital
Archlute
Julian Frey, after Jean-Claude
Mandora Goujon (1749)
Bandora
Angélique
Mandolin
Cittern
Guitar
Harp
Hurdy-gurdy

Woodwinds
Baroque flute
Chalumeau
Cortol (also known as Cortholt, Curtall, Oboe family)
Dulcian
Musette de cour
Baroque oboe
Rackett
Recorder
 Bassoon

Brass
Cornett
Natural horn
Baroque trumpet
Tromba da tirarsi (also called tromba spezzata)
Flatt trumpet
Serpent
Sackbut (16th- and early 17th-century English
name for FR: saquebute, saqueboute; ES:
sacabuche; IT: trombone; MHG: busaun, busîne,
busune / DE (since the early 17th century)
Posaune)
Trombone (English name for the same instrument,
from the early 18th century)

Keyboards Individual sheet music for a seventeenth-

[36]
century harp.
Clavichord
Tangent piano
Fortepiano – an early version of the piano invented c. 1700, but did not become popular
during Baroque era
Harpsichord
Organ

Percussion
Timpani
Tambourine
Castanets

Styles and forms

Dance suite

A characteristic of the Baroque form was the dance suite. Some dance suites by Bach are called partitas,
although this term is also used for other collections of pieces. While the pieces in a dance suite were
inspired by actual dance music, dance suites were intended for listening, not for accompanying dancers.
Composers used a variety of different movements in their dance suites. A dance suite commonly has these
movements:

Overture – The Baroque suite often began with a French overture ("Ouverture" in French), a
slow movement followed by a succession of principally four different types of dances:
 Allemande – Often the first dance of an instrumental
suite, the allemande was a very popular dance that
had its origins in the German Renaissance era. The
allemande was played at a moderate tempo and
could start on any beat of the bar.[37]
Courante – The second dance is the courante, a
lively, French dance in triple meter. The Italian
version is called the corrente.
Sarabande – The sarabande, a Spanish dance, is
the third of the four basic dances, and is one of the
slowest of the baroque dances. It is also in triple
meter and can start on any beat of the bar, although A large instrumental ensemble's
there is an emphasis on the second beat, creating performance in the lavish Teatro
the characteristic 'halting', or iambic rhythm of the Argentina, as depicted by Panini (1747)
sarabande.[37]
Gigue – The gigue is an upbeat and lively baroque
dance in compound meter, typically the concluding movement of an instrumental suite, and
the fourth of its basic dance types. The gigue can start on any beat of the bar and is easily
recognized by its rhythmic feel. The gigue originated in the British Isles. Its counterpart in folk
music is the jig.[37]

The four dance types (allemande, courante, sarabande, and gigue) make up the majority of 17th-century
suites. Later suites interpolate one or more additional dances between the sarabande and gigue:

Gavotte – The gavotte can be identified by its 4 4 time which always starts on the third beat of
the bar, although it sometimes sound like the first beat, as the first and third beats are the
strong beats in quadruple time. The gavotte is played at a moderate tempo, though in some
cases it may be played faster.
Bourrée – The bourrée is similar to the gavotte as it is in 22 time, although it starts on the
second half of the last beat of the bar, creating a different feel to the dance. The bourrée is
commonly played at a moderate tempo, although for some composers, such as Handel, it
can be taken at a much faster tempo.[2]
Minuet – The minuet is perhaps the best-known of the baroque dances in triple meter. It does
not have an anacrusis. In some suites there may be a Minuet I and II, played in succession,
with the Minuet I repeated but without the internal repeats.
Passepied – The passepied is a fast dance in binary form and triple meter that originated as
a court dance in Brittany.[38] Examples can be found in later suites such as those of Bach
and Handel.
Rigaudon – The rigaudon is a lively French dance in duple meter, similar to the bourrée, but
rhythmically simpler. It originated as a family of closely related southern-French folk dances,
traditionally associated with the provinces of Vavarais, Languedoc, Dauphiné, and
Provence.[39]

There are many other dance forms as well as other pieces that could be included in a suite, such as
Polonaise, Loure, Scherzo, Air, etc.

Other features
Prelude – a suite might be started by a prelude, a slow piece written in an improvisatory
style. Some Baroque preludes were not fully written out; instead, a sequence of chords were
indicated, with the expectation that the instrumentalist would be able to improvise a melodic
part using the indicated harmonic framework. The prelude was not based on a type of dance.
 Entrée – Sometimes an entrée is composed as part of a suite; but there it is purely
instrumental music and no dance is performed. It is an introduction, a march-like piece
played during the entrance of a dancing group, or played before a ballet. Usually in 4
4 time. It
is related to the Italian 'intrada'.
Basso continuo – a kind of continuous accompaniment notated with a new music notation
system, figured bass, usually for one or more sustaining bass instruments (e.g., cello) and
one or more chord-playing instruments (e.g., keyboard instruments such as harpsichord, pipe
organ or lute)
The concerto (a solo piece with orchestral accompaniment) and concerto grosso
Monody – an outgrowth of song
Homophony – music with one melodic voice and rhythmically similar (and subordinate)
chordal accompaniment (this and monody are contrasted with the typical Renaissance
texture, polyphony)[40]
Dramatic musical forms like opera, dramma per musica[41]
Combined instrumental-vocal forms, such as the oratorio and cantata,[41] both of which used
singers and orchestra
New instrumental techniques, like tremolo and pizzicato[41]
The da capo aria "enjoyed sureness".
The ritornello aria – repeated short instrumental interruptions of vocal passages.[42]
The concertato style – contrast in sound between groups of instruments.[43]
Extensive ornamentation,[44] which was typically improvised by singers and instrumentalists
(e.g., trills, mordents, etc.)

Genres

Vocal
Opera
Singspiel
Ballad opera
Semi-opera
Zarzuela
Intermezzo
Opera buffa
Opera seria
Opéra comique
Opera-ballet
Tragédie en musique
Ballet de cour
Masque
Oratorio
Passion (music)
Cantata
Mass (music)
Anthem
 Monody
Chorale

Instrumental
Chorale composition
Concerto
Concerto grosso
Fugue
Suite
Allemande
Courante
Sarabande
Gigue
Gavotte
Minuet
Sonata
Sonata da camera
Sonata da chiesa
Trio sonata
Partita
Canzona
Sinfonia
Fantasia
Ricercar
Toccata
Prelude
Chaconne
Passacaglia
Chorale prelude
Stylus fantasticus

Notes
1. Palisca 2001.
2. Mackay & Romanec 2007.
3. "baroque – Wiktionary" (https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/baroque). en.wiktionary.org. Retrieved
13 September 2021.
4. Palisca 1989, pp. 7–8.
5. Encyclopedie; Lettre sur la Musique Francaise under the direction of Denis Diderot
6. Antoine Arnauld, Pierre Nicole, La logique ou l'art de penser, Part Three, chapter VI (1662)
(in French)
7. "BAROQUE : Etymologie de BAROQUE" (http://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/baroque).
www.cnrtl.fr. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
8. Sachs 1919, pp. 7–15.
 9. Bukofzer 1947, pp. 17ff.
10. Bukofzer 2013, "The Phases of Baroque Music" pp. 26–29 (https://books.google.com/books?
id=dzV9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT26).
11. Nuti 2007, p. 14.
12. Wallechinsky 2007, p. 445.
13. Chua 2001, p. 26.
14. Wainwright and Holman 2005, p. 4.
15. Clarke 1898, pp. 147–48.
16. Haagmans 1916, p. vi.
17. York 1909, p. 109.
18. Donington 1974, p. 156.
19. Watkins 1991, p. 103.
20. Norton 1984, p. 24.
21. Carter & Chew 2011.
22. Rollin & Ledbetter 2001.
23. Ledbetter 2001.
24. Rollin 2001a.
25. Sadie 2013.
26. La Gorce 2001.
27. Bukofzer 1947, pp. 118–21.
28. Talbot 2001a.
29. Snyder 2001.
30. Rollin 2001b.
31. Ledbetter & Harris 2014.
32. Fuller 2001.
33. Fuller & Gustafson 2001.
34. Sadie 2002.
35. Dürr 1954.
36. "Muziek voor barokharp" (https://lib.ugent.be/viewer/archive.ugent.be:F10D9E4E-7E68-11E
5-B44A-58F8D43445F2#?c=&m=&s=&cv=&xywh=-3926,0,12970,7241). lib.ugent.be.
Retrieved 27 August 2020.
37. Estrella 2012.
38. Little 2001a.
39. Little 2001b.
40. Hyer 2013.
41. Shotwell 2002.
42. Talbot 2001b.
43. Carver 2013.
44. Roseman 1975.

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ive.org/details/musicinbaroqueer0000buko). New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-09745-5.
Bukofzer, Manfred F. (2013). Music in the Baroque Era – From Monteverdi to Bach (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=dzV9CgAAQBAJ) (digital ed.). Read Books. ISBN 978-1-4474-
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Carter, Tim; Chew, Geoffrey (2011). "Monteverdi [Monteverde], Claudio". Grove Music Online
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Dictionary of Music and Musicians (2nd ed.). London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-56159-239-5.
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Little, Meredith Ellis (2001b). "Rigaudon". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and
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Further reading
Christensen, Thomas Street, and Peter Dejans. Towards Tonality Aspects of Baroque Music
Theory. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2007. ISBN 978-90-5867-587-3
Cyr, Mary. Essays on the Performance of Baroque Music Opera and Chamber Music in
France and England. Variorum collected studies series, 899. Aldershot, Hants, England:
Ashgate, 2008. ISBN 978-0-7546-5926-6
Foreman, Edward. A Bel Canto Method, or, How to Sing Italian Baroque Music Correctly
Based on the Primary Sources. Twentieth century masterworks on singing, v. 12.
Minneapolis, Minn: Pro Musica Press, 2006. ISBN 978-1-887117-18-0
Fux, Johann Joseph; Mann, Alfred; Edmunds, John (1965). The Study of Counterpoint from
Johann Joseph Fux's Gradus ad parnassum. New York: W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-
00277-2. OCLC 494781 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/494781).
Grout, Donald J.; Claude V. Palisca (1996). A History of Western Music. New York: W. W.
Norton.
Hebson, Audrey (2012). "Dance and Its Importance in Bach's Suites for Solo Cello", Musical
Offerings: Vol. 1: No. 2, Article 2. Available at
http://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/musicalofferings/vol1/iss2/2.
Hoffer, Brandi (2012). "Sacred German Music in the Thirty Years' War", Musical Offerings:
Vol. 3: No. 1, Article 1. Available at
http://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/musicalofferings/vol3/iss1/1.
Schubert, Peter, and Christoph Neidhöfer. Baroque Counterpoint. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006. ISBN 978-0-13-183442-2
Schulenberg, David. Music of the Baroque. New York: Oxford UP, 2001. ISBN 978-0-19-
512232-9
Stauffer, George B. The World of Baroque Music New Perspectives. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-253-34798-5
Strunk, Oliver. Source Readings in Music History. From Classical Antiquity to the Romantic
Era. London: Faber & Faber, 1952.

External links
Handel's Harpsichord Room – free recordings of harpsichord music of the Baroque era (htt
p://www.saladelcembalo.org/)
Renaissance & Baroque Music Chronology (https://web.archive.org/web/20070208215140/h
ttp://plato.acadiau.ca/courses/musi/callon/2233/ch-comp.htm): Composers
Orpheon Foundation (http://www.orpheon.org/) in Vienna, Austria
Free scores by various baroque composers at the International Music Score Library Project
(IMSLP)
Music, Affect and Fire (https://web.archive.org/web/20090319233101/http://etd.lib.fsu.edu/the
ses/available/etd-11172003-033041/unrestricted/02_smp_fire1.pdf): Thesis on Affect Theory
with Fire as the special topic
Répertoire International des Sources Musicales (RISM) (http://www.rism.info), a free,
searchable database of worldwide locations for music manuscripts up to c. 1800.

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