MODULE-1: LIVESTOCK IN INDIA

Learning outcomes

 On completion of this course, the learner will be able to understand

the association of livestock to Indian society during different era and
the contribution of livestock to man and deals in detail the role of
animal husbandry and also the species wise livestock population in
the country.

INTRODUCTION

 Dairy animals produce milk by converting the crop residues and by

products from crops which otherwise would be wasted.
 Dairy sector contributes by way of cash income; draught power and
manure.
 Livestock farming is an integral part of crop production and
contributes substantially to the household nutritional security and
poverty alleviation through increased household income.
 The returns from livestock especially dairying and mixed farming in
small and medium holdings are larger and highly sustainable.
 The progress in this sector results in more balanced development of
the rural economy and improvement in economic status of poor
people associated with livestock.
 One fifth of the world’s livestock population is in India and 70 per
cent of the livestock are owned by 67 percent of small and marginal
farmers.
 India has nearly 57 % of the world’s buffalo population, 16% of the
cattle population, 20% of goat population and 5 % of sheep
population although India constitutes less than 3 % of the worlds
total land area. 76 per cent of the milk is produced by weaker sections
of society.

VEDIC PERIOD

 The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period during which the Vedas,
the oldest sacred texts of the Indo-Aryans, were being composed.
 Scholars place the Vedic period in the second and first millennia BC
continuing up to the 6th century BC based on literary evidence.
 During the Vedic Period, Cattle were considered as wealth. The
economy was based on bartering with Cattle and other valuables such
as salt or metals.
 Cattle were held in high esteem and frequently appear in Rig Vedic
hymns. Goddesses were often compared to Cows and Gods to Bulls.
 The kshatriyas amassed wealth (Cattle). The vaishyas were pastoralist
and farmers.
 The people of the early phase of the Vedic age were semi-nomadic
and subsisted on large herds of domesticated cattle and farm animals.
 They moved their settlements from one pastoral area to another and
lived on agrarian and dairy products obtained from cattle.
 As the requirements and needs of these communities grew with the
gradual rise in population, they settled down as full-time farmers.
 They brought large tracts of fertile lands of North India under the
plough, driven by Oxen.

MEDIEVAL PERIOD

 The term “medieval” comes from Latin meaning “middle age”. There
was a sizeable Animal Husbandry sector during the medieval period.
 Inscriptions of the 9th and 10th centuries refer to buffaloes, oxen and
milch cows in small hamlets and villages.
 The King, the monasteries and individuals all owned buffalo and
cattle.
 Buffaloes were hired in the medieval period. Cattle trade was
prominent. There are medieval references to the rearing of pigs, goats
and poultry.
 Goats were bred for butter, meat and milk.
 Fowls for their eggs and flesh. Cows were bred solely for milk. Beef
eating was forbidden and considered abominable.
  Cattle were branded with identification marks to indicate ownership.
Some herds consisted of more than a thousand animals.
 There were communal grazing found and indigenous Veterinary
medicines for the cattle.
 The cowherd was expected to know the exact number of cattle he was
looking after.
 He was expected to take cattle to the same spot only once in five or
seven days, to allow new grass to grow in pasture lands.
 Buddhagosha (5th century) referred to techniques of cattle rearing.
 The 5th century Pali commentary, Papancasudani, described the
manner in which a cow should be milked to obtain the amount of
milk.
 Cattle hides were used for foot wear, horns for making ornamental
items.

MODERN-ERA

 In the modern era, progress in the art and science of breeding,

feeding, health, and care of livestock continues to bring gains in
livestock productivity and efficiency.
 The modern Indian livestock system is the endeavor of small holders.
 As a result of gradual transition from subsistence to market system,
the economic dimensions of livestock keeping have assumed
increasing significance in house hold behaviour.
 Over 70% of the rural house holds in India depend on livestock
farming for supplementary income.
 The sector is highly gender sensitive and over 90% of activities
related to care and Management of livestock are carried out by
family’s women folk.

SMALL HOLDER CATTLE FARM SMALL HOLDER BUFFALO FARM

SMALL HOLDER GOAT FARM SMALL HOLDER SHEEP FARM

 LIVESTOCK IN INDIA

 India has vast resource of livestock and poultry, which play a vital
role in improving the socio-economic conditions of the rural masses.
 There is no other country in the world having varied domestic animal
biodiversity like India . India has the largest livestock populations in
the world.
 It has 57 percent of the world’s buffalo population and 16 percent of
the cattle population.
 It ranks first in respect of cattle and buffalo population, third in sheep
and second in goat population in the world.
 The livestock population shows high degree of diversity in its
composition. Out of total livestock in the country, 38.2 percent are
cattle, 20.2 percent are buffaloes, 12.7 percent are sheep, 25.6 percent
are goats and only 2.8 percent are pigs. All other animals are less
than 0.50 percent of the total livestock. The country has 97.92 million
buffalo population.
 As per the figures of 2003 livestock census India has 185.18 million
cattle out of which 24.68 million were crossbred.
 The states of Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra , Kerala, Uttar Pradesh,
Karnataka and Punjab account for about 60 per cent of the crossbred
cattle population.
 Total export earnings from livestock, poultry and related products
was Rs. 5,120 crore in 2004-05, of which leather accounted for Rs.
2,660 crore and meat and meat products for Rs. 1,720 crore. The
livestock sector produced 90.7 MT of milk, 45.2 billion eggs, 2.12 MT
of meat and 44.5 million kg of wool in 2004-05.

The species-wise breakup of livesock population in India

 According to the National Council of Applied Economic Research

(NCAER) cattle, dung in India has a fuel value equivalent to 35
million tonnes of coal or 68 million tonnes of wood.
  An estimated one-third of the dung, amounting to some 300 million
tonnes, is used as fuel in rural houses. Another 340 million tonnes go
back to the soil as organic fertilizer.
 The available energy from animal power is estimated at around
60,000 million kilo watt hours, valued at between Rs. 60,000 and
100,000 million form 70 million bullocks, 8 million buffaloes and
one million horses and another million camels.
 To generate this amount of energy by modern industrial process
would cost three times as much.
 Thus in modern - era livestock not only produces the protein rich
food for human beings ( milk, meet and egg) but also provides
sustainable income to the rural poor through draught power, fuel and
provides the only natural organic manure the dung for sustainable
agriculture. (Click here to view animation "Livestock Farming
Zones")

ROLE OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY/LIVESTOCK

Animal husbandry plays an important role in augmenting rural income,

health and employment as follows,

 Provides food like milk, meat and other value added products, thus
preventing poverty and helping to have self-sufficiency in food
security.
 Provides valuable organic manure for agriculture, thus improving soil
fertility and productivity.
 Provides draught animal power for different agricultural operations
and also for transportation, thus helping to conserve fossil fuel.
 Provides a platform for ensuring sustainability (biological and
economic), thus bringing about a change in the social status (society).
 Provides skin and hides for leather products, thus helping to make
additional income and earn foreign exchange.
 Provides other byproducts like hoof and horns, thus promoting rural
handicraft industries.
 Provides wool and other natural fibres of importance, thus helping to
improve income and promote industrial growth.
 Provides blood as a byproduct, thus helping to produce haematinics
and other pharmacological products
 Provides gainful rural employment for many people, thus helping to
have full-time self employment.
 Provides a means of storing wealth and also a way to meet social
obligations, thus helping to have security and overcome difficult
times
 Provides a means of controlling weeds by grazing, thus helping to
keep the premises clean
  Overall, Animal husbandry can be considered as a major instrument
for effecting a desirable change in the society.

CONTRIBUTION OF LIVESTOCK TO MAN

1 Food Milk, Meat, Eggs

2 Fiber Wool, Hair
3 Skin Hide, Pelt
4 Traction Power for agricultural, irrigation, transportation
5 Wastes Fertilizer, Fuel, Cooking gas, Animal feed
6 Storage Storage of food, Capital, Wealth
7 Weed control Biological control of weeds / bushes
8 Cultural Security, Self-esteem, Status symbol
9 Sports/recreation Competition, Exhibition, Companion
10 By-products Bone meal, Blood meal
11 Experimentation Testing of drugs, Vaccines, Manufacture of sera,
toxoid
12 Security Use of dogs in Police, Guarding
13 AFT Use of dogs, other pets
 MODULE-2: DEMOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION AND
LIVESTOCK POPULATION

Learning outcomes

At the end of this course one can have fair knowledge about

 The present status of cattle and buffalo production activity in India

 Care and management of cattle and buffalos
 The role of dairying in improving the rural economy and bringing
social equality among the farming sector

CLASSIFICATION OF REGIONS

 On the basis of rainfall, temperature and soil type which influence the
quality of livestock, the country can be divided into five animal
husbandry regions.
o Temperate Himalayan region
o Dry northern region
o North eastern region
o Southern region
o Coastal region

TEMPERATE HIMALAYAN REGION

 It comprise of the mountainous areas of Assam, West Bengal, Uttar

Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir. In this
region the rain fall is high and there are snow and frost during winter.
 The livestock are mainly raised on pastures and the animals are
moved to high altitude and to the foot-hills depending upon the
season.
 Cattle are non-descript and are low in productivity.
 Sheep and goat are the principal domestic animals and wool is the
main source of income.

DRY NORTHERN REGION

 It comprises the plains of Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan and part

of Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh.
 Dry atmosphere is very ideal for the development of livestock. The
home tract of most of the important breeds of buffalo such as
Murrah, Nili Ravi, Surti and Jaffarabadi breeds lies in this region.
Cattle breeds such as Haryana, Malvi, Kankrej, Tharparkar, and Gir
are present in this region.
  The famous milch breeds such as Sahiwal, Red Sindhi had their home
tract in this region. Sheep breeds of this region gives mutton and
carpet wool.
 Camel are found exclusively in this region. Horses and donkey found
in this region are of good quality.
 Wheat straw is found in abundance and cultivation of fodder crop is
commonly found in this region. Hence livestock in this region are
well fed and produce more than that of other regions.

NORTH EASTERN REGION

 It comprises plains of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, eastern U.P and part of

Assam and northeastern states.
 The rainfall is above 125 cm. Rice is the main cereal crop and it is the
staple food for animals of the region.
 The cattle and buffalo of this region are of poor quality and are non-
descript and less productive.
 Few varieties of sheep and goat are reared for meat purpose. Pigs are
important farm animal in this region.

SOUTHERN REGION

 It comprises of parts of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra

Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka States. Rainfall is generally low
and atmosphere is generally humid.
 Most of the land is under millets cultivation and it also provides dry
fodder to animals. Important draught breeds of cattle like Amrit
mahal, Hallikar, Kangayam and Ongole are reared in this region.
There are many number of sheep than any other region in the country
and are mainly reared for mutton and skins.
 The famous Nellore and Bannur breeds of mutton sheep belong to
this region. This is the main sheep tract in the country.

COASTAL REGION

 It comprises coastal belts of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil

Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa, bordering eastern and Western
Ghats. This is a high humid heavy rainfall area, the annual
precipitation exceeds 500 cm at many places.
 Buffaloes are important in east coast and crossbred cattle among west
coast. Goats and pigs are also important.

Distribution of livestock in 15 Agroclimatic zones

SI.N REGIO SPECIES REGION REGION'

O N PRIORITY 'S S
SPECIE PRODUC
Very Hig Low Very
S T
high h low
PROFIL PRIORIT
E Y
1 Wester - Shee cattle, pig sheep- Wool-meat
n p buffalo, goat-
Himala goat cattle
yan
2 Eastern - cattle goat buffalo, cattle- Meat-draft
Himala , pig sheep goat-pig
yan
3 Lower cattle Shee buffalo - cattle- Draft-meat
Gangeti , p goat-pig
c plains goat,
pig
4 Middle pig cattle sheep - pig- Draft-meat
Gangeti , bovine-
c plains buffal goat
o,
goat
5 Upper buffal Goat sheep - buffalo- Milk-meat
Gangeti o, pig pig-goat
c plains
6 Trans buffal sheep cattle, - buffalo- Milk-meat
Gangeti o , pig goat sheep-
c plains goat
7 Eastern Cattl buffalo, - cattle-all Draft-meat
plains e sheep/g other
and oat, pig
hills
8 Central sheep buffal cattle, - sheep- Wool-meat
plateau , goat o pig goat-
and buffalo
hills
9 Wester - - cattle, - all Supplemen
n buffalo, livestock tary
plateau sheep,
and goat
hills
10 Souther sheep - cattle, - sheep-all Meat-
n buffalo, livestock supplemen
plateau sheep, tary
and goat
hills

11 East - buffal cattle, - buffalo- Milk-

coast o, goat, pig sheep supplemen
plains sheep tary
and
hills
12 West cattle Goat pig buffalo, cattle- Draft-meat
coast sheep goat-pigs
plains
and
hills
13 Gujarat - - cattle, pig all Supplemen
plains buffalo, livestock tary
and sheep,
hills goat
14 Wester sheep - buffalo, cattle, pig Sheep/ot Wool-meat
n dry goat hers
15 Islands - - goat, pig cattle, low Supplemen
buffalo/sh livestock tary
eep

LIVESTOCK POPULATION IN INDIA

 The geographic area of our country is 32,87,263 sq.km.

 The human population in 2001 is 1027.02 million, of which rural
population constitutes 72.22 % and the urban 27.78 %.
 The average population density of the country is 304 people per
sq.km.
 In 2003-04, the production of milk in the country was 88.1 million
tones, of egg 34 billion nos., of wool 53 million kgs.
 The country has a forest cover of 6,75,538 sq.km.
 As per the last 17th livestock census, crossbred cattle constitute 13.3%
of the total cattle and 86.7% are indigenous cattle.
 There is a tremendous increase in the crossbred cattle in the country
i.e.22.8% but the indigenous cattle declined by 10.2% during the inter
censual period from 1997 to 2003.
 The total cattle population has decreased by 6.9% during the period.
  The buffalo population has increased by 8.9%; sheep, goat and pig
population has increased by 6.9%, 1.33% and 1.72% respectively
 As per 18 th livestock census (2007), in India there are 199.08 million
cattle, 105.34 million buffaloes, 71.56 million sheep, 140.54 million
goats, 11.13 million pigs and 648.88 million poultry are available.

THE SPECIES-WISE BREAKUP OF LIVESTOCK POPLATION IN

INDIA

SI.NO. SPECIES LIVESTOK POPULATION (in millions)

2003 2007
Number % Number %
1 Crossbred 24.69 5.09
cattle
2 Indigenous 160.49 33.09
cattle
Total cattle 185.18 38.18 199.08
3 Buffaloes 979.22 20.19
4 Yaks 0.06 0.01 0.08
5 Mithuns 0.278 0.06 -
Total bovines 283.45 58.44 304.42
6 Sheep 61.47 12.67 71.56
7 Goats 124.36 25.64 140.54
8 Pigs 13.52 2.79 11.13
9 Horses & 0.75 0.15 0.61
ponies
10 Mules 0.18 0.04 0.14
11 Donkeys 0.65 0.13 0.44
12 Camels 0.63 0.13 0.52
Total livestock 485.00 100.00 529.70

WORK ANIMALS AND MILCH ANIMALS

Work animals
  There is a decline in male cattle and buffaloes population used for
work purposes in the country.
 During 1997 to 2003, there is a decline of 4.3 % and 14.2% in the
working cattle and buffaloes respectively.
 During 2003 to 2007, there is an increase in number of adult female
(+3.12%) noticed. During this period the total bovine population
increased by 1.83 %.
 During the 18 th census, buffaloes(1.84%), sheep (3.87%), and
goats(3.10%) showed noticeable increase in their populatuion.

Milch animals

 The crossbred milch cattle have increased heavily during the period
1997 to 2003 34.4%, as well as there is an increase of 10.5% in milch
buffaloes.
 The indigenous milch cattle has decreased by 6.1% during the said
period.

CHANGE IN THE LIVSTOCK POPULATION (in millions)

ANIMALS 2003 2007 % OF INCREASE OR

DECREASE
Crossbred cattle 24.9
Indigenous 160.5
cattle
Total cattle 185.2 199.08 1.83
Buffaloes 97.9 105.34 1.84
WORK ANIMALS
Cattle 56.4
Buffaloes 5.8
MILCH ANIMALS
Crossbred cattle 11.2
Indigenous 46.9
cattle
Buffaloes 47.2

LIVESTOCK POPULATION IN TAMIL NADU

  The southern state of Tamil Nadu has a geographic area of 1,30,058
sq.km., which is 4.0 % of the country’s geographic area.
 The total human population of Tamil Nadu in 2001 is 62.11 million
(6.0 % of the country’s population).
 The rural population is 56.1 % and urban population is 43.9 % and
the population density of 478 persons per sq.km.
 The tribal population is 1 % of the population of the state. The state
has a forest cover of 21,482 sq.km.
 In 2003-04, the state produced 4752 thousand tonnes of milk, 37836
lakh nos. of egg and 750 thousand kgs. of wool.
 As per the last 17th livestock census, the state of Tamil Nadu had
4.94% of Cattle, 1.69% of buffaloes,9.1% of sheep, 6.58% of goats and
2.37% of pig population of the country.
 The poultry population is 17.71% of the country’s total poultry
population. The state ranks second in poultry population in the
country.
 In Tamil Nadu, the crossbred cattle increased by 46.6% but
indigenous cattle decreased by 27.8% during the period between 16th
and 17th census.
 There is a decline of 1.0% in total cattle population during the inter-
censal period.
 The buffalo population has decreased heavily by 39.5%, sheep and
goat population has increased by 6.4% and 27.5% respectively. The
pig population has decreased by 47.3%.
 The total livestock in the state has increased from 24.126 million to
24.941 million between these two censuses showing an increase of
3.4%.

CHANGE IN THE LIVESTOCK POPULATION IN TAMIL NADU

(in millions)

ANIMALS 1997 2003 % OF INCREASE OR DECREASE

Crossbred cattle 3.5 5.1 46.6
Indigenous cattle 5.5 4.0 -27.8
Total cattle 9.0 9.1 1.0
Buffaloes 2.7 1.6 -39.5
Total bovine 11.8 10.99 -8.4

CURRENT SCENERIO
  Livestock farming is an integral part of crop production and
contributes substantially to the household nutritional security and
poverty alleviation through increased household income.
 Dairy animals produce milk by converting the crop residues and by
products from crops which otherwise would be wasted.
 Dairy sector contributes by way of cash income; draught power and
manure.
 The returns from livestock especially dairying and mixed farming in
small and medium holdings are larger and highly sustainable.
 The progress in this sector results in more balanced development of
the rural economy and improvement in economic status of poor
people associated with livestock.
o One fifth of the world’s livestock population is in India and 70
per cent of the livestock are owned by 67 percent of small and
marginal farmers.
o India has nearly 57 % of the world’s buffalo population, 16% of
the cattle population, 20% of goat population and 5 % of sheep
population although India constitutes less than 3 % of the
worlds total land area.
o 76 per cent of the milk is produced by weaker sections of
society.

CATTLE AND BUFFALO POPULATION - CENSUS (2003) x 1000

numbers

STATES/U CATTLE SHEE GOAT TOTAL

Ts P S LIVESTO
Crossbr Indigeno Total
CK
ed us
Andhra 1107 8193 9300 21376 6277 38895
Pradesh
Arunachal 13 445 458 19 231 799
Pradesh
Assam 440 7999 8440 170 2987 5390
Bihar 1274 9455 10729 382 9490 16432
Chhatisgarh 253 8629 8882 121 2336 4610
Goa 12 63 76 - 11 136
Gujarat 639 6785 7424 2062 4541 14231
Haryana 573 967 1540 633 460 7345
Himachal 677 1559 2236 926 1125 2881
Pradesh
Jammu & 1320 1764 3084 3411 2055 6816
Kashmir
Jharkhand 145 7513 7659 680 5031 8167
Karnataka 1602 7936 9539 7256 4484 16082
Kerala 1735 387 2122 4 1213 1358
Madhya 317 18595 18913 546 8142 16704
Pradesh
Maharashtra 2776 13527 16303 3094 10684 20460
Manipur 69 349 418 6 33 553
Meghalaya 23 744 767 18 327 785
Mizoram 9 27 36 1 17 245
Nagaland 243 208 451 4 175 898
Orissa 1063 12840 13903 1620 5803 9489
Punjab 1531 508 2039 220 278 6568
Rajasthan 464 10390 10854 10054 16809 38284
Sikkim 80 79 159 6 124 178
Tamilnadu 5140 4001 9141 5593 8177 15800
Tripura 57 702 759 3 472 698
Uttar 1634 16917 18551 1437 12941 39980
Pradesh
Uttaranchal 228 1961 2188 296 1158 2755
West Bengal 1119 17794 18913 1525 18774 22704
A& Nicobar 13 51 64 0 64 132
Chandigarh 5 1 6 - 1 24
D & Nagar 1 49 50 - 21 28
Haveli
Daman & 0 4 4 - 4 5
Diu
 Delhi 58 34 92 3 17 282

Lakshadwee 2 2 4 0 47 47
p
Pondicherry 63 16 78 3 48 56
All India 24686 160495 18518 61469 12435 485002
1 8

MILK PRODUCTION / PER CAPITA AVAILABILITY IN INDIA

PRODUCTION IN INDIA
Year Production Per Capita
(Million Tonnes) Availibilty
(gms/day)
1991-92 55.7 178
1992-93 58.0 182
1993-94 60.6 187
1994-95 63.8 194
1995-96 66.2 197
1996-97 69.1 202
1997-98 72.1 207
1998-99 75.4 213
1999- 78.3 217
2000
2000-01 80.6 220
2001-02 84.4 225
2002-03 86.2 230
2003-04 88.1 231
2004-05 92.5 233
2005-06 97.1 241
2006-07 100.9 246
Source: Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying
& Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, GoI
SHARE OF AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK
SECTOR IN GDP (At current prices in Rs. Billion
)
Year GDP GDP GDP
(Total) (Agriculture) (Livestock
Sector)
Rs. % Rs. %
Share Share
1980- 1,224 425 34.72 59 4.82
81
1985- 2,338 700 29.94 139 5.95
86
1986- 2,600 744 28.62 156 6.00
87
1987- 2,949 835 28.31 183 6.21
88
1988- 3,527 1,041 29.52 217 6.15
89
1989- 4,087 1,154 28.24 275 6.73
90
1990- 4,778 1,352 28.30 308 6.45
91
1991- 5,528 1,593 28.82 375 6.78
92
1992- 6,307 1,779 28.21 432 6.85
93
1993- 7,813 2,218 28.39 507 6.49
94
1994- 9,170 2,552 27.83 577 6.29
95
1995- 10,733 2,778 25.88 650 6.06
96
1996- 12,435 3,340 26.86 747 6.01
97
1997- 13,901 3,535 25.43 819 5.89
 98
1998- 15,981 4,065 25.44 911 5.70
99
1999- 17,865 4,097 22.93 947 5.30
00
2000- 19,254 4,091 21.25 1,047 5.44
01
2001- 21,002 4,429 21.09 1,092 5.20
02
2002- 22,653 4,261 18.81 1,148 5.07
03
2003- 25,494 4,843 19.00 1,183 4.64
04
2004- 28,559 4,850 16.98 1,258 4.41
05
2005- 32,509 5,362 16.49 1,372 4.22
06
Source: National Accounts Statistics-2007;Central
Statistical Organisation; M/O Statistics & Programme
Implementation* Quick

MODULE-3: POPULATION DYNAMICS OF LIVESTOCK AND

 ROLE IN ECONOMY

Learning outcomes

 After the completion of this module the learner will be able to analyse
livestock population dynamics, milk production in the country and
appreciate the role of dairying in India.

INTRODUCTION

 Livestock sector plays an important role in socio-economic

development of rural households.
 It contributes about 6 percent to the Gross Domestic Product and 25
percent to the Agricultural Gross Domestic Product.
 Over the last two decades, livestock sector has grown at an annual
rate of 5.6 percent, which is higher than the growth of agricultural
sector (3.3 percent).
 This suggests that livestock is likely to emerge as an engine of
agricultural growth in the coming decades. It is also considered as
one of the potential sector for export earnings.
 The importance of livestock goes beyond its food production
function. It provides draught power and organic manure to crop
sector and hides, skin, bones, blood and fibers to the industrial
sector.
 Livestock sector also makes significant contributions towards
conservation of environment. Livestock sector supplements income
from crop production and other sources and absorbs income shocks
due to crop failure. It generates a continuous stream of income and
employment and reduces seasonality in livelihood patterns
particularly of the rural poor.
 Rural Poverty is largely concentrated among the landless and the
marginal households comprising about 70 percent of rural
population.
 In India, over 70 percent of the rural households own livestock and a
majority of livestock owning households are small, marginal and
landless households.
 Small animals like sheep, goats, pigs and poultry are largely kept by
the land scarce poor households for commercial purposes because of
their low initial investment and operational costs.

MILK PRODUCTION
 LIVESTOCK POPULATION IN INDIA (millions)
YEAR CATTLE BUFFALO SHEEP GOAT PIG POULTRY
Million numbers
1992 204.6 84.2 50.8 115.3 13.0 307.1
1997 198.9 89.9 57.5 122.7 13.3 347.6
2003 185.2 97.9 61.5 124.4 13.6 489.0
2007 199.08 105.34 71.56 140.54 11.13 648.88
Annual growth, %
1992-1997 -0.6 1.3 2.5 1.3 0.8 2.5
1997-2003 -1.0 1.2 1.2 0.2 1.0 7.0
2004- 1.83 1.84 3.87 3.10 -4.74 7.33
2007
Source: Livestock Census (various issues), Ministry of Agriculture,
Government of India

LIVESTOCK POPULATION DYNAMICS

 India has huge livestock population with 199.08 million cattle, 105.34
million buffaloes, 140.54 million goats, 71.56 million sheep, 11.13
million pigs and 648.88 million poultry birds (18th Livestock census,
2007).
 Out of the total livestock in the country, around 38.2 percent are
cattle, 20.2 percent are buffaloes, 12.7 percent are sheep, 25.6 percent
are goats and only 2.8 percent are pigs.
 All other animals are less than 0.50 percent of the total livestock
population.
 The composition of livestock population in broad groups like bovine
(cattle and buffaloes), ovine (sheep and goats), pigs and poultry,
however, has changed over the last two decades.
 Cattle population that had been increasing until 1992 has started
declining and between 1992 and 2003, it declined by 9 percent.
 The decline in the cattle population is confined to indigenous stock
that comprised 87 percent of the total cattle population in 2003.
 The number of indigenous cattle declined by 15 percent, while that of
the crossbred increased by 62 percent. Within the indigenous stock,
decline was drastic for males (22%).
 The main reasons for decline in indigenous cattle population are:
increasing substitution of draught animals with mechanical power
and low milk yield.
 The buffalo population has increased from 70 million in 1982 to 98
million in 2003.
 There has been a small decrease in total bovines in the country by
1.9% between 1997 and 2003.
 Total ovine population has increased from 144 million in 1982 to 186
million in 2003.
 The number of goats increased from 95 million in 1982 to 124 million
in 2003, but at a decelerating rate throughout.
 During 1997-2003, the growth in goat population remained almost
stagnant. Sheep population though has been increasing but with
considerable variations in the trend.
 Poultry is gaining importance in India due to growth and availability
of poultry feed at reasonable prices.
 Between 1982 and 2003, poultry population increased more than
double, from 207 million to 489 million.
 Except during 1992-97, poultry population has maintained a steady
growth of above 4 percent a year.
 Between 1997 and 2003, poultry witnessed an all time high growth of
7 percent a year.
 Pig population has increased from 10 million in 1982 to 14 million in
2003.
 Growth in pig population, however, has decelerated sharply since
1992, due to lack of widespread demand for pork.
 The contribution of the livestock sub-sector to Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) of India has increased from 4.8% to 5.9% between
1980 and 1998, while the share of agriculture sector has declined
from 35% to 25%. Consequently the contribution of livestock sub-
sector to the Agricultural GDP has increased impressively from 13.9%
to 23.4%. )
 The livestock sub-sector registered an annual compound growth rate
of 7.3% compared to 3.1 % for crops sub- sector.
 In value terms milk continues to dominate livestock production
structure and its share has increased between 1980 and 1999 from
43% to 57%.
 In 1997- 99 milk has become the number one farm commodity
exceeding the value of paddy.
 In contrast the share of draught power declined from 33% to 10%.
Meat and meat products share in 1997- 98 exceed the share of draft
power.
 Species wise cattle outputs (milk, meat and draught power etc.)
dominated the shares in early eighties but by 1997 the share of
 buffalo exceeded share of cattle and now has the highest share (42%)
in total livestock value from all species.

MILK PRODUCTION

World level contribution

 India ranks first in milk production (100.9 million metric tonnes)

followed by USA (70.8 million metric tonnes), Russia (39.3 million
metric tonnes), Germany (28.0 million metric tonnes) and France
(25.00 million metric tonnes).
 From 2001 India ranks first in world milk production, closely
followed by USA .
 More than 50% of the milk is produced from buffalo and India have
three times more number of dairy animal than USA but the annual
milk yield per animal is about one tenth of that achieved in USA and
one fifth of that achieved in New Zealand.

National level contribution

 The total GDP during 2005-2006 was 32,509 billion rupees of which
the share of agriculture was Rs. 5362 billion (16.49 per cent).
 The livestock sector accounts for 1372.00 billion rupees which is
about 4.22 per cent of total GDP.
 The value output from milk during 2005-2006 was Rs. 1,24,520
crore. The value output from beef trade was Rs. 3599 crore.
 Besides the value output from dung was estimated as 15,803 crores
(As fuel 6,311 crore; as manure 9,492 crore from total livestock).
 The milk production showed a phenomenal growth from 55.7 million
tones during 1991-92 to 100.9 million tonnes during the year 2006-
2007.
 The per capita availability also improved from 178 g/day (91-92) to
246 gm/ day during 2006-2007, which is still deficit to meet the
ICMR recommendation (280 g/day).
 Vide variation in per capita availability of milk among different states
were noticed. It was high in Punjab (961 gm/day), Haryana (633
gm/day), Rajasthan (408 gm/day) and Gujarat (374 gm/day). The
per capita availability in Tamil Nadu is 232.
 The per capita availability is very low (less than 100 gm/day) in
almost all north-eastern states.
 Among the states UP produce more milk (18.09 million tonnes),
followed by Punjab (9.1 million tonnes) and Rajasthan (9.3 million
tonnes)
Production status

 Though the cattle wealth is quite abundant in terms of population the

production from these animals is very poor viz., 987 kg per lactation
whereas the world average is 2,038 kg per lactation. The average
daily milk yield of our animals is 1.5 litres per day.
 An increasing shift to milk production as a major objective of rearing
bovines and replacement of animal power with mechanical power in
developed regions of the country is noticed.
 Increasing proportions of crossbred cattle in the total cattle
population is observed in states like Kerala and Punjab , crossbred
cattle have virtually replaced indigenous cattle; they account for over
three-quarters of the total milk cattle population in Punjab and 70
percent in Kerala (GOI, 2003).
 The other states with high crossbred cattle populations are Haryana,
Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra , and West Bengal , though
breedable female crossbreds account for less than 10 percent of total
breedable females in Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal .
 The average number of dairy animals hardly exceeds three to four in
most parts of the country. However, in certain parts of Punjab ,
Haryana, Gujarat , and Uttar Pradesh, dairy animal holdings are
larger.

ROLE OF DAIRYING IN INDIA

 More than 70 per cent of population depends on income from

agriculture and animal husbandry is an adjunct to crop agriculture
and cattle and buffaloes are kept for milk production, motive power
of various farm operations. The animals are generally maintained on
agricultural byproducts.
 Cattle and buffalo convert larger quantity of agricultural wastes and
byproducts into milk and provide gainful employment to large
agricultural labour force.
 The cattle rearing are mainly in the hands of small and marginal
farmers whose land holding is meager, being ½ to 2 acres. Dairy
farming provides sustainability to the landless labourers, small and
marginal farmers.
 Dairying contributes abut 65 per cent to the total income of landless
labourers and 35 per cent to that of marginal and small farmers.
 Dairy is an important sub-sector of the Indian agriculture accounting
for nearly 17 percent of the value of output from agriculture and allied
activities. India is the largest producer of milk in the world with
production of more than 100 million tonnes followed by the USA ,
although in terms of milk yield, the performance of Indian dairy
sector is dismal.
 The livestock sector accounts for 1372.00 billion rupees which is
about 4.22 per cent of total GDP.
 The value output from milk during 2005-2006 was Rs. 1,24,520
crore. The value output from beef trade was Rs. 3,599 crore.
 Milk production over the last decades had increased by about 4 to 5
per cent per annum.
 The per capita availability of milk has improved from 128 g/day in
1980 to 246 g/day during 2005-2006.
 The milk production was almost doubled from 1990-91 (55.7 million
tonnes) to 2006-2007 (100.9 million tonnes) which showed the
improvement in milk production.
 The milk is the single largest item which is estimated to fetch Rs.450
billion way ahead of rice and wheat.
 The estimated value of milch animals alone is around Rs.35 billion.
Dairy animals also contribute to hides/skin and dung valued at Rs.60
billion.
 About 84 million draught animals producing 50 million horse power
in the farm sector and additionally contributed 7 to 10% of the total
freight carried by motorized trucks and Indian Railways, are
indespensively involved in agricultural operations.
 Draught animal power (DAP) investment in animal energy sector is
more than Rs.35 billion.
 Currently DAP contributes 57% of total farm energy requirement
through about 72 million bullocks.
 Similarly the estimated value of 75 million tones of dry dung would
come to around Rs.4000crores.
 In addition to that a good part of dung is used as FYM. In terms of
nutrient nitrogen when its value is estimated in terms of fertilizer the
value comes to about Rs.3,300 crores, (World Bank report on energy
sector in India ).
 Apart from manurial value biogas can be produced from livestock
dung and poultry droppings.
 32 kg of cow dung/20 kgs of pig faeces/12 kgs of poultry droppings
can produce 1 m3 to 34 m3 of bio-gas.
 The calorific value of bio-gas is 500 to 700 BTU per cft in comparison
to natural gas, which is about 850 BTU/cft.
 1 m3 of slurry fed to biogas plant produces on an average 0.15 to 0.20
m3 of biogas daily. Based on equivalent effective heat produced 2
m3 biogas plant replaces in a month fuel equivalent of 26 kgs of LPG
contained in standard gas cylinder or 37 litres of kerosene or 88 kgs
of charcoal or 210 kgs of fuel wood or 740 kgs of animal dung.
Conclusion

 It can be summarized that the dairy farming once a subsidiary

occupation has now become central to lives of millions of families.
 It is symbiotically associated to crop farming Sustained largely on
crop residues and byproducts.
 In low rainfall areas like arid and semi-arid & hill areas, dairying
serves as food security and draught proning.
 Dairying in India is thus an environmental friendly activity.
 It maintains the quality of environment through milk, bio-fertilizer,
farm power and fuel energy.

SHARE OF AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK IN GDP

SHARE OF AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK IN GDP (At current

prices in Rs.Billion )
Year GDP (Total) GDP (Agriculture) GDP (Livestock
Sector)
Rs. % Share Rs. % Share
1980-81 1,224 425 34.72 59 4.82
1985-86 2,338 700 29.94 139 5.95
1986-87 2,600 744 28.62 156 6.00
1987-88 2,949 835 28.31 183 6.21
1988-89 3,527 1,041 29.52 217 6.15
1989-90 4,087 1,154 28.24 275 6.73
1990-91 4,778 1,352 28.30 308 6.45
1991-92 5,528 1,593 28.82 375 6.78
1992-93 6,307 1,779 28.21 432 6.85
1993-94 7,813 2,218 28.39 507 6.49
1994-95 9,170 2,552 27.83 577 6.29
1995-96 10,733 2,778 25.88 650 6.06
1996-97 12,435 3,340 26.86 747 6.01
1997-98 13,901 3,535 25.43 819 5.89
1998-99 15,981 4,065 25.44 911 5.70
1999-00 17,865 4,097 22.93 947 5.30
2000-01 19,254 4,091 21.25 1,047 5.44

2001-02 21,002 4,429 21.09 1,092 5.20

2002-03 22,653 4,261 18.81 1,148 5.07
2003-04 25,494 4,843 19.00 1,183 4.64
2004-05 28,559 4,850 16.98 1,258 4.41
2005-06 32,509 5,362 16.49 1,372 4.22
MODULE-4: ANIMAL HOLDING AND LAND HOLDING
PATTERNS IN DIFFERENT AGRO-ECOLOGIES

Learning outcomes

 On completion of this module, the learner will be able to discuss the

different land holding patterns in our country, differentiate between
different categories of farmers and their animal holdings.

LAND HOLDING PATTERN IN INDIA

 In India, agricultural land holding pattern can broadly be classified

as, marginal (below 1.00 hectare), small (1.00 to 1.99 hectare), semi-
medium (2.00 to 3.99 hectare), medium (4.00 to 9.99 hectare) and
large (10.00 hectare and above). The average land holding of
marginal farmers in India is 0.4 hectare whereas small farmers has
1.42 hectare, semi-medium farmers 2.72, medium farmers 5.81 and
large farmers posses 17.12 hectares of land.
 In livestock sector, 46.5 per cent of livestock holding is in the hands
of marginal farmers. Small farmers posses 22.5 per cent of livestock
and semi-medium farmers posses 17.5 per cent of livestock. The role
of medium and large farmers in livestock is less viz., 10.6 and 2.9 per
cent, respectively. The livestock per holding is comparatively less in
marginal, small and semi-medium category(3.6 cattle & buffalo and
1.5 sheep & goat). Whereas it was high in medium and large holding
(7.4 cattle/buffalo and 3.0 sheep)

DISTRIBUTION OF OPERATIONAL HOLDING (2001-02) - All

India

Sl Categ Distrib Number Operated A Area Livestoc

. ory of ution of of Holdin rea (000 per Holdi k per
N Land Livesto gs (000) ha) ng (ha) Holding
o. Holdi ck (%)
ngs Catt Shee
le & p &
buff Goa
alo t

1 Margi 46.5 65285.85 27380.472 0.42 2.9 1.3

nal
(below
 1.00
ha)

2 Small 22.5 21498.80 30503.723 1.42 4.4 1.7

(1.00
to 1.99
ha)

3 Semi- 17.5 13349.71 36242.071 2.71 5.7 2.1

mediu
m
(2.00
to 3.99
ha)

Sub 86.5 100134.4 94126.3 0.94 3.6 1.5

Total

4 Mediu 10.6 6374.39 36617.616 5.74 7.1 2.7

m
(4.00
to 9.99
ha)

5 Large( 2.9 1197.713 18649.027 15.57 8.9 5.0

10.00
ha &
above)

Sub 13.5 7572 55267 7.30 7.4 3.0

Total

All 100.0 107706 149393 1.39 3.9 1.6

Size
Class
es

Figures within bracket indicate percentages,

 Source: Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, Input Survey 2000-
01, M/O Agriculture

 Based on the classification of Directorate of Economics and Statistics,

Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India (ICAR 2004), the
classifications of land holding of Indian rice farmers are as follows:
o Majority of Indian farmers in this study were small holding (1-2
ha; 34.00%), followed by semimedium holding (2 – 4 ha;
26.00%), and medium holding (4 – 10 ha; 24.00%). Farmers
with large holding (10 ha & above) were 10 per cent and the
marginal farmers (below 1 ha) were 6.00 per cent.

For further readings: See "NATIONAL SAMPLE SURVEY

ORGANISATION's Information"

ANIMAL HOLDING PATTERN

 Dairying in India is in the hands of small/marginal landholders and

agriculture laborers. The national average land holding is 1.68
hectares per farm family and cattle and/or buffalo is a part of family.
Eighty per cent of 97.7 million farm families in India posses cattle
and/or buffalo. Even agriculture labourers (11.5% of 97.7 million)
posses one or two dairy cattle / buffalo.
 Indian agriculture is also characterized by scarcity of land. Nearly
two-thirds of milk producers are “small and marginal” farmers and
landless agriculture workers.
 On the other hand, around 73 per cent of the “medium and large”
farmers who own more than two hectares of irrigated land. The
medium and large farmers own only about 35 per cent of the cattle
and buffalo population.
 Milk production in India is, therefore, essentially a small farmer
activity based on family labour and a long tradition of rearing milk
animals as part of the household.

Land and Animal Holding Patterns in India.

CATEGORY FARMERS (%) PERCENTAGE MILK

OF PRODUCTION (%)
Land Milch
owned animals
Landless 26.0 - 22.5 22.6
agricultural
workers
Small and 49.3 27.0 41.8 41.9
marginal
farmers

Medium and 24.7 73.0 35.7 35.5

large farmers
DISTRIBUTION OF LIVESTOCK ACCORDING TO SIZE OF THE
HOLDING

DISTRIBUTION OF LIVESTOCK ACCORDING TO SIZE OF THE

HOLDING DURING 2001-02 (All India) (millions)
Cate Buffaloe Sh Go Ho Mu Don Pi Ca Tot
gory Cattle s ee ats rse les keys gs mel al
of p s & s
S Lan & Asse
l. d Po s
N Hol nie
o ding Ma Fem Ma Fem s
. s les ales les ales
Marg 57. 13. 23. 60. 0.1 3. 0.31 277.
1 inal 83 71.2 7 46.3 3 4 0.63 1 0.152 77 4 802
33. 12. 24. 0.23 0.0 0.05 1.5 134.
2 Small 29.4 7.3 24.9 0.19
49 8 62 5 3 7 05 524
Semi
16. 104
- 24. 10. 0.18 0.0 0.05 1.1
3 23.0 6.1 21.5 98 0.2 .581
medi 98 5 6 26 24 1
6 4
um
Medi 13. 0.0 0.0 0.04 0. 63.
4 13.5 3.9 14.4 7.4 9.6 0.27
um 61 9 11 9 65 429
0.0 0.0 0.03 0. 17.2
5 Large 2.7 3.6 0.9 3.5 2.7 3.3 0.21
65 015 7 21 275
All
132 140. 31. 56. 114 7. 597
Clas 110.6 1.2 0.2 0.3 1.2
.6 8 8 7 .9 2 .6
ses
Source: Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, Input Survey 2000-
01, M/O Agriculture
AVERAGE SIZE OF HOLDING BY MAJOR SIZE CLASSES IN
INDIA DURING ALL AGRICULTURE CENSUS YEARS

AVERAGE SIZE OF HOLDING BY MAJOR SIZE CLASSES IN

INDIA DURING ALL AGRICULTURE CENSUS YEARS
SI. Major AVERAGE SIZE OF HOLDING (in Percentage
No Size hectares) DURING
Classes
1970 1976 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 Change in
-71 -77 -81 -86 -91 -96 -01 2000-01
over 1995-
96
1 Marginal 0.40 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.40 0.40 0.0
2 Small 1.44 1.42 1.44 1.43 1.43 1.42 1.42 0.0
3 Semi- 281. 2.78 2.78 2.77 2.76 2.73 2.72 -0.4
medium 00
4 Medium 6.08 6.04 6.02 5.96 5.90 5.84 5.81 -0.5
5 Large 18.1 17.57 17.41 17.21 17.33 17.21 17.12 -0.5
0
All 2.28 2.00 1.84 1.69 1.35 1.41 1.33 -5.7
classes
Source: Agricultural Census —Dept. of Agri. and Cooperation. Ministry
of Agriculture.
 MODULE-5: INTRODUCTORY ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Learning outcomes

 On completion of this module, the learner will be able to categorize

different common terms for animals, know the livestock population
and zoological classification of different domestic animal and bird
species.

INTRODUCTION

 Livestock sector plays an important role in socio-economic

development of rural households.
 It contributes about 6 percent to the Gross Domestic Product and 25
percent to the Agricultural Gross Domestic Product.
 Over the last two decades, livestock sector has grown at an annual
rate of 5.6 percent, which is higher than the growth of agricultural
sector (3.3 percent).
 This suggests that livestock is likely to emerge as an engine of
agricultural growth in the coming decades.
 It is also considered as one of the potential sector for export earnings.
 The importance of livestock goes beyond its food production
function .
 It provides draught power and organic manure to crop sector and
hides, skin, bones, blood and fibers to the industrial sector.
 Livestock sector also makes significant contributions towards
conservation of environment.
 Livestock sector supplements income from crop production and other
sources and absorbs income shocks due to crop failure.
 It generates a continuous stream of income and employment and
reduces seasonality in livelihood patterns particularly of the rural
poor.

COMMON ANIMAL HUSBANDRY TERMS

DETAILS CATTL BUFFAL SHEE GOAT PIG HORS

E O P E
Species Bovine Bovine or Ovine Caprine Swine Equine
Bubaline
Groups of Herd Herd Flock Flock or Drove or Pack
animals band herd or
stock
Adult male Bull Buffalo Ram or Buck Boar Stallion
bull tup
Adult Cow She Ewe Doe Sow Mare
female buffalo or
buffalo
cow
Young male Bull calf Buffalo Ram Buckling Boarling Colt
bull calf lamb or or male
Tup kid
lamb
Young Heifer Buffalo Ewe Goatling Gilt Filly
female calf heifer calf lamb or
gimmer
lamb
New born Calf Buffalo Lamb Kid Piglet or Foal
calf pigling
Castrated Bullock Buffalo Wether Castrate Hog or Gelding
male or steer bullock or d stag or or geld
wedder barrow
Sterilized Spayed Spayed Spayed Spayed Spayed Spayed
female
Female with Calf at Calf at foot Sucklin Suckling Suckling Foal at
its offspring foot g foot
Act of Calving Calving Lambin Kidding Farrowin Foaling
parturition g g
Act of Serving Serving Tuppin Serving Coupling Coverin
mating g g
Cry Bellowin Bellowing Bleating Bleating Grunting Neighin
g g
Chromosom 60 50 58 60 38 64
e number
POPULATION TREND (millions)

SPECIES 1951 1961 1982 1989 1991 1995 2003

Cattle 144.5 175.6 192.4 195.5 198.0 204.0 185.1
Buffaloes 42.9 51.2 69.8 73.7 77.0 82.00 97.9
Sheep 38.9 40.2 48.8 53.5 58.0 62.0 61.5

Goats 47.1 60.2 95.2 107.0 112.0 125.0 124.3

Pigs 4.4 5.2 10.1 10.3 10.0 11.5 13.5
Poultry -- 95.8 207.7 270.0 380.0 434.0 489.0
LIVESTOCK POPULATION IN MILLION [2003 Census ]

Sl.NO. SPECIES INDIA TAMIL NADU

1 Cattle 185.1 9.1
2 Buffaloe 97.9 1.65
3 Sheep 61.5 5.5
4 Goat 124.3 8.2
5 Pig 13.5 0.35
6 Poultry 489.0 86.5
LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT

 Livestock management involves integrated application of the

principles of animal breeding, feeding, housing, organization and
disease control in a manner suitable for a particular situation.

Animal production involves

 Nutrition
 Fodder production
 Better breeding
 Regular reproduction
 Better disease prevention

But better management includes

 Economic feeding
 Identification of better breeding stock
 Maintenance of their records and implementation of mating plan
 Monitoring the reproductive efficiency
o By way of combining above criteria an ideal management
should yield profitable product to the producer.
o The aim of the animal production and management is to
interrelate the operations and making the animals to produce
more at lowest cost
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL MANAGEMENT

 The basic requirements for the welfare of livestock are

o Provision of readily accessible fresh water
o Nutritionally adequate feed as required
o Provision of adequate temperature and ventilation
o Adequate freedom for movement and to stretch their body
o Sufficient light for satisfactory inspection and also for feeding
o Rapid diagnosis and treatment of injuries and disease
o Emergency provision in the event of break down of essential
mechanical equipment
o Flooring which neither harms nor cause undue stress to the
animal
 Domestication and rearing of animals for production causes
considerable strain on the body of the animals.
 It is therefore essential that these animals should be looked after well.

LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT

The universally recognized essential methods for livestock improvement

[four pillars] are

 Breeding: Both the male and female should be of superior genetic

merit
 Weeding: Culling unwanted and uneconomical animals
 Feeding: Animals should be fed for their maintenance and
production
 Heeding: Implies good animal management and general supervision
including housing, care and maintenance of hygiene

ROLE OF LIVESTOCK IN THE LIVES OF THE SMALL

FARMERS

 Livestock buffers the risks due to crop failure, unemployment and

under employment.
 Enhances family nutritional status, allows some domestic
consumption of essential nutrients.
 Provides regular cash income.
 Renders services like draft, manure and fuel.
 Helps to enhance socio-economic status.

CONSTRAINTS IN LIVESTOCK ENTERPRISE

 Farmers possess meager resources.

  They have limited access to resources, services, technology and
market, due to their low socio-economic status.
 They are poorly organized.
 They are distributed over a wide area, with no/poor transport and
communication facilities.
 They are generally tradition/taboo/apathy bound to allow big change
in technology towards the better.

SCOPE OF DIFFERENT LIVESTOCK ENTERPRISES

The scope of different livestock enterprise for different regions of the

country can be as follows

 Cattle
o Milk - milk shed areas, near towns and cities
o Female calf rearing – near milk shed area, near town and cities
 Buffalo
o Milk – milk shed areas , near town and cities
o Female calf rearing – near milk shed area and near town and
cities
o Male calf rearing - around slaughter house areas
 Bullock - for hiring, any where
 Camels - for hiring, any where
 Donkey - for hiring, any where
 Mule - for hiring, hill tract
 Sheep
o Wool Himalayan and North West India
o Meat any dry area
 Goat
o Milk any area
o Meat any dry area
 Pigs
o Pork near cities [for specific area and people]
 Poultry
o Eggs poultry shed areas, near cities and towns
o Meat any area
 Rabbit
o Meat any area
o Fur hilly area

ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS

 Kingdom - Animal
 Phylum - Chordata (with back bone animals, birds and fish)
 Class - Mammalia
 o Mammals possess mammary gland or udder, give birth to a
fully developed young one and nurse their young ones with
milk producced in the mammary gland or warm blooded hairy
animals that produce their young alive and suckle mammary
gland.
 Sub class - Eutheria (with placenta)
 Order - Ungulata (cloven hoofed animals)
 Sub Order - Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla.

Artiodactyla

 Cloven hoofed animals, the major group of herbivorous animals,

stomach compounded and with intestines, enlarged for plant
digestion.
 There are about 105 species.

Perissodactyla

 They are distinctive from other mammals in that only one toe is
developed on each foot as well as non runminant.

CATTLE AND BUFFALO

CLASSIFICATION ZEBU CATTLE EXOTIC CATTLE BUFFALO

Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia
Phylum Chordata Chordata Chordata
Class Mammalia Mammalia Mammalia
Sub-Class Eutheria Eutheria Eutheria
Order Ungulata Ungulata Ungulata
Sub - Order Artiodactyla Artiodactyla Artiodactyla
Family Bovidae Bovidae Bovidae
Genus Bos Bos Bubalus
Species indicus taurus bubalis
GOAT, SHEEP AND PIG

CLASSIFICATION GOAT SHEEP PIG

Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia
Phylum Chordata Chordata Chordata
 Class Mammalia Mammalia Mammalia

Sub-Class Eutheria Eutheria Eutheria

Order Ungulata Ungulata Ungulata
Sub-Order Artiodactyla Artiodactyla Artiodactyla
Family Capridae Ovidae Suidae
Genus Capra Ovis Sus
Species Hircus aries domesticus
CAMEL, HORSE AND DONKEY

CLASSIFICATION CAMEL HORSE DONKEY

Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia
Phylum Chordata Chordata Chordata
Class Mammalia Mammalia Mammalia
Sub-Class Eutheria Eutheria Eutheria
Order Ungulata Ungulata Ungulata
Sub-Order Artiodactyla Perissodactyla Perissodactyla
Family Camilidae Equidae Equidae
Genus Camelus Equus Equus
Species dromedarius caballus asinus
DOG, CAT AND RABBIT

CLASSIFICATION DOG CAT RABBIT

Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia
Phylum Chordata Chordata Chordata
Class Mammalia Mammalia Mammalia
Sub-Class Eutheria Eutheria Eutheria
Order Carnivora Carnivora Lagomorpha
Sub-Order — — —
Family Canidae Felidae Leporidae
Genus Canis Felis Oryctolagus
Species Familiaris Domesticus Cuniculus
MODULE-6: COMMON ANIMAL HUSBANDRY TERMS

Learning outcomes

 On completion of this module, the learner will be able to differentiate

between cattle and buffalo; sheep and goats, terms for groups, sounds
act of mating, meat of different animal species.

COMMON ANIMAL HUSBANDRY TERMS - 1

Sheep

Family - Ovidae
Species - Ovine

 Sheep - Common gender.

 Ram or Tup - An adult male sheep used for breeding .
 Ewe - An adult female sheep.
 Lamb - A young one of either sex.
 Ram lamb - A male young one.
 Ewe lamb - A female young one.
 Wedder or Wether - An adult castrated male sheep.
 Crone - An old broken mouthed ewe which has been retained in a
breeding flock because of her excellent breeding performance.
 Gimmer - A female sheep which is between 1 and 2 shearing.
 Seggy - A ram castrated after service.
 Yeld or Eild - A barren or non lactating animal.
 Shearing - Removal of wool.
 Lambing - The act of giving birth to a young one.

Goat

Family - Capridae
Species - Caprine

 Goat - Common gender

  Buck or he-goat - An adult male goat used for breeding.
 Doe - An adult female goat.
 Buckling - A male goat over 1 year but not exceeding 2 years of age.
 Goatling - A female goat over 1 year but not exceeding 2 years of age.
 Kid - A young one of goat of either sex.
 Kidding - The act of giving birth to a young one.

Pig

Family - Porcidae or Suidae

Species - Porcine

 Farrowing - The act of giving birth to a young one.

 Boar - An adult uncastrated male pig used for breeding.
 Sow - An adult female pig used for breeding.
 Stag or Hog or barrow - A castrated male pig.
 Gilt - A young female pig kept for breeding.
 Open Gilt - A young female pig which has not been served
 Closed Gilt - A Young female pig which has become pregnant.
 Store Pig - Pigs between weaning and fattening usually between 8
and about 15 weeks old.
 Runt or cad or crit or critling - The last young one farrowed in a litter.
It is usually small.

Dog

Family - Canidae
Species - Canine

 Dog - Common gender.

 Dog - An adult male dog.
 Bitch - An adult female dog.
 Pup - A young one of either sex of dog.
 Whelping - The act of giving birth to a young one.

Cat

Family - Felidae
Species - Feline

 Cat - Common gender

 Tom Cat - An adult uncastrated male cat.
  Queen Cat - An adult female cat.
 Neuter - A castrated cat
 Kitten - A young one of either sex of cat.
 Queening - The act of giving birth to a young one.

Rabbit

Family - Leporidae
zoological Name - Oryctolagus cuniculus

 Buck - An adult male rabbit used for breeding.

 Doe - An adult female rabbit.
 Bunny - A young one of either sex of rabbit.
 Kindling - The act of giving birth to a young one.

SHEEP

1 Sheep Common gender.

2 Ram or Tup An adult male sheep used for breeding .
3 Ewe An adult female sheep.
4 Lamb A young one of either sex.
5 Ram lamb A male young one.
6 Ewe lamb A female young one.
7 Wedder or An adult castrated male sheep.
Wether
8 Crone An old broken mouthed ewe which has been retained in a
breeding flock because of her excellent breeding
performance.
9 Gimmer A female sheep which is between 1 and 2 shearing.
10 Seggy A ram castrated after service.
11 Yeld or Eild A barren or non lactating animal.
12 Shearing Removal of wool.
13 Lambing The act of giving birth to a young one.
GOAT
 1 Goat Common gender
2 Buck or he-goat An adult male goat used for breeding.
3 Doe An adult female goat.
4 Buckling A male goat over 1 year but not exceeding 2 years of age.
5 Goatling A female goat over 1 year but not exceeding 2 years of
age.
6 Kid A young one of goat of either sex.
7 Kidding The act of giving birth to a young one.
PIG

1 Farrowing The act of giving birth to a young one.

2 Boar An adult uncastrated male pig used for breeding.
3 Sow An adult female pig used for breeding.
4 Stag or Hog or A castrated male pig.
barrow
5 Gilt A young female pig kept for breeding.
6 Open Gilt A young female pig which has not been served
7 Closed Gilt A Young female pig which has become pregnant.
8 Store Pig Pigs between weaning and fattening usually
between 8 and about 15 weeks old.
9 Runt or cad or The last young one farrowed in a litter. It is usually
crit or critling small.
DOG

1 Dog Common gender

2 Dog An adult male dog
3 Bitch An adult female dog
4 Pup A young one of either sex of dog
5 Whelping The act of giving birth to a young one
CAT

1 Cat Common gender

 2 Tom cat An adult uncastrated male cat
3 Queen cat An adult female cat
4 Neuter A castrated cat
5 Kitten A young one of either sex of cat
6 Queening The act of giving birth to a young one
RABBIT

1 Buck An adult male rabbit used for breeding

2 Doe An adult female rabbit
3 Bunny A young one of either sex of rabbit
4 Kindling The act of giving birth to a young one
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CATTLE AND BUFFALO

CATTLE BUFFALO
Dewlap is present Dewlap is absent
Rounded and conical horns Broad and flat horns
Legs are comparatively less stronger With smaller Legs are strong with larger hoof
hooves
More no. of functional sweat glands Less number of functional sweat glands
Dense hair growth on the body Sparse hair growth on the body
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SHEEP AND
GOAT

SHEEP GOAT
Usually only one young one is born Triplets and twins are often
produced
Sheep are short Goats are tall
Female sheep has no horns but male Both sexes have horns but not have
twisted twisted horns
Wattles and beards are absent Wattles and beards are present
Sheep have dense growth of wool on Moderate growth of hair
body surface
Tail is shorter Tail is longer
Body conformation is rounded Body conformation is angular and
laterally flattened
GROUP OF ANIMALS

 Cattle and buffalo : Herd

 Sheep and goat : Flock / Band
 Pigs : Drove / Stock / Herd
 Dogs : Pack
 Horse : Pack
 Rabbit : Colony

HOUSE OF ANIMALS

 Cattle and buffalo : Shed / Byre / Barn

 Sheep and goat : Pen
 Pigs : Sty
 Dogs : Kennel
 Horse : Stable
 Rabbit : Hutch

SOUND PRODUCED BY ANIMALS

 Cattle and buffalo : Bellowing

 Sheep and goat : Bleating
 Pigs : Grunting
 Dogs : Barking
 Horse : Neighing

ACT OF MATING

 Cattle and buffalo : Serving

 Sheep : Tupping
 Goat : Serving
 Pigs : Coupling
 Horse : Covering

MEAT OF ANIMALS

 Cattle : Beef
 Buffalo : Carabeef
 Sheep : Mutton
 Goat : Chevon
 Pigs : Pork
 Rabbit and Poultry : White meat
MODULE-7: BODY CONFORMATION AND IDENTIFICATION

Learning outcomes

 After the completion of this module, the learner will be able

to describe the different body parts of the animals, different
identification methods used for farm animals and also about
periodical farm operations.

 POINTS OF COW
 PARTS OF HEAD

 Poll: It is the bony prominence found inbetween and little behind the
ears and is formed by the Nuchal crest of the occipital bone.
 Forelock: It is the tuft of hairs growing between the ears and falling
over the forehead.
 Forehead: It is the rectangular area found inbetween the eyes and
ears and frontal bone forms the bony part.
 Nasal Bridge: It is the linear space found below the forehead,
inbetween the eyes and extending up to the muzzle.
 Nasal Peak: It is the highest point on the nasal bridge found at the
lower third of it
 Muzzle: It is the soft portion in the form of an inverted trapezium
below the nasal bridge inbetween the nostrils.
 Nostrils: It is the external opening of the respiratory system situated
on either side of the muzzle.
 False Nostrils: It is a blind pouch situated at the upper border of the
nostrils.
 Upper Lip: It is the upper border of the opening of the mouth (Rima-
oris).
 Lower Lip: It is the lower border of the Rima-Oris.
 Opening of Mouth: It is the anterior opening of the digestive system.
 Chin: It is the anterior portion of the lower jaw.
 Chin Groove: It is the depression found behind the chin.
 Ramus of the Mandible: These are projections or extensions of the
body of the mandible on either side of the lower jaw.
 Jowl: It is the soft area in between the Ramus of the Mandible.
 Parotid: It is the triangular portion found behind the angel of lower
jaw where the head meets the neck.
 Throat: It is found at the posterior end of the jowl where head meets
the neck.
 Ear: It is the external opening of the auditory system.
 Temporal Fossa: It is circular depression found below the base of the
ear.
 Supra Orbital Fossa: It is the depression found above the orbit of
eye-ball.
 Supra Orbital Crest: It is the linear bony prominence found above
the orbit of eye-ball.
 Upper Eyelid: It is the upper border of eye-ball.
 Lower- Eyelid: It is the lower border of eye-ball.
 Third Eyelid: It is situated in the inner canthus of eyelid.
 Inner Canthus: It is the inner angle where the upper and lower eye-
lids meet respectively.
 Outer Canthus: It is the outer angle where the upper and lower eye-
lids meet respectively.
 Eye Lashes: They are hairs growing from the border of eyelids.
 Zygomatic Ridge: It is the linear bony part commencing a little below
and infront of the eyeball and directed obliquely downwards and
forwards.
 PARTS OF NECK

 Apex of Neck: It is a point or angle where the head joins the neck.
 Base of Neck: It is the imaginary line where the neck joins the body.
 Crest of the Neck: It is a top line of the neck and ligamentum nuchae
is in contact with it.
 Bottom of the Neck: It is the lower border of the neck.
 Jugular Furrow: It is longitudinal depression found parallel to the
lower border of the neck and the jugular vein is situated in this
groove.
 Hollow of the Neck: It is the shallow depression found on the side of
the neck.
 Mane: It is the tuft of hairs growing over the crest of the neck and
falling towards one side.

PARTS OF DORSAL ASPECT

 Withers and Point of Withers: It is the highest point on the top line
and is formed by the supra spinous process of 3rd, 4th, 5th thoracic
vertebrae.
 Back: It is the portion behind the withers upto the point where the
last rib gets attached. It is formed by the thoracic vertebrae is in
contact with this region.
 Lion: It is the region formed between the back and the point of the
croup.
 Point of Croup: It is the highest point behind the loins and is formed
by the two internal angels of ilium.
 Croup: It is that part behind the point of croup upto the base of the
tail and is formed by the supraspinous process of the sacral vertebrae.
 Dock of the Tail or Base of the Tail: It is the point at which the tail
commences.
 Body of the Tail: It is the main structure of the tail and is formed by
Coccygeal vertebrae.
 Switch: Switch of the tail is the bunch of hairs growing from the body
of the tail.

PARTS OF VENTRAL ASPECT

 Brisket: It is the muscular bulges found on either side of the midline

in between the forelimbs.
 Floor of the Chest Wall: It is the lower portion of the chest wall and is
formed by the body of the sternum.
 Xiphoid Sternum: It is called the keel bone or xiphoid cartilage. It is
the terminal portion of sternum.
 Umbilicus or Naval: It is a dark depression found in the middle of
the abdominal wall. It is the points where the umbilical cord is
attached during the foetal life.
 Prepuce or Prepucial Opening: Prepuce is the fold of skin found in
the posterior part of the abdomen and penis is situated inside this
prepuce. Prepucial opening is the opening of prepuce.
 Scrotum: It is the pouch of skin inside which the testicles are
situated.
 Perenial Region: ( In the case of male) It is the area in between the
prepucial opening and the anus.

PARTS FROM THE SIDE VIEW

 Side or Chest Wall: It is the lateral boundary of thoracic cavity.

 Hollow of the Flank: It is a triangular depression found behind the
last rib infront of the external part of Ilium.
 Flap of the Flank: The fold of the skin infront of the hind limb on the
lower aspect of abdominal wall.
 External Ilium: It is the bony prominence on the lateral aspect of the
pelvic cavity behind the hollow of the flank.
 Hind Quarters: It is a rectangular area behind the external angle of
ilium.
 PARTS OF FORELIMB

Shoulder: The triangular area through which the forelimb is

directed downward and forwards. The scapula forms the bony part of
this region.

 Shoulder Joint: It is formed between the glenoid cavity and the head
of the humerus.
 Point of the Shoulder: The bony prominence formed in front of the
shoulder joint and is formed by the acromian process of the scapula
and the head of the humerus.
 Arm: It is the region between the shoulder joint and elbow joint
below directed obliquely downwards and backwards humerus forms
the bony part of this region.
 Elbow Joint: Formed between the lower end of the humerus and
upper end of radius and ulna.
 Fore arm: The vertical region between the elbow joint above and
knee joint below, radius and ulna forms the bony part of the region.
 Knee Joint: It is formed by the lower end of the radius, ulna, carpal
bones and the upper end of the metacarpal bone.
 The Fore Cannon: It is the region below the fetlock joint.
 The Fetlock Joint: The lower end of large metacarpal bone and upper
end of the first phalanges and a sesamoid.
 Pastern and Pastern Joint: It is the region below the fetlock joint.
 Coronet: A bulged portion found at the place where the skin joints
the hoof.
 Toe: It is the anterior portion of the hoof.
 Point of Elbow: The body prominence found at the back of the elbow
joint and formed by the olecranon process for ulna.
 Bend of Knee: It is the transverse depression behind the knee joint
where the place joint bends.
 Suspensory Ligaments: It is the ligament connecting the large
metacarpal.
 Ergot: The horny growth behind the fetlock joint.
 Bulbs of the Heel: The two bulges in either side of the midline at the
posterior aspects of the hoof.
 Hollow of the Heel : The depression between two bulbs of the heels.

PARTS OF HINDLIMB

 Hip Joint: It is formed between the acetabulum of the os-coxae or hip

bone or pelvic girdle and the head of the femur.
 Thigh: The region between the hip Joint above and stifle joint below.
 Stifle Joint: It is formed between the lower end of femur and upper
end of tibia, fibula and patella.
 Gaskin or Lesser Thigh: The muscular bulge between the stifle joint
above and the hock Joint below.
 Hock Joint: Lower end of tibia, tarsal bone and upper end of
metatarsal.
 Point of Hocks: Bony prominence formed behind the hock.
 Hind cannon: Between the hock joint, below fetlock joint formed by
the large metatarsal bone.
 Fetlock Joint: Formed by lower end of metatarsal bone and upper
end of first phalange and sesamoid bone.
 Coronet: A thick muscular region around the top of the hoof in the
form of a ring.
 Hamstring: Thick muscular tendon. At the back of the lower thigh
there is a very strong tendon called Hamstring.
 Back Tendon: Behind the metatarsal bone.
 Chest Nut: The horny growth situated below the hock on both the
hind limb.
 Suspensory ligament: Muscular portion between back tendon and
the metatarsal bone.

PARTS OF HOOF

 Horny Wall: Outer horny layer of the foot which rest on the ground.
 White line: The demarcating line between the wall and sole.
 Sole: Concave part of the foot behind the white line and does not
come in contact with the ground.
 Frog: The central elevated portion from behind the foot.
 Base of Frog: It is the region from which the frog originates.
 Body of Frog: The frog has a central elevated bulged part called the
body fit.
 Tip of the Frog: It is the region in which the frog ceases.
 Hollow or cleft of Frog: It is the region which is depressed in the
middle of frog.
 Bar: It is the inturned portion of the wall and white line.
 Buttress: The angle formed between the wall and the bar.
 Lateral Commissure: It is the deep depression between the bar and
the frog.
 Corn: The bulging formed in buttresses due to a bacterial infection.
o False nostrils is present only in horse
o Dew lap is present and well developed only in cattle
o Hump is present and well developed only in Indian cattle
o European cattle are popularly known as humpless cattle
 OBJECTIVES

 Identification of animals is must as a requirement in the daily

management to spot and identify a particular animal in a
herd/group/flock.

Reasons

 For registration and recording of the parentage in breeding

programme / birth
 For individual feeding of animals.
 During milking
 During sale, for participation of animals in the rally, show and
exhibition.
 For treating the animal, heat detection etc.
 EAR TAGGING

 Most popular method of identification system.

Equipments required: Tagging forceps & tags

Procedure

 Select the tag type (Single piece / Double piece).

 Use the contrasting ink and style based on the skin colour of the
animal.
 Invert the ear tag into the appropriate applicator.
 Locate the area in the ear for tagging) (half the way between base and
tip of the ear).
 Puncture the ear with applicator if the tags are non-piercing type.
 Apply the ear tag by puncturing the ear with the applicator.

FORCEPS FOR PLASTIC EAR TAGS PLASTIC EAR TAGS

 COW WITH PLASTIC EAR TAG PLASTIC EAR TAG FOR CATTLE

BRANDING

 It is one of the permanent method.

Hot Iron branding

 A good hot iron branding should be visible and recognizable since it

destroys hair follicles located under several layers of the skin and
leaved a permanent bald scar on the skin of the animal.

Required

 Branding irons / Electric branders made up of iron or steel,

squeezechute / Trevice (for restraining)
Procedure

 Assemble and keep the equipment ready

 Heat the branding iron
 Before branding, restrain the animal
 Check the temperature of branding iron. It should be grey ashes.
 Then press the iron and shake the handle against the skin for fixing
the iron properly.
 Time of application usually 3-5 sec.
 The brand marks should be big enough to read identify at a distance
and each letter separated 2.5cm to prevent sloughing of the skin.
 Apply an antiseptic for healing of wound.

Freeze branding

 Application of cold iron to the skin of the animal causes destruction

of melanocytes and white hairs grows on the branded area.

Equipments Required

 Iron/copper branders, Liquid nitrogen / dry ice and alcohol.

o Assemble the necessary cold branders / iron.
o Cool the branding irons in the liquid nitrogen or dry ice
o Before application, restrain the animal
o Clip the area of the branding site, clean and apply alcohol to the
clipped area
o Apply the cold branders to the clipped area and apply equal
pressure by pressing iron properly and evenly on the skin.
o Time of application 30 sec to 1 min.
 EAR NOTCHING

 Commonly used in pigs and in beef cattle.

 Notching means making a ‘V’ shaped notches at specific areas of the
ear with the help of a sharp scissors or pincers.
 This method is fit for large farms.
 For eg. a notch in lower right ear is no.1. and notch in lower left ear is
No.3.
 Though this is a permanent method, notching is painful to animals
 This method is not permitted by Animal Welfare Board.

NUMBER STANDARD FOR MODEL NUMBERS BASED ON

NOTCHING THE STANDARD
MODULE-8: DENTITION AND AGEING OF ANIMALS

Learning outcomes

 On completion of this module, the learners are familiarized with the

structure of teeth, terms in dentition and they will be able to judge
the age of animals by seeing the dentition of cattle, buffalo, sheep and
goats.

DENTITION AND AGEING OF LIVESTOCK

 The age of an animal can be estimated from the date of birth available
in registers or by
o Dentition
o Horn rings
o Number of young one produced by the animal.
 Age of the horse and other species can be estimated by noting the
structure and conformation of the tooth. Ageing is important for the
following reasons.
o To issue soundness certificate
o To select and purchase livestock
o To know the breeding status of the animal
o To estimate the value of the animal

OBJECTIVES

 The age of the animal may be told with practical accuracy by the
appearance of incisor teeth.
 The use of the examination of teeth to determine age is of value in
non-pedigree animals.
 Further it is impossible for the following reasons.
 To issue soundness certificate
 For valuation of livestock
 For selection and purchase

DEFINITIONS

 Alveolus: The bony cavity in which the fang of the tooth is embedded.
 Buccal Surface: The outer surface of tooth that is next to the check.
 Central Incisors: The 2 incisors immediately on each side of middle
line
 Check Teeth: Premolars and molars are often spoken off collectively
as cheek teeth
 Corner Incisor: The outer or most lateral pair
 Crown: The part of the tooth which appears above the gum
 Deciduous or milk teeth or temporary teeth: These are temporary
teeth which are pushed out by the growth of corresponding
permanent teeth.
 Erupting or cutting: Means the teeth has cut through the mucous
membrane of the gum.
 Fang hole of Dental star: The upper extremity of pulp cavity
 Fang or Root: Part of tooth under the gum
 Galvayne’s Groove: The part of the groove running down the labial
surface of the ground of the upper corner incisors of the horse. It
normally appears near the gum at 10 years, is ½ way down at 15
years, extends down the whole length of tooth at 20 years, has grown
½ way out at 25 years, and has disappeared at 30. Simultaneously
appearance of star and disappearance of mark takes place.
 Infundibulum: Dark depression on the table in the incisor it is called
as mark
 Inwear: the hole of the table of tooth is in contact with opposite teeth
of other jaw.
 Labial surface: The surface next to the lips of the incisors
 Lateral Incisors: The second pair that is those between central and
corners.
 Lingual surface: The inner surface of tooth i.e. next to the tongue
 Mandible: The lower jaw
 Mandibular cheek teeth: Lower premolars and molars
 Maxilla and premaxilla: Constitute the upper jaw
 Maxillary sinus: A cavity in the skull situated in horse above the last 3
or 4 cheek teeth into which their roots project.
 Molars: The last 3 cheek teeth. These are permanent and not
represented in the milk dentition.
 Neck: Joins the crown to the fang.
 Pulp Cavity: A hollow part of tooth containing nerves and blood
vessels.
 Shelly: The newly cut incisor teeth either temporary or permanent.
 Table or wearing surface: The part of tooth which grinds the food
and comes in contact with tooth of other jaw.
 Tush: The canine tooth of the horse present in stallion or gelding but
absent or rudimentary in mark. It is situated near the incisors in the
lower jaw than in the upper jaw.
 Tusk: The canine tooth of a pig
 Wolf Tooth: Small vestigial tooth in the position of the first premolar.
 Full Mouth: Strictly speaking, this means that all permanent teeth
(both molars and incisors) have fully erupted. It is customary,
however to consider only the incisors. Full mouth is seen in the case
of horses at 41/2 to 5 years. In cattle (exotic) 3 years and in pig 1-
11/2 years. A horse is said to be aged, when it is over 15 years.
 STRUCTURE OF THE TOOTH

 From within outwards the tooth is comprised of 4 tissues.

o The pulp is the soft gelatinous tissue occupying the pulp cavity
in the centre of the tooth. The pulp is well supplied with blood
vessels and nerves.
o Dentine: Covers the pulp and is hard and yellowish white in
colour.
o Enamel: It is the hardest tissue in the body and covers the
dentine of the crown. It is clear and bluish white in colour.
o Cement: Covers the dentine of the roof. The embedded portion
of tooth is firmly attached to the alveolus, periosteum by layers
of connective tissue.
 There are 2 complete sets of incisors.
o Temporary, milk or Foal teeth and permanent teeth. The
difference between temporary and permanent teeth are as
follows,
 The temporary teeth is small and white, has a distinct
neck., and a short fang which practically disappears as
the tooth gets older.
 The permanent teeth are longer, stronger and brown in
colour and has no marked neck or distinct neck and has a
stout long fang.
Dental_formula

 Temporary dentition: 0/4 0/0 3/3 0/0

 Permanent dentition: 0/4 0/0 3/3 3/3
o At birth: Calves are usually found to have their 8 incisors and 3
pre molars of the temporary dentition easily palpable below the
gums.
o At 1 month: 8 temporary incisors have their crowns free from
the gums and the teeth are quite prominent and well defined.
The three temporary molars are well up and wearing.
o At 6 months: The teeth are well placed in the jaw and are no
longer overlapping.
o At 1 year: The most marked change between this time and 6
months of age is the wear of the temporary incisors.
o At 2 years: The first pair of permanent central incisors replace
the corresponding temporaries and the first and second molars
push out the temporaries and cut through the gums.
o At 2 1/2 - 3 years: The second pair of permanent medial
incisors replace the corresponding temporaries.
o At 3 - 3 1/2 years: The third pair of permanent lateral incisors
replace the corresponding temporaries.
o At 4 years: The last pair of permanent corner incisors replace
the corresponding temporaries.
o At 4-5 years: The teeth are slightly worn along their cutting
edges, and they occupy a less crowded position.
o At about 6 years: The surface of wear has reached practically
half-way across the upper surface of the teeth, and a portion of
the root is exposed.
o At 10 years: The greater part of the crowns have worn from the
teeth and only a little cup-shaped piece of enamel remains.
o At about 12 to 14 years: Only the stumps of the teeth remain.
o In horned breeds of cattle a rough estimate of age can usually
be made by counting the number of rings round the bases of
the horns. The first ring appears at about 2 years and thereafter
one ring is added annually.
 CATTLE DENTITION

 Temporary – 0/4 0/0 3/3 0/0

 Permanent - 0/4 0/0 3/3 0/0

Age of eruption type of teeth

 2-2 ½ years - 1st pair central incisors

 3 years - 2nd pair
 4 years - 3rd pair
  4 ½ years - 4th pair

Full mouth in country breed - 4 1/2 years

 1st pair molars - 2 years

 2nd pair molars - 2 ½ years
 3rd pair molars - 3 years
 4th pair molars - 3 ½ years
 5th pair molars - 4 years
 6th pair molars - 4½ years

SHEEP AND GOAT DENITION

(Click here for a web link)

Dental formula

o Temporary dentition: 0/4 0/0 3/3 0/0

o Permanent dentition: 0/4 0/0 3/3 3/3
 From birth to 1 year: The temporary incisors are in use and the
mouth of sheep at 1 year shows lamb teeth well worn, while in many
cases the first pair of permanent central incisor will be cutting.
 14-18 months (Two tooth): The first pair of permanent central
incisors replaced the corresponding temporaries.
 20-24 months (Four tooth): The second pair of permanent medial
incisors replace the corresponding temporaries.
 26-30 months (Six tooth): The third pair of permanent lateral
incisors replace the corresponding temporaries.
 32-36 months (Full mouth): The fourth pair of permanent corner
incisors replace the corresponding temporaries.
 From birth to 1 year 14-18 months (2 teeth) 20-24 months (4 teeth) 26-30 months(6 teeth)

32-36 months (8 teeth) Wearing (Above 3 yrs) Broken mouth Gummer (Aged)
DENTITION OF SHEEP
  Temporary - 0/4 0/0 3/3 0/0
 Permanent - 0/4 0/0 3/3 0/0

Eruption of teeth possible age (in months)

 0-2 pairs of temporary teeth 6 – 10 months at birth all temporary

incisors
 Permanent central incisor 16 – 20 months
 Permanent medial incisors 21 – 25 months
 Permanent lateral incisors 26 – 30 months
 Permanent corner incisors 31 – 40 months
DEFINITIONS AND COMMON TERMS USED IN
DENTITION

 Alveolus - It is the bony cavity in which the fang of a tooth is

embedded.
 Buccal surface - The outer surface of the tooth.
 Central incisors - A pair of teeth immediately on each side of the
middle line.
 Lateral incisors - The second pair of tooth in between the central
incisors and corner incisors or the two teeth present on each side of
the central incisors.
 Corner incisor - The last teeth of the incisor on both side in both the
jaws are known as corner incisors or the outer or most lateral pair.
 Cheek teeth - Premolars and molars are together called a cheek teeth.
 Deciduous or Milk teeth or Temporary teeth - Those which may be
present at birth or which may erupt during early life, but which are
later pushed out by the growth of the corresponding permanent teeth.
This will be milk white in colour and small in size.
 Crown - The part of the tooth which appears above the gum.
 Cutting teeth or Erupting teeth - The crown of the tooth which has
cut through the mucous membrane of the gum.
 Dental star or Fang hole - The upper extremity of the pulp cavity is
known as dental star and this indicates certain age groups. With
advancing age, it becomes round rather than elongated.
 Root or fang - The part of the tooth under the gum.
 Galvaynes groove - A groove running down the labial surface of the
crown of the upper corner incisors of the horses. It normally appears
near the gum at 10 years; half way down at 15 years; extends down
the whole length of the tooth at 20 years as grown half way out at 25
years and disappears at 30 years.
 Infundibulum - A dark depression on the table of the tooth. In
incisors it is called as the mark. It is surrounded by prominent layer
of enamel.
 Labial surface - The surface of the tooth next to the lips.
 Lingual surface - The inner surface of the tooth immediately near the
tongue.
 Mandible - The other name for lower jaw.
 Maxilla - Constitutes the upper jaw.
 Mandibular cheek teeth - Lower premolars and molars.
 Maxillary cheek teeth - Upper premolars and molars.
 Maxillary sinus - A cavity in the skull situated in the horse above the
last 3 or 4 cheek teeth, into which the root project.
 Molar teeth - The last 3 large cheek teeth are called molars. They are
permanent teeth and are not represented in the milk dentition.
 Neck of the tooth - It joins the crown to the root or fang.
 Premolars - The first 3 large cheek teeth on either side are known as
premolars.
 Pulp cavity - The hollow part of the tooth containing nerves and
blood vessels.
 Shelly - The newly developed incisor either temporary or permanent
is termed as shelly.
 Table of the tooth or wearing surface - The part of the tooth which
grinds the food and comes in contact with the teeth of the other jaw.
 Tush - The canine tooth of the horse. It is characteristically present in
stallion or gelding but absent or rudimentary in mares. It is situated
nearer the incisors in the lower jaw than in the upper jaw.
 Tusk - The canine tooth of a pig.
 Wolf teeth in horses - It is a small vestigial tooth in the position of the
first premolar.
 Full Mouth - It means that all permanent teeth, both molars and
incisors have fully erupted and in position but it is customary to
consider only the incisors. Full mouth is seen in horse at 4 1/2 - 5
years, in cattle at 3 years and 3 months, in sheep at 2 years and 9
months and in the pig at 17 to 20 months. But a horse is said to be
aged when it is over 15 years.
 Dentine - It covers the pulp and it is very hard and yellowish white in
colour.
 Enamel - It is the hardest tissue in the body and covers the dentine of
the crown. It is clear and bluish white in colour.
 Elephant teeth - Black (devoid of enamel) enamel (hard) and covers
the crown portion of the tooth. It is clear and bluish white in colour.
Root portion of the dentine is covered by an adhesive substances
called cement. It is firmly attached to the alveoli periosteum and
supplied with vascular layer and connective tissue.
MODULE-9: TRANSPORT OF LIVESTOCK BY RAIL, ROAD, AIR
AND ON FOOT

Learning outcomes

 At the completion of this module, the learner will be able to describe

about the disinfection of animal dwelling places and select different
disinfectants for various needs. Learners are also exposed to practices
like quarantine, isolation and different methods available for safe
disposal of animal carcasses.

TRANSPORTATION OF ANIMALS

 Norms for transportation of animals by Ministry of Environment and

forests
 FAO information

GENERAL RULE FOR TRANSPORT OF LIVESTOCK

 A valid certificate by a qualified veterinary surgeon to the effect that

the cattle are in a fit condition to travel by rail or road and are not
suffering from any infectious or contagious or parasitic diseases and
that they have been vaccinated against rinderpest and any other
infectious or contagious or parasitic diseases, shall accompany each
consignment.
 In the absence of such a certificate, the carrier shall refuse to accept
the consignment for transport.
 The certificate shall be in the form specified in Schedule - E.
Veterinary first-aid equipment shall accompany all batches of cattle.
 Each consignment shall bear a label showing in bold red letters the
name, address and telephone number (if any) of the consignor and
consignee, the number and types of cattle being transported and
quantity of rations and food provided.
 The consignee shall be informed about the train or vehicle in which
the consignment of cattle is being sent and its arrival time in advance.
 The consignment of cattle shall be booked by the next train or vehicle
and shall not be detained after the consignment is accepted for
booking.

TRANSPORT OF CATTLE (Click here for a web link)

 It must be accompanied with a valid health certificate indicating

fitness of the animals for transport and theirselves being free from
any contagious or infections disease and in the absence of this
certificate, the carrier shall not accept the consignment; the average
 space provided per cattle in railway wagon vehicle shall not be less
than two square meters; hungry and thirsty cattle should not
transported; cattle in advanced pregnancy shall not be mixed with
young cattle to avoid stampede during transportation

TRANSPORT OF CATTLE BY TRAIN

 The average space provided per cattle in Railway wagon or vehicle

shall not be less than two square metres.
 Suitable rope and platforms should be used for loading cattle from
vehicles.
 In case of railway wagon the dropped door of the wagon may be used
as a ramp when loading or unloading is done to the platform.
 Cattle shall be loaded after they are properly fed and given water.
 Cattle in advanced stage of pregnancy shall not be mixed with young
cattle in order to avoid stampede during transportation.
 Watering arrangements on route shall be made and sufficient
quantities of water shall be carried for emergency.
 Sufficient feed and fodder with adequate reserve shall be carried to
last during the journey. Adequate ventilation shall be ensured.
 When cattle is to be transported by rail. An ordinary goods wagon
shall carry not more than ten adult cattle or fifteen calves on broad
gauge, not more than six adult cattle or ten calves on metre gauge, or
not more than four adult cattle or six calves on narrow gauge.
 Every wagon carrying cattle shall have at least one attendant. Cattle
shall be loaded parallel to the rails, facing each other.
 Rations for padding, such as straw, shall be placed on the floor to
avoid injury if a cattle lies down and this shall not be less than 6 cm
thick.
 Rations for the journey shall be carried in the middle of the wagon.
 To provide adequate ventilation, upper door of one side of the wagon
shall be kept open properly fixed and the upper door of the wagon
shall have wire gauge closely welded mesh arrangements to prevent
burning cinders from the engines entering the wagon and leading to
fire outbreak. Cattle wagons should be attached in the middle of the
train.
 Two breast bars shall be provided on each side of the wagon, one at
height of 60 to 80 cm and the other at 100 to 110 cm.
 Cattle-in-milk shall be milked at least twice a day and the calves shall
be given sufficient quantity of milk to drink.
 As far as possible, cattle may be moved during the nights only.
During day time, if possible, they should be unloaded, fed, given
water and rested and if in milk, milking shall be carried out.

TRANSPORT OF CATTLE BY ROAD OR TRUCK

  Transport by road or truck has the convenience of loading at the farm
and direct transit to the point of market.
 The absence of repeated handling and disturbance associated with it
and consequent avoidance of serious weight loss.
 But the poor road condition and longer distance to be traveled cause
comparatively higher cost per km than rails.
 When cattle are to be transported by goods vehicle the following
precautions are to be taken namely
 Specially fitted goods vehicles with a special type of tail board and
padding around the sides should be used.
 Ordinary goods vehicles shall be provided with anti-slipping material,
such as coir matting or wooden board on the floor and the
superstructure, if low, should be raised.
 No goods vehicle shall carry more than six cattle.
 Each goods vehicle shall be provided with one attendant.
 While transporting, the cattle, the goods vehicle shall not be loaded
with any other merchandise and
 To prevent cattle being frightened or injured, they should preferably,
face the engine.

SPACE REQUIREMENT FOR TRANSPORT OF CATTLE

 The average space provided per cattle in Railway wagon or vehicle

shall be as follows:
o Space Allowance per Cattle in railway wagon
o Cattle weighing upto 200 Kg. - 1 Square Meter (Sq.mtr.)
o Cattle weighing 200-300 Kg - 1.20 Square Meter
o Cattle weighing 300-400 Kg - 1.40
o Square Meter Cattle Weighing above 400 Kg - 2.0
  Square Meter Space requirement for Cattle while being transported
in commonly sized road vehicles

VEHICL FLOOR NUMBE NUMBE NUMBE NUMBER

E SIZE AREA OF R OF R OF R OF OF CATTLE
(Sq.M) THE CATTLE CATTLE CATTLE
VEHICL
E (Sq.M)
Cattle Cattle Cattle Cattle
(200Kg)- (200- (300- (Above400Kg)
1.0 sq.M 300Kg)- 400Kg)- -2.0 sq.M per
per cattle 1.2 sq.M 1.4 sq.M cattle
per cattle per cattle
6.9 x 2.4 16.56 16 14 12 8
5.6 x 2.3 12.88 12 10 8 6
4.16 x 1.9 7.904 8 6 6 4
2.9 x 1.89 5.481 5 4 4 2
TRANSPORT OF SHEEP AND GOAT (Click here for a web link)

 Sheep and goats shall be transported separately; but if the lots are
small special partition shall be provided to separate them.
 Rams and male young stock shall not be mixed with female stock in
the same compartment.
 Material for padding, such as straw, shall be placed on the floor to
avoid injury if an animal lies down, and this shall be not less than 5
cm. thick.
 The animals shall not be fettered unless there is a risk of their
jumping out and their legs shall not be tied down.
o Must have a valid health certificate indicating their fitness for
transport and theirselves being free from any infections or
contagious disease and in absence of this certificate the carrier
shall refuse the consignment; first – aid equipment shall
accompany animals in transit; males and females shall not be
mixed in the same compartment.
 The space required for a goat shall be the same as that for a woolled
sheep and the approximate space required for a sheep in a goods
vehicle or a railway wagon shall be as under,

Space requirement in square metres (approximate weight of animal in kg)

Not more than 20 0.18 0.16

 More than 20 but not more than 25 0.20 0.18

More than 25 but not more than 30 0.23 0.22

More than 30 0.28 0.26

Number animals can be transported by train

BROAD GAUGE METER GAUGE NARROW GU

Area less than 21.1 Above 21.1m2 Area less than 12.5 m2 Area above 12.5m2
m2

70 100 50 60 25

TRANSPORT OF SHEEP AND GOAT BY RAIL AND ROAD

 Only healthy animals in good conditions shall be transported.

 A qualified veterinary officer for freedom from infections and
parasitic diseases and their fitness to undertake the journey shall
certify these animals.
 It is desirable not to mix sheep and goats in order to avoid stampede
during transportation.
 It is desirable not to mix sheep and goats in advance stage of
pregnancy with kids and lambs in order to avoid stampede during
transportation.
 Prior to the transportation of sheep and goats from endemic areas of
zoonotic importance to non-endemic areas, necessary precautions
shall be observed.
 Necessary vaccination shall be done, 14 days in advance.
 Male stock shall not be mixed with female stock in the same
compartment.
 First-acid equipment shall accompany the animals in transit.
 Sufficient feed and fodder shall be carried to last during the journey.
Watering facility shall be provided at regular intervals.
 All vehicles shall be inspected for safety, suitability and cleanliness
before loading the animals.
 The floors and walls shall be undamaged and there shall be no nails
or sharp obstruction, which might injure the animals
  The vehicle shall be thoroughly sprayed with suitable disinfectant
before loading the animals.
 Material for padding, such as straw or other suitable material shall be
placed on the floor to avoid injury if an animal lies down. This shall
be not less than 5 cm thick.
 The animals shall not be fettered unless there is a risk of their
jumping out; typing of legs shall not be permitted.
 Each consignment shall bear a label showing the following
particulars. Number and kind of animals loading.
o Name, address and telephone number if any, of the consignor
o Name, address and telephone number if any, of the consignee;
and
o Quantity of rations and feed provided.
o Proper ventilation shall be provided.
 In case the journey is for more than 12 hours, an attendant shall be
present at all times and shall ensure that proper conditions are
maintained during transport.
 Sheep shall be unloaded and watered every hours and attendant shall
not allow any sheep to sit down while truck is moving.

Loading

 While loading, the extreme temperatures of the day and night shall be
avoided.
 Suitable ramps shall be provided for loading and unlading animals.
The ramp should be at least 0.75 metre in width with raised side at
least 0.75 metre high.
 The floor of the ramp shall clear at about 15-cm interval so those
animals don’t slip as they climb or descend.
 In case of a railway wagon, when the loading is done on the platform,
the dropped door of the wagon may be used as ramp. In such cases
bales of bags of hay or bags of bhusa etc., may be placed on either
side of the dropped door to prevent the animals from getting their
legs between the sides of the wagon and platform.

Space requirement

 The space required per goat shall be the same as that for wooled
sheep. The approximate space required per sheep in truck or railway
wagon shall as follows,

APPROXIMATE MASS OF THE SPACE REQUIRED (m2)

 ANIMALS (Kg) Wooled Shorn

Upto 20 0.18 0.16

21 to 25 0.20 0.18
26 to 30 0.23 0.22
Above 30 0.28 0.26

 Overcrowding shall be avoided.

 For journey in hilly areas, suitable partitions shall be provided to
avoid tramping of animals.
 Railway wagon shall not accommodate more than the following
number of sheep or goats.

BROAD GAUGE AREA OF METER GAUGE AREA NARROW GAUGE AREA

WAGON OF WAGON OF WAGON
Less than 21.1m2and Less than 12.5 m2 and 25
21.2m2 above 12.5 m2 above
70 100 50 60

 In case of large trucks and wagons, partitions every two to three

metres across the width may be provided to prevent much of the
crowding and trapping of animals.
 In case of ewes, goats, lambs and kids under 6 weeks of age, separate
panels may be provided.
 The speed of the truck shall not exceed 40 km per hour and shall
avoid jerks and jolts. The truck not lads any other merchandise and
shall avoid the unnecessary stops on the road.

GENERAL CONDITION FOR TRANSPORT OF LIVESTOCK

 Healthy animals should be transported and a qualified veterinarian

should certify it.
 Young animals should be separated from adult animals and advanced
pregnant state animals should be separated from other animals.
 When animals are transported from endemic area, necessary
permission should be obtained from concerned authorities for proper
health condition.
 14 days prior to transportation necessary vaccination procedure
should be completed for the particular livestock
 During transport all the livestock should be given humane treatment
 Sufficient quantity of feed and fodder should be carried during
transport
 The vehicle should be examined for cleanliness, the floor and walls
shall be undamaged and should be free from nails and other sharp
edges
 The vehicle should be sprayed with disinfectant solution
 Materials for bedding such as straw or hay should be placed on the
floor to avoid injury and the bedding should not be less than 5 cm
thickness
 Animals during transport should not be tied up at leg.
 Each consignment shall bear a bold red label showing the following
particulars
o Number and kind of animals loaded
o Name and address and telephone number of the consignor
(sender) and consignee (receiver)
o Quantity of ration to be fed
o Consignee should be informed about the train or vehicle in
which the consignment of cattle is sent and its arrival time in
advance
 In case of journey for more than 12 hours an attendant should be
present at all the time and should ensure the proper conditions are
maintained during transport.
 Cattle, sheep and goat should be unloaded by every 8 hours and
should be watered. The attendant should not permit the sheep and
goat to sit down during transit.
 Apart from the above general condition some species of livestock
require specific conditions for transport and it also depends upon the
mode of transport.

TRAIN TRAVEL

 Animals shall be transported by passenger trains only. In areas where

such trains are not run, the equines may be transported by goods
trains provided that special precautions are taken.
 Ordinary Cattle wagon when used for transportation of horses,
ponies, mules and donkeys along with their foals, shall carry not
more than 6 of these animals on broad gauge, 4 on meter gauge and 3
on narrow gauge. Attendants shall be allowed to travel along with the
animals in each wagon.
 In extreme summer, water shall be sprinkled over the wagons by the
railway authorities to bring down temperature; ice cubes in specially
made containers may be placed inside the wagon if recommended by
veterinarian.
 Every wagon shall have 2 attendants if the animals are more than 2 in
number.
 Animal shall be loaded parallel to the rails facing each other.
 Material for padding (Kapok) such as paddy straw shall be placed on
the floor to avoid injury if an animal lies down. This shall not be less
than 6 cm thick.
 Rations for the journey shall be carried in the middle of the wagon.
 To provide adequate ventilation the upper door of one side of the
wagon shall be kept open and properly fixed.
 This door of the wagon shall have wire gauge welded to it to prevent
burning cylinders from the engine entering the wagon and leading to
the outbreak of fire.
 2 breast bars shall be provided on each side of the wagon one at a
height of 60 to 90 cm and other at 100 to 110 cm.
 Valuable animal like horses and donkey, stallions, race horses and
brood mares shall be transported in EH or EHH horse box. These
shall be provided by the railways.

TRUCK TRAVEL

 Specially fitted vehicles with a special type of tailboard and padding

around the sides shall be used.
 Ordinary lorries shall be provided with anti-slipping material on the
floor.
 Bamboo poles of atleast 8 cm in diameter between each animals and
2 stout batons at the back shall be provided to prevent the animal
from falling.
 To prevent horses being frightened or injured their heads shall face
left to the vehicle away from the passing traffic.
 Each lorry shall carry 4 to 6 animals.
 Each vehicle shall be provided with one attendant.
 The speed of the truck in which equines (horses, Ponies, mules,
donkeys) are transported shall not exceed 40 km per hour.
 All starting, stopping and turning shall be done slowly.
 While transporting the animals the truck shall not be loaded with any
other merchandise.

SEA TRAVEL

 All ships detailed for conveying animals shall be inspected for fittings
by a board consisting of a marine and a veterinary officer.
 The ship may preferably be of shelter deck type and have ample
mechanical ventilation, good drainage and arrangements for
exercising the animals.
 Horses may normally be accommodated in a single stalls and mules
in pens. Each pen holding 4 to 5 mules.
  Providing portholes and permanent air trunks or electric powers on
all decks shall ensure more ventilation. Exhaust fans shall be installed
to below out foul air.
 The pens shall be mucked out twice day decks scrubbed once every 24
hours. This shall be done when animals are being exercised.
 All standings shall be towards the ship with heads facing inwards.
 Length between breast rail and back lining shall be 2 metres. Breast
rails shall be 1.1 m from the platform.
 Passage between 2 rows of pens should be not less than 1.5 metres.
 Parting boards between pens shall be 3 metres.
 To avoid distress especially during hot weather the ship may sail
immediately after embarking.
 Entries (stallions) shall not be kept in same decks.
 Colts and fillies shall be kept on the exposed decks.
 A pharmacy and spare stalls for 5% animals shall be made available.

AIR TRAVEL

 In aircrafts animals are either secured in crates of 2 to 3 horses each

or kept tied in pens 4 to 5 to each pen.
 The floors of aircrafts are provided protected by a thick layer of wood
shavings and covered with polyethylene sheets. Sides of the body are
well padded.
 All animals shall be administrated tranquilizers before loading. If an
animal becomes considerable within the aircraft it shall be destroyed.
 A horse killer should always be carried for this purpose.
 All aircraft for transporting animals shall be inspected for fitting etc
by a board comprising an air force and veterinary officer.
 Entires (stallions) and brood mares shall not be accommodated in
same crate.
 Loading shall be effected through ramps or lifts.
 An attendant shall accompany the animal consignment.
 A veterinary first-aid kit with the veterinarian shall always be
available in the aircraft.
 Coir matting shall be placed on the floor so that loaded animal does
not produce any sound during journey.
 Hay bundles shall be placed in between the hind legs and sides of the
aircraft.

MODULE-10: COMMON FARM MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Learning outcomes
  At the completion of this module the learner will be able to
understand the concept of disinfection and disposal of carcasses in
the hygienic way

DISINFECTION

Definition

 Disinfection means destruction of pathogenic micro organisms from

a place so that the place becomes free from infection.
 Disinfectant, germicide, antiseptic is a substance able to kill
organisms and their spores.
 Disinfection can be brought about with the help of physical, chemical
and gaseous agents. Most disinfectants are chemical agents.

Types of disinfection

 Physical disinfectant
 Chemical disinfectant
 Gaseous disinfectants

PHYSICAL DISTINFECTANT

 Heat destroys microorganisms by

denaturation of their cellular proteins
through oxidation.
 Heat can be used in tow forms for
sterilization dry and moist.
o Dry heat
 Dry heat may be applied
in the form of flame
(300°C) to floors, walls
and surface.
o Moist heat
 Moist heat is far more
effective than dry heat. It
can be applied in the form
of steam.
 Moist heat is more
effective for disinfection
of equipment, utensils
etc.
 Radiation

 The bactericidal effect of solar

radiation due to the presence of
ultraviolet rays in sunlight is a good
disinfectant.
 Pathogens like brucella are killed in 4-
5 hours direct sun light exposure.
Artificical UV lambs can also be sued
for disinfection.

Filtration

 The technique has been used to

control microbial population in air,
water and biological materials.

Desiccation

 This process removes moisture from

microorganisms, the drying effect
varying with the type of
microorganisms.

CHEMICAL DISINFECTANTS
 These are very widely used in veterinary practice, as their aqueous
solutions are easy to prepare.
 They are cheap and have a broad spectrum of activity.
 A good disinfectant neither stains nor damages materials.
 It is free of undesirable odours.
 Most of the commonly used disinfectants fall into one of the major
categories mentioned below,
o Acid and alkali
 Eg. Boric acid: 4-6%
 Sodium hydroxide (1,2 and 5%) is available as lye for
disinfection of animal houses
 Calcium hydroxide (lime water, slaked lime)
o Aldehydes
 Formaldehyde (5-10%) can be used for washing floor of
animal houses
 Glutaraldehyde 2% aqueous solution is useful for
sterilization of instruments
o Detergents and Soap
 These are used mainly for washing. They remove grease,
dirt and Other organic matter, which tend to reduce the
efficacy of disinfectants.
 Eg. Quartenary ammonium compounds; cetavlon; savlon
o Halogens
 This important group of disinfectants finds wide use in
veterinary and dairying practices.
 A process of oxidation following exposure to either
chlorine or iodine brings about the destruction of
pathogens.
 Gaseous chlorine, hypochlorites and organic chloramines
are commonly used.
 Bleaching powder (calcium hypochlorite) are commonly
used disinfectants.
o Metallic compounds
 Copper sulfate (5mg/lit) can be used
o Oxidizing agents
 Potassium permanganate (1-2mg/lit) can be used
o Phenols
 This group includes cresol(3-5%), lysol(3-5%), thymol,
tar acids and hexachlorophene.
 Phenol 0.5 to 5% can be used in veterinary practice.
o Sodium carbonate
 2.5-4% can be used for farm building
o Bleaching powder (chlorinated lime)
  It is available in the form of white powder.
 1 kg of bleaching powder can be used with 25 litres of
water makes a very good deodorant.
o Sodium hypochlorite
 It is similar to bleaching powder.
 It is a powerful germicide in the absence of organic
matter.
o Quick lime (calcium Oxide)
 Fresh lime is a good disinfectant.
 It is used in the burial pits to dispose the carcass and for
land application
o Calciuim hydroxide (slaked)
 Commonly used in white washing of the walls. It act as
disinfectant also.
 While white washing 5% phenol can also be add for more
effect.

GASEOUS DISINFECTANTS

Gaseous disinfectant are

 Formalin gas
 Ozone gas
 Cresol gas

QUARANTINE

 Quarantine is the process of segregating apparently healthy animals

(especially animal being introduced into a herd or into the country
for the first time) which have been exposed to the risk of infection.
 Quarantine period depends on the incubation period of diseases. In
practice, a minimum period of 30 to 40 days has been generally
accepted as the reasonable period; but incase of diseases like rabies
this period is up to 6 months.
 Normally newly purchased animals and animals returned from show
should be kept in the quarantine shed.
 The shed should be constructed at the entrance of the farm.
 They should be dipped or sprayed on the 25th / 26th day to remove the
ectoparasites.

ISOLATION
  Isolation is the process of segregation of affected and in contact
animals from the apparently healthy ones, in the event of outbreak of
a contagious disease.
 Such segregated animals should preferably be housed in a separate
isolation shed situated far away from the normal animal house.
 If a separate shed is not available the animals for isolation should be
tied at one end of the shed as far away from the apparently healthy
stock as possible.
 Attendants and equipment for sick animals should be ideally
separate.
 If due to practical reasons this is not possible the sick animals should
be attended only after the healthy stock.
 The equipment should be thoroughly disinfected after use in the
isolation group.
 The attendant should wash his hands, feet and gumboots in
antiseptic lotions and change his cloths.
 The isolated animals are brought back to the healthy herd only after
they are fully recovered and the chance of passing on infection is
removed.

DISPOSAL AND UTILIZATION OF CARCASS

 The primary purpose of safe disposal of carcass is to ensure the check

and spread of disease either to other susceptible animals or humans.
 Carcasses of animals may be disposed of by sending them to
knackeries or by burial or burning.

BURIAL AND BURNING OF CARCASSES

Burial of carcasses

 Burial a suitable site should be selected. The burial place must be

distant from a well or water course and there is a sufficiency of
subsoil to allow a depth of 6 feet above the carcass.
 The carcass must be buried in its skin, be covered with a sufficient
quantity of quicklime or other disinfectants.
 The dead animals should be arranged upon its back with feet
upwards.
 The skin is slashed inside the pit all cases except ;in the case of
anthrax.
 As the small of carcass may attract foxes and dogs the area of the
burial needs to be disinfect with coal tar which will act as detergent
for sufficient length of time.
Incineration/cremation/burning of carcasses

 There are 4 methods of cremation

o Pit method
o Surface burning method
o Flame gun method
o Incineration in a destructor

PIT METHOD

 Pit method for the carcass of a large cow, dig a pit measuring about 7
feet long, 4 feet wide and 18 inch deep is dug.
 A trench about 9 inches wide and 9 inches deep is next dug right
across the bottom of the pit, the ends of this cross trench being the
bottom of te pit, and sloped upwards so as to reach ground level
about 2.5 feet from the edge of the pit.
 The object of this trench is to provide for draught and to facilitate the
lighting of the fire. The fire may be laid in the following sequence.
o Fill the trench with straw soaked with paraffin to provide
lighting points.
o Place a few piece of heavy timber, iron rails at intervals across
the ventilation trench so as to prevent its obstructions.
o Cover bottom of pit with thin pieces of wood
o Add large pieces of wood
o Saturate with paraffin
o Add coal
 The fire is started by lighting the straw at one or both ends of the
lighting points.

SURFACE BURNING METHOD

 This method can usefully be adopted when labour is scarce or when

the nature of ground is not suitable for construction of pit ie., when
the land is water logged.
o Two parallel trenches about 5 feet long, 9 inches wide and 9
inches deep and 2 feet apart are dug in the direction of the
prevailing wind at the site selected for cremation.
o The carcass is placed over the trenches.
o Coal is placed on and around the carcass.
o Wood is soaked with paraffin.
o A small quantity of paraffin saturated straw is added, the fire is
then lit.

FLAME GUN METHOD

  No pit or trench is required in this method. The carcass is placed on
ground or corrugated iron sheet and a powerful flame directed
towards it, destroy the carcass.
 The time taken depends on the number of flame guns used and the
size of the animals.

CASTRATION

 Making the animal unable to

reproduce is generally known as
castration.
 In India and other South-East
Asian countries bullocks are
extensively used for agricultural
operations.
 Buffalo is particularly valued as a
draught animal in rice growing
areas.
 Male cattle and buffaloes meant
for work should be castrated.

Purpose

 To render the animal docile

 To induce faster gain in body
weight and to improve the quality
of meat.
 To control indiscriminate
breeding.
 To prevent certain genital
diseases.
 Castration also results in lean and
slender neck which facilitates the
correct fitness of yoke especially
in work cattle.

Precaution

 Castration should be performed during cold season and strictly avoid

rainy season for fear of fly problems.
 Castrated animals should be rested for few days in clean and
comfortable pens.

Optimum Age
  Young animals: within 3 months (Surgical method and elastrator)
 Adult animal: within one year of age (Closed method – Burdizzo
castrators)

Methods

Castration of sheep and goats Castration of young bull

 Burdizzo method (see the video)

o It is also known as bloodless castration. The Burdizzo castrator
is used to crush the spermatic cord and thus stopping the blood
to the testes.
o This results in atrophy of the testes and stoppage of
spermatozoa production.
o After casting, secure the animal. Move the spermatic cord to
the side of the scrotum and then clamp the Burdizzo at about 3-
5 cm above the testicles and it is held for a few seconds.
o Then repeat this operation on the same cord at a location about
1cm below the first one. This method is safe, quick and less
chance of getting infection.

 Open or surgical method

o Scrotum is opened and testicles are removed, aseptically and
the wound is treated with antiseptics.
o In young bulls the cord may be cut as savagely off but in the
case of mature bulls the cord should be twisted before severing
it.
  Rubber ring or elastrator method
o A strong and tight rubber ring placed around the cord at an
early age of calf.
o This creates constant pressure and the testicles are atrophied
and absorbed and the ring drops down.
o Elastrator rings are very painful to the animal and so it is not
usually recommended. Optimum age: below 3 months.

RUBBER RING / ELASTRATOR METHOD

 A strong and tight rubber ring placed around the cord at an early age
of calf.
 This creates constant pressure and the testicles are atrophied and
absorbed and the ring drops down.
 Elastrator rings are very painful to the animal and so it is not usually
recommended. Optimum age: below 3 months.
 DEHORNING

 Dehorning means removal of well grown horns. Disbudding means

arresting the horn growth at an early age, when the horn root is in the
bud stage.
 Horn serves no useful purpose.

Purpose

 Dehorned animals will need less space in the sheds.

 Cattle with horns inflict bruises on each other that may result in
heavy economic losses.
 Horned animals are a danger to the operator.
 Dehorned animals can be handled more easily.
 Prevents the occurrence of horn cancer.

Optimum age: 15 to 20 days.

Methods

 Hot iron method

o A specially designed electric dehorner is used for this purpose.
This is bloodless method it may be used at any season.
 o The rod heated with electricity has an automatic control that
maintain the temperature at about 10000 F, applying it to the
horn bud for l0 seconds is sufficient to destroy the horn tissue.

 Elastrator
o A specially made thick rubber ring applied to the base of the
horn.
o The rubber band shuts off circulation and the horn gradually
comes off. Small buds drop off in 3 to 6 weeks and large horns
may take even 2 months.
o It is a painful method and this method is used on cattle when
the horn length is about 5-10 cm.
 Chemical method
o Caustic potash or caustic soda is the common chemical used for
dehorning.
o These are available in the form of paste or solution.
o Clip the hair around the horn buds and surrounding area, a
ring of Vaseline to protect the eyes against chemicals.
o Rub the chemical over the buds until bleeding occurs.
 Dehorning saw or clippers
o When older cattle are to be dehorned a specially designed
clippers or saw are used.
o A considerable amount of bleeding may follow the operations.
o To prevent the bleeding the main horn artery should be tied off
with a cotton or silk thread.
o This may be done by sliding a sewing needle under the artery to
pull the thread in place before tying.
o It is necessary when sawing or clipping the horns, to take about
half an inch of skin in order to get at the horn roots.

DOCKING
 EXTRA TEAT REMOVAL

 Normal udder should have four severely placed teats of uniform size.
But animals with one and even two extra teats are also seen. Such
extra teats may be blind or leaky.
 It should be removed before the calf attains 6 months of age.
 After controlling the calf the region is thoroughly cleaned and
disinfected with Tincture iodine and mark extra teats before removal.
These teats are clipped off with scissors.
 Some more tincture is applied after finishing the process. In the older
heifer, suture is put in order to arrest bleeding.

MODULE-11: INTRODUCTION TO METHODS OF DRUG

ADMINISTRATION

Learning outcomes

 On completion of this module, the learner will be able to discuss

about the vices of different ruminant animals, different age groups
and measures to control them.

INTRODUCTION

 To treat the ailments of animals, various remedial measures are

advocated in the form of drugs or in the form of physical agents like
moist heat by fomentation.
 Therapeutic agents intended to bring about beneficial effects in sick
animals administered through various routes.

METHODS OF ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES

 Medicines are administered in two ways

o Oral administration
o Parentral administration
 Oral administration: It is the administration of medicines through
the mouth. By oral method, medicines can be administered in liquid,
solid and semi-solid form.
 Parentral administration: Any other route of administration other
than oral route is called parentral administration.
 ORAL ADMINISTRATION

Drenches

 Drenches are medicines given in liquid form.

 Drenches may be given by mouth or through a stomach tube.
 For administration of fluid medicines to horses, the stomach tube is
used.
 Stomach tube is better than the use of a drenching bottle and
drenching bit.

Cattle

 Metal drencher and stomach tube can be used for administering fluid
medicines to cattle.
 The tube can be passed through the nostril as that of horse.
 A stronger stomach tube may be passed by mouth with the aid of a
probang gag.
 Careless drenching leads to aspiration pneumonia.

Sheep and Goat

 Stomach tube or drenching cup may be used for the administration of

medicines.
 Nostrils are too small for introduction of tube for administering
medicine.
 Mouth gag is required to prevent the tube being chewed during
introduction of stomach tube through the mouth.

Bolus and Pills

 It is a solid form of medicine.

Horses

 The tongue is held between the upper and lower jaws the operator’s
hand is protected and the mouth is kept open.
 The bolus held between the first and second fingers of the right hand
is inserted into the left side of the horse’s mouth, quickly passed
along the roof of the mouth as far back as possible and dropped in the
throat.
 The right hand is quickly withdrawn and the tongue released.
Cattle

 The mouth should be opened by hand or gag and the bolus, pills and
capsule can be deposited on the back of the tongue.
 A balling gun may be necessary for calves and young cattle.

Sheep and goat

 Tablets, pills and small boluses are dropped on the back of the tongue
by hand or by a balling gun.

Electuaries

 It is a semi-solid form of medicine. These are thick viscid mixtures

prepared with treacle and placed on the back of the tongue.
 Powders are often given by this method.
 It is a common way of giving medicines for respiratory complaints or
when swallowing is difficult.

Cattle

 The nostrils are held by an assistant and the operator opens the
mouth of the animal.
 The electuaries can be smeared on the tongue.

Sheep and goat

 The sheep/goat is held as for drenching and the electuaries can be

smeared on the tongue.
 PARENTRAL ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES

Hypodermic or subcutaneous injections

 Medicine is injected under the skin with a sterilized hypodermic

needle and syringe.
 The rate of absorption is slow as compared to intramuscular and or
intravenous routes.
 Site of injection
o Horse and cattle - neck region
o Sheep and goat - flank region

Intramuscular injection

 Medicines which are not suitable to administer through subcutaneous

route are administered directly into a muscle.
 A longer and stouter needle is desirable.
 Site of injection
o Horse, cattle, sheep and goat - muscles of breast, Neck, triceps,
buttock muscles.

Intravenous injection

 In this method, the medicine is injected directly into the blood

stream.
 Site of injection
o Cattle - jugular vein, mammary vein
o Sheep and goat - jugular vein

Intraperitoneal injection

 The drug is injected into the peritoneal cavity in large animals by

means of trocar and canula inserted into the upper part of the left
flank.
 In small animals a hypodermic syringe with long needle is used.

Intratracheal injection

 The drug is injected directly into the trachea with a specially made
intratracheal needle or canula in certain condition like parasitic
bronchitis in young cattle and sheep.
Intramammary infusions

 A special syringe or teat syphon is used and the infusion is pressed

into the teat canal in case of mastitis.
 First the milk in the udder is removed and then appropriate antibiotic
is infused.

Intra-uterine irrigation

 Antiseptic solutions are injected into the uterus so as to irrigate the

uterine cavity with a two-way catheters.
 Otherwise a specially designed metal catheter for cow; rubber tubing
and a pump for mare; and a syringe for bitches and cats may be used.

Intra-ruminal injection

 Medicines are sometimes given directly into the rumen.

 A trocar and canula is introduced into the rumen through the hollow
of the left flank.
 Some antiparasitic medicines are given through this route.

OTHER METHODS

Pessaries

 These are solid forms of medicines for insertion into the uterus and
vagina of large animals.

Inhalation

 Medicaments are added to boiling water and the resulting vapour is

inhaled.
 It is useful for all animals for respiratory diseases.

Enema

 It is given for evacuation of bowel.

 Sometimes nutrient enema may be given to animal which are unable
to take nourishment in the ordinary way.
Poultices

 Glycerine and kaolin with turpentine are taken in a semi solid form
(paste) and applied on the part of the body.

Fomentation

 This is a first aid treatment for many types of sprains.

 It may be used in the form of either hot or ice cold fomentation.

Baths

 Animal suffering from hoof diseases e.g. foot rot in sheep may be
driven through a shallow trough or foot bath containing antiseptics.

OTHER METHODS

Pessaries

 These are solid forms of medicines for insertion into the uterus and
vagina of large animals.

Inhalation

 Medicaments are added to boiling water and the resulting vapour is

inhaled.
 It is useful for all animals for respiratory diseases.

Enema

 It is given for evacuation of bowel.

 Sometimes nutrient enema may be given to animal which are unable
to take nourishment in the ordinary way.

Poultices

 Glycerine and kaolin with turpentine are taken in a semi solid form
(paste) and applied on the part of the body.

Fomentation

 This is a first aid treatment for many types of sprains.

  It may be used in the form of either hot or ice cold fomentation.

Baths

 Animal suffering from hoof diseases e.g. foot rot in sheep may be
driven through a shallow trough or foot bath containing antiseptics.

ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION

 Medicines are administered in animals by the following routes,

mainly classified into,
o Mouth
o Rectum
o Vagina
o Respiratory tract
o Skin
o Eye
o By parentral route (injections)

ORAL MEDICATION

Medicines administrated through mouth in different forms as drench,

bolus, electuary and powders.

Drenching

 Liquid medicines given by this method. Near the base of the tongue
as a single dose/or divided doses.

Equipment used

 A bottle with a long neck

 Aluminium drencher
 Feeding cup
 Country bamboo
 Drenching bit and
 Stomach tube for horses

Precautions for drenching

 Drenching avoided if animal suffering from respiratory disorders.

  Drenching not advised for unconscious animals
 Avoid wrong drenching (i.e) medicine entering into the respiratory
tract by observing as follows:-
o Head should not be raised too high
o Give small quantities of medicine at a time
o Leave tongue absolutely free.
o If the animal exhibits cough during drenching indicating that
small quantities of medicine entered in respiratory tract,
immediately suspend drenching.

For drenching sheep

 Funnel and rubber tupe

 Sheep, dosing syringe (Non automatic and automatic type)
 Sayer’s automatic pistolet drenching gun

Bolusing

 Soild mass of medicine (bolus) placing behind base of the tongue

(Bolus, Pills, tablets, tabloids and capsules used)
 Eg: Balling Gun used for administration of bolus.

Electuaries

 Semi solid medicines prepared with treacle as excipent.

 It is given for respiratory diseases or when swallowing is difficult.
 They are administered by introducing in-between the molars by
rubbing over the tongue or roof of the mouth, given in cattle, sheep,
goat, pig, dogs and cats.
 THROUGH RECTUM

Per rectum (or) Enema

 These are fluid preparations given or introduced through rectum.

 There are different types enema based on their actions.
o Purgative enema
o Sedative enema
o Vermifuge enema
o Nutritive enema

Suppositories

 Solid preparations given through rectum.

 These are small conical bodies of glycerine containing drugs intended
for introduction though rectum.
 THROUGH RESPIRATORY TRACT

Inhalation

 It is a method of applying drugs in a finely divided gaseous state so

that beinig inhaled they come into contact with the nasal air passages
and lungs.
 Eg. Volatile inhalations (Volatile drugs used)
 Air inhalations (Aerosols)

THROUGH VAGINA

 Pessaries are solid conical bodies containing compounds of drugs

made up with a base and some antiseptic/antibiotic elements used
for introducing into the reproductive tract.

SITES OF INJECTIONS

By injections: Sites of injection

 Are 1 sides of the neck region

 Brisket, axillary space between the thigh, flank and buttock
o Intramuscular injections
 sites
  Side of the neck, Muscles of the buttock and breast, thigh,
injected into the major muscle mass.
o Intravenous injections
 sites
 Injected directly into lumen of the blood vessel.
 Site
 Jugular vein in cattle, Horse, Sheep and Goat.
 Dog and Cats – Saphneous vein.
o Subcutaneous injections
 Injected inbetween the skin and the muscle layer.
 Site:- Flank, side of the neck
o Intradermal injection
 Injected into between the layers of the skin by using
appropriate needle. Mostly diagnostic agents like
tuberculin and mullein are introduced.
o Intra-peritoneal injection.
o Intra -tracheal injection.
o Subconjunctival injection
o Intra-uterine injection
o Intra-ruminal injection
o Intra –mammary injections

TOPICAL APPLICATION OF MEDICINES

Skin

 Topical application of medicine into the skin, mucous membrane of

eye, nasal passage as ointment aqueous, solution, powders, aerosol,
Lotion, Liniment etc

Poultice

 Soft medicated moist warm application used for the surface of the
body kept in a muslin cloth to effect emollient, relaxing and softening
effects for relieving soreness and inflammation.

Fomentations

 These are applications of warm or hot fluids usually containing some

antiseptic soothing agents, pain relieving agents to be used to quicken
the ripening of abscess.
 Action and indication similar to that of poultice

Blisters
  These are medicinal subjects used for the purpose of counter
irritations i.e. to produce a superficial congestion of the skin and its
underlying tissue to relieve inflammation/congestions in some deep
seated organ/tissue.
 In chronic localized painful condition blisters are applied. Blisters are
divided into 1) Rubifacients and vesicants.

Ointments

 Ther are mixtures of medicated subjects with a base like lard, paraffin
or Vaseline, wool fat or lanoline which is intended for application to
the surface of the skin or mucous membrane.

Lotions

 Ther are fluid preparations intended to bring into contact with the
skin and used for washing a part, Lotion are watery nature and some
are alcoholic.

Liniment

 They are preparations intended for external application which are

oily/soapy in nature generally applied by rubbing to the skin.
 Eg. Turpentine liniment.

Eye

 Collyrium:- is an eye wash

 Occulentum:- is an eye ointment

Lamellae

 It is a small disc of glycerine jelly containing an active drug for

application to the eye.
 It is applied into the eye in lower eyelid. Eg. atropine, cocaine.
 MODULE-12: COMMON VICES OF ANIMALS, THEIR
PREVENTION AND CARE

Learning outcomes

 On completion of this module, the learner will be able to discuss the

various methods available for administration of medicines to
ruminants and select the best method for a given animal and
situation.

DAIRY ANIMALS

Eye rolling

 The eyes are moved around in the orbit at a time when no visible
object is present.
 Normally seen in calves confined in crates and stand immobile for
extended period.

Tongue rolling

 The tongue is extruded from the moth and moved by curling and
uncurling outside or inside the mouth with no solid material present.
 This condition occurs in all ages and breeds. Brown Swiss breed
exhibit it most frequently.
 Factors responsible for this vices may be hereditary, continuous
confinement, feeding of low roughages.
 Control method includes insertion of a metal ring through the
frenulum of the tongue, dietary inclusion of salt mixture, free
movement.

Licking and eating own hair, wool

 Many young calves housed in individual crates, early weaning leads

to licking those parts of their bodies which they can reach, this results
in ingestion of large quantities of har wick aggregates into hair balls
or bezoars in the rumen.
 This vice is more common in calves moved from individual pen to
group housing.
Sucking and eating solid objects

 Recently weaned calves will often suck and lick the walls, bars of their
pen.
 This can be controlled by regular creosote paint of wood surface.
 Feeding good quality concentrate and roughage will minimize the
incidence.

Intersucking by calves

 Calves separated from their mothers suck and lick at their own
bodies, at objects in their pens and at parts of the bodies of other
calves.
 The commonly suck on the naval, prepuce, scrotum, udder and ears
of other animals.

Intersucking or milk sucking by adult animals

 This behaviour involves a cow or bull sucking milk from the udder of
a cow. Cattle suck milk from herd mates and choose the same
lactating animal.
 This vice may lead to loss of milk yield and damage to teat. Proper
feeding management and herd supervision can minimize such
incidents.
 VICES OF SHEEP AND GOAT

Wool pulling and wool eating

 Wool pulling is a form of abnormal behaviour which occurs in sheep

within restrictive enclosure and indoor management systems.
 Over crowding and deficiency of roughage in the diet are the
contributing factor for this vice.

Stealing young / lamb stealing

 Pre-parturient ewes, cows and mares often approach, sniff and

remain close to the new born young of other members of the group.
This leads to reduced maternal support to the young and it become
weak.
 In lamb stealing, the foster mother may later reject her own lamb
when it is born or may have no colostrum left for it. In these
situations lamb may often die. This problem can be controlled by
separating the ewe from the group before and very soon after
parturition.

YOUNG ANIMALS

Vices are abnormal or bad habits shown by animals.

Eye-rolling

 This is very common in calves confined in the crates / pen for the
extended periods.
 Head is motionless and the animal rolls its eyes within the orbits.

Licking

 Licking animal’s own body or solid object in the surroundings with

the same pattern of movement.
 Due to inadequate quantities of food, no teat from which to suck or
insufficient total sensory input.
 Common in calves- salt lick is best remedy.

Sucking

 Common in calves and piglets due to early weaning.

Anal massage

 Young piglets rub their noses on other piglets and ingestion of faeces
seen in pigs occurs typically among growing pigs kept in crowded
conditions.
 It is more noticeable where tail-docking at an early age is used for the
control of tail biting.
 Remedy : Reduce the stocking density in a pen.

Tail-biting

 Seen in growing pigs grouped in pens but it is sporadic in its

occurrence.
 Tail-docking distal half of the tail which is comparatively insensitive
and not necessary to remove the entire tail.
 Segregation of animals showing this behaviour.

Belly nosing

 Common in piglets and can be controlled by provision of straw

bedding in the pen.

Intersucking by calves
  It can be controlled by feeding calves with automatic nursers with
teats and prolonging the feeding time.
 Sucking periods lasting approximately 30 min appear to eliminate
intersucking.

 Takes place during periods of idling by the herd.

 Remedy : Increased provision of roughage can be made in the diet
and such roughage should be offered during periods when idling
occurs.

ADULT ANIMALS

Head rubbing

 Cattle which are confined to stalls for extended periods, such as

winters, may rub their heads repeatedly against some part of the stall
.
 This behaviour is more noticeable in horned breeds and more in bulls
than in other breeds. In pigs: sometimes observed when they housed
in a narrow single stall.
 Remedy : Application of suitable restraint imposed upon the affected
animals.

Sham-chewing

 Jaw movements like chewing food in sows which has no food in its
mouth.
 This is common in sows kept singly in stalls in which no litter is
provided.
 Symptoms: Periodic chewing, mouth gaping and frothing.
 Remedy: Sows should be given straw or saw dust to chew and root. A
change to group –housing system is the best way to alleviate the
adverse effects on sows.

Tongue-rolling

 The tongue is extruded from the mouth and moved by curling and
uncurling outside or inside the mouth with no solid material present.
 It occurs most commonly immediately before and after feeding in
cattle.
 Remedy
o Wind-sucking straps
o Insertion of a metal ring through the frenulum of the tongue.
o Provision of salt lick
 o Provision of freedom of movement
o Isolation of affected animals
o Tongue-rolling cattle should not be used for breeding

Bar-biting / tether / crib-biting

 The animal opens and closes its mouth around a bar, tether / stable
door engaging the tongue and teeth with the surface and performing
chewing movements.
 This is mainly due to restricted movement in stalls.
 Remedy : Less confined housing conditions.

Drinker-pressing

 Pressing an automatic drinker repeatedly without ingesting the

water. Common in pregnant sows.

Eating solid objects

 Cattle and sheep- Phosphorus deficiency. Injection of phosphorus or

supplementation through feed.

Eating of soil, sand or dirt

 Cattle- mineral deficient diet. Supplementation of phosphorus and

iron through feed.

Overeating

 Common in horses and occasionally in cattle. Excess intake of grain.

 Feeding hay before grain feeding. Split feeding. Rumenotomy. Not
treatable if hypothalamus is involved.

Wool-pulling and wool eating

 In sheep, restricted enclosure and indoor management systems.

 Sometimes deficiency of roughage in the diet. Reducing the stocking
density in a pen ( 50 % ).

Stable tricks and vices of horses

 Weaving, Wind sucking, Crib biting, Biting, Tearing the clothing,

Kicking in the stable, Gnawing the walls, Eating the dung
 (coprophagia), Eating the bedding material, Sleeping while standing,
Throwing the food out of the manger, Rearing, Shying, Jibbing in
harness or backing.

MODULE-13: LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS OF

DIFFERENT AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES

Learning outcomes

 At the completion of this module the learner will be able to describe

the different livestock production systems which are in practice for
different ruminant animals

DEFINITIONS (FAO)

Solely livestock production systems (L)

 Livestock systems in which more than 90 percent of dry matter fed to

animals comes from rangelands, pastures, annual forages and
purchased feeds and less than 10 percent of the total value of
production comes from non-livestock farming activities.

Landless livestock production systems (LL).

 Subset of the solely livestock production systems in which less than

10 percent of the dry matter fed to animals is farm-produced and in
which annual average stocking rates are above ten livestock units
(LU) per hectare of agricultural land.

Grassland-based systems (LG).

  Subset of solely livestock production systems in which more than 10
percent of the dry matter fed to animals is farm-produced and in
which annual average stocking rates are less than ten LU per hectare
of agricultural land.

Mixed-farming systems (M)

 Livestock systems in which more than 10 percent of the dry matter

fed to animals comes from crop by-products or stubble or more than
10 percent of the total value of production comes from non-livestock
farming activities.

Rain-fed mixed-farming systems (MR).

 A subset of the mixed systems in which more than 90 percent of the

value of non-livestock farm production comes from rain-fed land use.

Irrigated mixed-farming systems (MI).

 A subset of the mixed systems in which more than 10 percent of the

value of non-livestock farm production comes from irrigated land
use.

MIXED FARMING SYSTEMS

Introduction

 Mixed farming systems are livestock systems in which more than 10%
of the dry matter fed to animals comes from crop by-products such as
stubble, or where more than 10% of the total value of production
comes from non-livestock farming activities.

Landless LPS

 Landless LPS are a subset of the pure livestock systems in which less
than 10% of the dry matter fed to animals is farm produced and in
which annual average stocking rates are above ten livestock units per
hectare of agricultural land (on average at census unit level).
 Grassland-based systems are defined as systems in which more than
10% of the dry matter fed to animals is farm produced and in which
annual average stocking rates are less than ten livestock units per
hectare of agricultural land.
 A distinction is made between,
 o temperate zones and tropical highland
o humid/sub-humid tropics and sub-tropics
o arid/semi-arid tropics and sub-tropics.

RAIN-FED MIXED FARMING SYSTEMS

Definition

 Rain-fed mixed farming systems are mixed systems in which more

than 90% of the value of non-livestock farm production comes from
rain-fed land use; these systems can be divided into the same agro-
ecological sub-classes.
 Irrigated mixed farming systems are systems in which more than 10%
of the value of non-livestock farm production comes from irrigated
land use.

Farming systems

 In general, husbandry systems are usually classified as intensive,

semi-intensive and extensive, but in the tropics and subtropics these
distinctions are sometimes less instructive than those between
sedentary, transhumant, and nomadic systems.
 Devendra and Burns (1983) surveyed husbandry systems in southern
Asia, and related them to ecological zones.
 He included tethering as a husbandry system of major importance in
the humid zones of this area; it may also be regarded as a semi-
intensive system practiced by sedentary small farmers, or even as a
method of control alternative to fencing or housing.
 Meat and dual production systems which is common in the tropical
countries can be classified as
o Extensive (migratory, free range, pasture or range grazing).
o Semi-intensive (pasture or range grazing, use of supplementary
feeding mainly on crop residues and conserved roughage)
o Intensive (grazing on improved pastures, zero grazing,
conserved forage, crop residues and increased use of
concentrates).
o Tethering (small size flocks of 2-10 animals). This is a
subsistence family system and the animals live on kitchen
remnants crop residues, grazing near inhabited areas and other
supplementary feed.
 In the migratory system sheep and goat farmers make
use of the seasonal pastures located in different areas.
 In the mountainous regions of Asia, Europe and North
America climatic conditions limit growth of vegetation in
 winter and so flocks are moved to lowlands; in summer
flocks are moved to highlands where feed is available.
 In the semi-arid and arid regions land use is seasonal and
movement of the animals is dictated by rainfall and
availability of grazing.
 INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEMS
 EXTENSIVE-NOMADIC SYSTEMS

 Extensive - Nomadic systems are the most difficult to improve,

because they involve continuous movement, not only of the whole
flock, but also of all its owners.
 There is, therefore, no possibility of dividing the flock by age, sex or
stage of reproductive cycle, and it is very difficult to provide
supplementary feeding.
 Nomadic flockers know where to find the best pasture and browse, as
well as drinking water, at different seasons.
 These systems have developed primarily in areas of sparse or
seasonal grazing, such as arid regions.

TYPICAL TRANSHUMANT SYSTEM

 Typical transhumant system involves the flock spending part of each

year grazing within reach of a permanent village base, and the rest of
the year on distant pastures, usually in a different ecological zone.
 The women, children and old people usually stay in the village
throughout the year, and may cultivate some crops.
  Pregnant and newly kidded does could be kept at the village and fed
on crop wastes, tree leaves, etc., being controlled either by tethering
or housing.
 Bucks could be similarly controlled, making selective breeding and
control of kidding dates possible.

SEDENTARY SYSTEMS

 Nomadic and transhumant systems are essentially extensive for at

least part of the year, but sedentary farmers have a wide choice of
systems, from fully extensive to zero-grazing.
 Extensive systems are most appropriate where large areas of pasture
land can provide grazing and browse for goats with a minimum of
labour or capital investment.

Tethering

 Semi- intensive - Tethering of goats. Goats are usually tethered

singly. Where tethering is used, care must be taken that there is no
possibility of strangulation by entanglement with vegetation, etc., or
with other goats. Shade must be always available, and drinking water
and shelter from rain must be provided when required.
 It is essential to change the place of tethering every day for obtaining
fresh herbage and a variety of different feed plants by the animal.
Tethering is an excellent and cheap method.
 A more sophisticated method is the running wire in which the tether
is attached by a sliding metal ring to a long wire tightly stretched
between two short posts.

INTENSIVE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

 Intensive production systems involve either grazing on crops or

cultivated pastures at a very high stocking density or zero-grazing.
 Large number of animals or birds are placed in a comparatively lesser
area and the production is intensified.
 All the activities are carried out in a smaller area to achieve the
production potentials of the animal.
 In contrast, in a large area the control of animals by fencing is both
difficult and expensive.
 Fences need to be at least 1.5m high and made of strong wire netting,
closely placed wires, or wooden rails.

MODULE-14: LIVESTOCK RESOURCES AND RESOURCES

 MANAGEMENT

Learning outcomes

 On completion of this module the learner will be able to understand

the livestock resources in the country and their management for the
use of mankind.

INTRODUCTION

 India has vast animal genetic resources with a wide variety of

indigenous farm animals including cattle. The cattle breeds have
evolved over generations to adapt to the agro-climatic and socio-
economic needs of the people.
 A number of these breeds are now subjected to fast genetic
degradation and dilution because of unplanned breeding and
introduction of exotic germplasm. Since last two decades, the
emphasis on draftability of cattle has reduced due to mechanization
of agriculture and transport.
 Crossbreeding of native cattle for increased milk production has been
advocated as a breeding policy across the country. As a result, some
indigenous breeds are getting endangered at an alarming rate while
others are in the process of replacement by certain high producing
strains. If this trend continues, the invaluable native
germplasm would grossly be depleted or even lost for ever.
 Thus conservation of domestic cattle breeds of cattle is essential due
to their potentiality for production or draught capability or high
resistance to diseases and heattolerance ability. Constraint analysis
including strength, weakness, opportunities and threats (SWOT) of
different production system in necessary for developing strategies for
conservation and management of livestock genetic resources.
 (Source: NBAGR, ICAR, Govt.of India)

CURRENT STATUS

 Animal production contributes about 40% of the total value to

agriculture globally.
 Two billion people depend at least in part, directly upon livestock for
their lively hood.
 The wide variety of livestock genetic resources provide varieties of
meats, milk and eggs, together with a broad range of other goods and
services such as draught, fibre, hides, skin manure etc., Judicious
utilization and enhancement of the quality of these resources is
important to ensure their sustainability to meet future demand.
  Human population growth, progressive urbanization and large
purchasing power of people will increase the demand for livestock
products.
 The projected growth in total consumption of meat and milk is 2.9
and 4.3% per year respectively for India.
 Two major considerations that will guide future activities are
o The conservation of livestock genetic resources and
maintenance of diversity.
o Substantial increase in rate and efficiency of livestock
production.
 The future increase is how to efficiency generate increase output per
unit of input from livestock sector while preventing major loss in
genetic diversity and environmental degradation.
 The Indian sub-continent is a hot spot amongst the 12 mega
biodiversity resource centers in the world.
 In domesticated livestock and birds a large number of breeds/ types
of cattle, buffaloes, sheep’s, goats, pigs, horses, camels, mithun, yak,
dogs, cats, poultry, ducks, gees, turkeys, guinea fowls and pheasants
have evolved over time through natural, selection and some human
effort.
 In India, 27 cattle breeds, 10 buffalo breeds, 44 sheep breeds, 20 goat
breeds, 4 horse breeds and 2 camel breeds were recognized by
NBAGR of ICAR.
 With appropriate management, livestock enable sustainable use of
lands for food production transforming unusable fibrous material
into high quality protein, the milk and meat for human beings.
 When poorly managed especially in fragile eco-systems, livestock
species becomes one of the causes of environment pollution,
environment degradation and desertification.

CONSERVATION

Introduction

 India has vast animal genetic resources with a wide variety of

indigenous farm animals including cattle.
 The cattle breeds have evolved over generations to adapt to the agro-
climatic and socio-economic needs of the people.
 A number of these breeds are now subjected to fast genetic
degradation and dilution because of unplanned breeding and
introduction of exotic germplasm . Since last two decades, the
emphasis on draftability of cattle has reduced due to mechanization
of agriculture and transport.
 Crossbreeding of native cattle for increased milk production has been
advocated as a breeding policy across the country. As a result, some
 indigenous breeds are getting endangered at an alarming rate while
others are in the process of replacement by certain high producing
strains. If this trend continues, the invaluable native germplasm
would grossly be depleted or even lost for ever. Thus conservation of
domestic cattle breeds of cattle is essential due to their potentiality
for production or draught capability or high resistance to diseases
and heat tolerance ability.

Mechanism of conserving cattle genetic resources

 Once genetic resources have been identified and characterized, two

basic conservation activities can be followed, i.e., in situ conservation
and ex situ conservation

IN SITU CONSERVATION

 It requires establishment of live animal breeding farms and their

maintenance. The generation and loss of alleles is a dynamic process
that should be maintained at close equilibrium through sound
management.
 In situ conservation strategies emphasize wise use of indigenous
cattle genetic resources by establishing and implementing breeding
goals and strategies for animal sustainable production systems.
 Information for animal recording and breeding is well established in
developed countries through breeding associations which zealously
protect the interest of breeds including rare ones. Infrastructure
appropriate to systems in developing countries remains scarce.

Advantages of in-situ conservation

 Live animals can be evaluated and improved over the years.

Genetic defects can be detected and eliminated.
Live animals are always available for immediate use.
The animals are gene banks for future use.
The herd may have some economic advantages (heat tolerance,
disease resistance) which can be exploited and so render the
enterprise economically viable.
 The produce from live animals partly compensates the expenditure, if
not entirely.
 From aesthetic point of view, the live animals are, visible, a pleasure
to look at, the people are delighted to see variety of animals and have
some cultural value.
Limitations

 The major limitation of live animal conservation is the number of

animals that could be maintained. While fixing the number for
preservation of a breed, the cost of maintenance, availability of
animals and rate of inbreeding should be taken into consideration.
 With small population size, the effective population size decreases
and the genetic structure of the population is affected due to
inbreeding and random drift.
 Many models are now available which reduce inbreeding to a
minimum, but random drift over long periods may lead to a
population very different in genetic composition from the initial one.
Gene X environment interactions is another disadvantage.
 In situ conservation involves a large infrastructure of land, buildings,
feed and fodder resources, water supply, labour , technical and
supervisory man-power, etc.
 Therefore, new establishments for in-situ conservation of farm cattle
genetic resources are quite costly and even the maintenance of
existing ones is cumbersome. The costs need to be estimated for each
ecosystem

New technologies

 Major changes in livestock production have occurred during the past

few decades due to the introduction of several new technologies.
 Examples: Eradication of Rinderpest, artificial incubation, embryo
transfer and associated technologies ( genomics, cloning and Tran
genesis).
 It is therefore necessary that research in newer biotechnologies are
intensified, so that traditional genetic improvement methods like
progeny testing and sire/dam evaluation schemes are by- passed in
future.

EX-SITU CONSERVATION

 Ex-situ conservation includes cryogenic preservation. It is the storage

of genetic resources, which the farmers are currently not interested in
using.
 Ex situ conservation is based on the use of live animals populations
wherever practicable, supported by cryopreservation where technology
exists or can be developed, combining within-country gene banks with
global repositories.
 Interested governments, non- governmental organizations, research
 institutions and private enterprises should be encouraged to maintain
in vivo samples of breeds at risk, with national inventories being
established and kept up to date so that the genetic resources are
readily available for use and study.
 Because of random drift and possible gene by environment
interactions, ex situ methods are generally preferred over in situ. Ex
situ conservation is comparatively more convenient, economical and
easy with the application of modern reproductive technologies.

Advantages

 If the preservation is to maintain populations without genetic change,

it can be best done by cryogenic storage as it is difficult to breed many
generations of animals without any change in the genetic structure.
 The resources requirement for in situ preservation is quite large as
compared to cryogenic methods.

Limitations

 Ex situ preservation using frozen semen delays the restoration of a

breed as it can be restored in the future only by upgrading. But this
could be overcome through preservation of embryos.
 Another important factor is the danger faced by a breed restored from
cryogenic preservation from important changes in the environment
like germs, climate, etc., that have taken place over the years.
 Variability in cryogenic storage of germplasm , accessibility to their
physical location, ownership, behaviour of animal, response of
germplasm to freezing and thawing techniques, and poor conception
rate.

Ex situ/Cryogenic preservation includes

 Preservation of frozen semen

 Preservation of oocytes
 Preservation of embryos
 Preservation of ovaries
 Use of embryonic stem cells or blastomeres
 Production of chimeras
 Production of embryos in vitro
 Embryo splitting
 Transgenesis
 DNA libraries
STRATEGIES FOR CONSERVATION OF LIVESTOCK
BIODIVERSITY
  A number of methods have been used for conservation of livestock
genetic resources.
 These include in-situ conservation of the breeds/population and
cryo-preservation of semen, ova, embryos, skin, blood, DNA,
Fragments etc.
 These methods are important especially when the breed is rate or
near extinction.
 In India, as the situation is not so acute, large scale ex-situ
conservation efforts are being taken up.

UTILIZATION OF GENETIC RESOURCES

 Sound genetic resource utilization policy relevant to different farm

animal species based on livestock population, breeding structure,
disease problems, availability of feed resources, change in social
structure, sustainability of population system in terms of marked
demand of products and prices is the need of the hour for efficient
and sustainable livestock resource management.

MODULE-15: LIVESTOCK PRODUCE AND PRODUCTS

Learning outcomes

 At the completion of this module the learner will be able to know the
contribution of various species of animals and their products to the
national income and role in rural/urban health and economy.

CONTRIBUTION TO GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT

 The livestock and fisheries sector contributed over 4.07 per cent to
the total GDP during 2008-09 and about 29.7 per cent to the value of
output from total agricultural and allied activities.
 The Eleventh Five Year Plan envisages an overall growth of 6-7 per
cent per annum for the sector. In 2009-10, this sector produced 112.5
million tonnes of milk, 59.8 billion eggs, 43.2 million kg wool, and
4.0 million tonnes of meat.
 The result of the 18th Livestock Census (2007), derived from village-
level count, has placed the total livestock population at 529.7 million
and poultry birds at 648.8 million. India ranks first in world milk
production,increasing its production from 17 million tonnes in 1950-
51 to about 112.5 million tonnes in 2009-10 .
 The per capita availability of milk has also increased from 112 grams
per day in 1968-69 to 263 gram per day in 2009-10. It is however still
low compared to the world average of 279.4 grams/day, as per
 FAOSTAT (Food and Agriculture Organization Statistical Database)
2009 data.
 Source: Union Budget 2010-2011, Ministry of Finance, Govt. of
India

LIVESTOCK PRODUCE AND PRODUCTS

 All the products that we obtain from animal can be divided into the
nine categories, out of which the food items are the main ones.
 It should not be forgotten that traditionally animal facilitate crop
production by providing the much needed draft power and fertilizers.
 Thus livestock contribute all the basic need of man-food (directly or
indirectly via agriculture), clothing and recreation.

Sl.NO ITEM MAIN

GROUPS CATEGORIES
PRODUCTS
1 Food Meat and offal,
blood, milk and
dairy products,
eggs, fish,
shellfish, honey
2 Fibre Wool, hair, silk,
feathers
3 Hides Skins(leather),
pelt (fur)
4 Fuel Faeces
5 Fertilizer Faeces, urine,
blood, bone, hoof
and horns
6 Breeding stock Live animal,
semen, ova,
embryo
7 Power Draught/pact
animals
8 Sport/recreation Equestrian sports,
bull/ram/cock
fight
9 Other items Pearls, shells,
horns, hooves
  In developing countries like India, work/draft should be considered
as a very important animal product though its production cannot be
expressed in units or money.
 A huge number of cattle in India is zebu non-descript type used for
various agricultural operations and rural transport.
 The present day worth of power produced by all our draught animals
would be around Rs. 15,000 millions.
 Hence, a relative importance of difference species of livestock and
different types of livestock products for India as a whole cannot be
neglected.
 The per capita availability of milk and total production in India are as
follows:

MILK PRODUCTION IN INDIA

Year Production (Million Per Capita Availability (gms/day
Tonnes)
1991-1992 55.7 178
1992-1993 58.0 182
1993-1994 60.6 187
1994-1995 63.8 194
1995-1996 66.2 197
1996-1997 69.1 202
1997-1998 72.1 207
1998-1999 75.4 213
1999-2000 78.3 217
2000-2001 80.6 220
2001-202 84.4 225
2002-2003 86.2 230
2003-2004 88.1 231
2004-2005 92.5 233
2005-2006 97.1 241
2006-2007 100.9 246
Source: Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries,
Ministry of Agriculture, GoI
VALUE OF OUT PUT FROM LIVESTOCK SECTOR (Rupees in
 crores)
Item 1999- 2000 2001- 2002- 2003 2004 2005-
2000 -01 02 03 -04 -05 06
1. Milk Group 88092 94551 1004 10434 11044 11593 12452
54 7 7 1 0
2. Meat Group 21905 2298 2498 26547 27337 28123 30051
0 3
2.1 Meat 18521 19571 21231 22571 2322 2394 2558
3 4 8
2.1.1 Beef 2060 2311 2292 2510 2630 2822 3599
2.1.2 Mutton 6696 7036 7899 8789 9179 8594 9247
2.1.3 Pork 997 1089 1187 1430 1405 1501 1726
2.1.4 Poultry Meat 8768 9134 9853 9842 10010 11025 11017
2.2 Meat Products 720 744 841 905 951 939 1125
2.3 By-Products 2665 2665 2912 3071 3162 3240 3338
2.3.1 Hides 991 977 1046 1097 1107 1154 1129
2.3.2 Skins 1070 1065 1194 1257 1285 1324 1312
2.3.3 Other By 604 623 672 716 770 762 897
Products
3. Eggs 4398 4669 4879 5049 5186 5570 5791
4. Wool & hair 281 317 308 329 343 371 366
4.1 Wool 209 230 227 241 252 279 274
4.2 Hair and Bristles 73 88 80 88 91 92 92
5. Dung 10533 11484 10790 12021 1286 13658 15803
8
5.1 Dung Fuel 4295 4652 4473 5346 5561 5416 6311
5.2 Dung Mature 6238 6832 6317 6675 7307 8242 9492
6. Silk Worm 1384 1526 1922 1560 1837 1697 2065
Cocoons and Honey
7. Increment in 2937 3446 3762 4202 4903 5462 6570
Stock
Value of Output from 129531 13897 14709 15405 16292 17081 18516
Livestock Sector 3 7 6 1 2 6
Source: Central Statistical Organization, Dept. of Statistics, GOI (2007)
LIVESTOCK FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT

 The role of livestock in the lives of small farmers and village poor is
many fold as shown below
o It buffers the risks due to crop failure, unemployment and
underemployment
o Enhances family nutrition status, allows some domestic
consumption of essential nutrients
o Provides regular cash income
o Render services-draft, manure and fuel
o Helps enhance socio-economic status
 But the small farmer faces several constrains in developing his
livestock enterprise. Some such constraints are listed below.
o They possess meager resources
o They have limited access to resources, services, technology and
market duet o their low socio-economic status
o There is a subsistence farming/livelihood
o They are poorly organized
o They are distributed over a wide area, with no/poor transport
and communication facilities
o They are generally tradition/taboo/apathy bound to allow big
changes in technology towards the better.

LIVESTOCK FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT

 The role of livestock in the lives of small farmers and village poor is
many fold as shown below
o It buffers the risks due to crop failure, unemployment and
underemployment
o Enhances family nutrition status, allows some domestic
consumption of essential nutrients
o Provides regular cash income
o Render services-draft, manure and fuel
o Helps enhance socio-economic status
 But the small farmer faces several constrains in developing his
livestock enterprise. Some such constraints are listed below.
o They possess meager resources
o They have limited access to resources, services, technology and
market duet o their low socio-economic status
o There is a subsistence farming/livelihood
o They are poorly organized
o They are distributed over a wide area, with no/poor transport
and communication facilities
 o They are generally tradition/taboo/apathy bound to allow big
changes in technology towards the better.

PRODUCTION OF LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS IN INDIA

ANIMAL PROUCTS
Commodity Production, million % Annual growth
tonnes
1990- 2001- 2008 1980 - 1990-
1992 2003 1990 2003
Milk 55.9 86.2 105.0 5.2 4.0
Cow 23.7 36.7 44.1 5.2 4.1
Buffalo 29.7 47.9 60.9 5.0 4.7
Goat 2.5 1.6 4.0 6.8 0.2
Meat 3.88 5.65 - 4.9 3.5
Beef and Veal 1.28 1.47 0.89 1.2 1.6
Buffalo Meat 1.19 1.45 1.40 2.5 2.3
Goat Meat 0.43 0.47 0.47 0.9 0.6
Mutton and 0.19 0.23 0.23 2.9 3.2
Lamb
Pig meat 0.43 0.61 - 3.4 4.7
Poultry Meat 0.37 1.42 0.64 5.5 12.3
Egg, Million 22.0 39.7 55.6 7.8 5.2
number
Wool, million kg 40.5 49.5 46.4 2.7 2.0
Source: 1. Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics, DAHandD, GoI
2. FAOSTATS for Meat production.

 Indian export of animal products has increased from Rs. 5129 crores
in 207-08 to Rs. 6913 crores in 2008-09. (Source: APEDA, Govt. of
India)
 Export oddairy products reaced 70146.77 MT with the value of Rs.
980.86 crores in 2008-09 as against Rs. 866.56 crores in 2007-08.
(Source: APEDA, Govt. of India)

VALUE OF OUTPUT FROM LIVESTOCK SECTOR IN INDIA

 VALUE OF OUTPUT FROM LIVESTOCK SECTOR IN INDIA
Commodity Value, Rs. in Billions at 1993- Annual growth
94 prices rate, %
1980-82 1990-92 2001-03 1980- 1990-
90 2003
Food based 305.6 519.7 806.2 5.46 3.94
products
Milk Group 241.2 399.7 615.7 5.22 3.94
Meat 51.7 96.2 150.6 6.26 3.77
Beef and Buffalo 7.7 12.5 14.6 4.82 1.45
meat
Goat meat/ 21.1 38.2 46.8 5.11 1.42
Mutton
Pork 2.7 5.5 10.4 7.83 5.97
Poultry Meat 20.2 40.0 78.8 7.61 5.81
Meat Products 2.4 3.4 4.5 1.96 2.27
Eggs 10.3 20.4 35.3 7.35 4.80
Non-food based 82.3 92.5 123.4 1.52 2.41
products
Livestock, Total 387.9 612.3 929.6 4.72 3.72
Source: National Account Statistics (various issues), CSO, Ministry of
Statistics and Program Implementation , GOI.
SELECTION OF SUITABLE LIVESTOCK ENTERPRISE

 Every farmer at every locality of the country cannot effectively use all
type of livestock enterprises.
 The scope of different livestock enterprises for different regions of the
country can be as follows,

CATTLE Milk-milk shed areas, near towns and cities

Female calf rearing-milk shed areas, near town and cities
BUFFALO Milk-milk shed areas, near towns and cities
Female calf rearing-milk shed areas, near town and cities
Male calf rearing-around slaughter houses
WORK ANIMALS Bullocks for hiring any where

Camels for hiring in north western region

Donkeys for hiring, any where
SHEEP Wool-Himalayan and north western regions
Meat – any dry area
GOATS Milk – any area
Meat – any area
Pigs Pork – near cities (for specific area and people)
POULTRY Eggs- poultry shed areas near cities and towns
Meat – any area
Meat – any area
Fun-hilly area
MITHUN Milk and meat in north eastern region
ALLIED ACTIVITIES Feed and fodder production / collection any where
Processing – crop bypro9ducts, in any area
Hatcheries – for custom hatching in selected area
Cold stores for egg and meat storage I selected areas
Feed mills for improving quality of straws any where

 Normally livestock are used for alleviation of poverty in rural areas

via certain specifically designated schemes or programmes, e.g.
Integrated Rural Development programme with livestock
components.

CONTRIBUTION TO NATIONAL INCOME

 Demand for livestock products is increasing fast due to population

and income growth, urbanization and change in tastes and
preferences. Livestock products also have a higher income elasticity
of demand compared to cereals, pulses and fruits and vegetables.
 The impressive growth in the livestock sector was largely due to
increase in numbers (except milk and poultry to some extent). Future
growth in livestock output would have to come from technological
breakthroughs in yields.
 Productivity of the livestock sector in India is low compared to world
average. For cattle the average milk yield per animal per year is 48%
of world average; beef 52% and pork 44%.
 The contribution of various products to the total value of output of
livestock sector in 1987-88 (i.e. Rs.277,300 million) was

Milk and milk products 66.45

Eggs 3.39
Wool 0.43
Hair and Bristle 0.10
Dung fuel 5.33
Dung manure 4.73
Increment in stock 2.76
Beef 1.62
Mutton and meat 4.95
Pork 0.79
Poultry meat 5.36
Meat products 0.68
By-products 1.73
Hides 0.79
Skins 0.63
Others 0.31

 The annual value of work by draft animals comes to Rs.125, 000

millions. The Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore has
estimated the value of work and dung produced in 1986 to be Rs.160,
000 million based on their energy value

MILK PRODUCTION AND MILK PRODUCTS

 There are great differences between various regions in both quantity

of milk produced and its composition.
 In 1989-90, out of the 51.4 million MT of milk produced in the
country, 40.01% was cow milk, 56.56% was buffalo milk and the rest
of 3.43% was goat milk.
 In 2009, the total milk production in India reached 100 million
tonnes.
  The major milk-shed areas of the country are concentrated in the
western and central parts of the Indo-Gangetic Plains and the central
and east coast parts of peninsular India.
 The most developed dairy states are Gujarat (3.35 million MT),
Haryana (3.15 million MT)and Punjab (4.97 million MT) through
area-wise much bigger states may produce as much eg: Andhra
Pradesh (3.03 million MT). Madhya Pradesh (4.52 million MT),
Maharashtra (3.26 million MT) and Uttar Pradesh (9.14 million MT).
 Rajasthan should also be considered a dairy-wise developed state as
it produced 4.21 million MT despite the fact that major area of it is
arid.
 The highest per capita availability of milk per day is in Punjab (624 g)
and Haryana (455 g), while the lowest was in the N-E states (36-73g)
and Orissa (39 g).

Dairy products

 In India, in 2009 export of dairy products reached 70146.77 MT. The

income from export of dairy products increased from Rs.866.56
crores in 2007-08 to Rs. 980.86 crores in 2008-09.

MEAT PRODUCTION

 Production of buffalo meat is increasing at a phenomenal rate of 20%

per annum.
 Unlike in cattle, buffalo slaughter is more free, especially slaughter of
male calves of milch buffaloes.
 Also there is an ever growing export market to the Gulf countries for
buffalo meat. While goat meat production is moderate to high in all
region mutton production is high in Plateau and Hill and GPH region
and insignificant in all other regions.
 Sheep and goat meat production was 9,50,000 tons each, in the year
2009. India ranked 7th in mutton production and 2nd in chevon
production in the world.
 Export of mutton and chevon together was to the tune of Rs.493.31
crores in the year 2008-09.
 In 2008-09, export of buffalo meat was to the tune of Rs. 4839
crores.
 Even more localised is pork production; a high in ET and T in WCPH
regions per thousand rural inhabitants and insignificant values in
other regions.
 Pork production is meagre even in high pig density LGP and MGP
region as the pigs are non-descript.
 Distribution of scale of production of hides, skins and other slaughter
products among different agro-climatic regions follows similar trends
 as meat production, as slaughter of animals, as the prerequisite for all
the above products.

HIDE, SKIN AND OTHER BY PRODUCTS

Indian Leather Industry Overview

 The leather industry occupies a place of prominence in the Indian

economy in view of its massive potential for employment, growth and
exports.
 There has been an increasing emphasis on its planned development,
aimed at optimum utilisation of available raw materials for
maximising the returns, particularly from exports.
 The exports of leather and leather products gained momentum
during the past two decades. There has been a phenomenal growth in
exports from Rs.320 million in the year 1965-66 to Rs.69,558 million
in 1996-97.
 Indian leather industry today has attained well merited recognition in
international markets besides occupying a prominent place among
the top seven foreign exchange earners of the country.

Major production centers

 The major production centres for leather and leather products are
located at Chennai, Ambur, Ranipet, Vaniyambadi, Trichi, Dindigul
in Tamil Nadu, Calcutta in West Bengal, Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh,
Jalandhar in Punjab, Bangalore in Karnataka, Delhi and Hyderabad
in Andhra Pradesh.

Leather availability in India

 There exists a large raw material base.

 This is on account of population of 194 million cattle, 70 million
buffaloes, 95 million goats.
 According to the latest census, India ranks first among the major
livestock holding countries in the world.
 In respect of sheep with 48 million sheeps, it claims the sixth
position. These four species provide the basic raw material for the
leather industry.
 The annual availability of 166 million pieces of hides and skins is the
main strength of the industry. This availability grows and may reach
to 218 million pieces in 2000.
 According to FAO statistics, in the year 2008, the following quantities
of hides were produced in India.
 Cattle hide - 3.86 lakh tonnes
 Buffalo hide - 5.31 lakh tonnes
 Sheep skin - 0.58 lakh tonne
 Goat skin - 1.30 lakh tonnes
 Some of the goat/calf/sheep skins available in India are regarded as
speciality products commanding a good market.
 Abundance of traditional skills in training, finishing and
manufacturing downstream products and relatively low wage rates
are the two other factors of comparative advantage for India.

WOOL, HAIR AND OTHER FIBRES

 The wool production in the country increased from 32.0 million kg in

1980-81 to 42.7 million kg in 1990-91 at an annual growth rate 3.3%.
 The major wool producing states are Rajasthan (38.64%), Karnataka
(10.30%), Jammu and Kashmir (9.37%) and Tamil Nadu (8.78%).
 The two main wool regions are the WH region (0.7 MT/1000 rural
inhabitants) and WD region (0.55 MT/100 rural inhabitants)
whereas the TGP and GPH regions produce 0.2 MT/1000 rural
inhabitants.
 In Rajasthan the most arid 11 north-western districts are most
important in wool production.
 It may be noted that even through bulk of the sheep population is in
the plateau and Hills regions (especially, CPH, WPH and SPH), wool
production in these regions is not much, as sheep are generally
reared here for meat.
 DRAUGHT ANIMAL POWER

 Draft animal power is the backbone of cultivation in most parts of

India and the principal reason for maintaining bovines (especially
cattle) as their use for land preparation is imperative for all farmers
in all regions.
 The number of working bovines per hectare of net sown area was
0.64 for the country as a whole in 1984 as against 0.63 in 1972.

Year Provinces with highest draft Provinces with lowest draft animaldensity
animal density
State Density State Density
1972 Assam 1.18 Rajasthan 0.26
Bihar 0.99 Kerala 0.20
West Bengal 0.90 Gujarat 0.33
Uttar Pradesh 0.87 Punjab/Haryana 0.35
1982 Himachal Pradesh 1.50 Rajasthan 0.25
Bihar 1.02 Haryana 0.25
Jammu & Kashmir 1.00 Gujarat 0.32
West Bengal 0.99 Punjab 0.34
Note : Density = Draft animals / ha net sown area
MARKETING ANIMALS AND THEIR
PRODUCTS

 Generally the producers used to sell the perishable products (milk,

eggs, meat) themselves directly to producers in the village or in the
weakly market.
 Middlemen used to be the conduits in marketing meat animals and
even other classes of animals.
 In most parts of the country the middleman is the inevitable person
in the livestock trade even now.
 Over the decades many changes have come to take place in this
sphere apart from general development of transport, market yards
and other necessary infrastructure.
 Enactment of laws by states to regularise markets, development of
cooperatives, increasing role of local government agencies etc. are
some of the developments.
Milk

 The cooperatives are most active in procurement, processing

marketing of milk.
 For other commodities are rather rare, the exception being the pig
cooperatives in the north-eastern states and sheep cooperatives in
western himalayan region.
 The areas where dairy cooperatives have most developed (mostly
under Operation Flood programme and also outside this) are in the
areas where milk production is high.
 Dairy cooperatives could not yet take firm ground in central, eastern,
north eastern and mid-southern parts of the country, mostly due to
lack of robust milk production tradition.
 In the beginning the cooperatives used to fix the milk price based on
fat content.
 Two axis pricing based on fat as well as not-fat solids is generally in
vogue currently. Introduction of modern milk testing gadgets enabled
this.
 There is also a considerable private trade in milk. There are few big
and many (> 800 lpd) small private dairy companies in the market.

MEAT AND MEAT ANIMALS

 Trade in meat animals and meat is not well organised in the country.
The middlemen have a big role in this trade.
 Though animals are slaughtered in considerable numbers illegally
outside recognised slaughter houses, the big and small
slaughterhouses located in cities and towns ate the main centres of
the meat trade.
 Big wholesaler-contractor operates at the slaughter houses. His sub-
contractors or agents procure animals for slaughter from villages
either directly or through middlemen strategically located in villages
or groups of villages. Animals may be procured from regular livestock
fairs and markets.
 The price of animals is fixed by bargaining haphazardly. Some rough
judgement of the animals, weight may be made. The prices are
invariably low.
 While small ruminants may be of slaughterable age, the bovines so
purchased are invariably old, emaciated and may be infirm.
 Then large animals are invariably old, ematiated and may be infirm.
 Then large animals are invariably driven to slaughter houses on foot
for days on end in spite of the distances involved.
 Small animals may be taken in trucks if the distance involved is more
than 20-25 km.
 The animals lose 15-25% of the body weight during this transit due to
feed and water deprivation and water loss.
 The slaughter houses are licenced by the local government agencies
(Municipal corporations, Municipalities, panchayat Boards etc) and
are manned by registered butchers on payment of a per animal basis
tax.
 There is virtually no grading nor sale of meat as per ‘cuts’ as is done
in the west.
 Government, in view of big sheep and goat meat trade, farmed rules
to ensure fair dealing and protecting market areas from arbitrary
changes.
 Market committees responsible for implementing these rules include
representatives of farmers and butchers.

WOOL AND HAIR

 Wool marketing in India is better organised. All the wool states like
Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Karnataka etc. have their own Wool Marketing Boards or
corporations/sheep and wool Departments or Wings.
 Bikaner in Rajasthan is the biggest central market in India, where
wool comes from all parts of the country.
 Wool is generally collected from shepherds, flocks by
shearers/middlemen/agents of contractors through whom it reaches
the local markets (mandis).
 Though no grading is done while paying the shepherds for wool (on
bargain basis). Wool may be graded to a degree before it reaches
central markets from the local ones.
 The prevailing system of wool marketing provided very little for
shepherds and the main share of profits goes to the middlemen.
 The producer himself takes wool to the market rarely. A Substantial
wool is purchased by the local traders and/or outside traders at
ridiculously low prices.
 After shearing wool is brought to the market in small lots by petty
agents where it is sold by commission agents. Some local or outside
carpet manufactures also may buy wool there.
 The proportion of wool sold to local traders, outside traders and
carpet weavers varies from region to region.

LIVE ANIMALS

 Live animals are sold at various levels – within village, between

villages at livestock fairs / markets / shows and even exported to
other regions and countries.
 Milch buffaloes and work bullocks are the main animals traded.
There are several large and small livestock markets throughout the
length and breadth of the country.
 They operate mostly on a particular day of the length and breadth of
the country. They operate mostly on a particular day of the week.
 Regions in which one finds large number of weekly cattle markets are
upper gangetic plains(UGP), western plateau and hills (WPH),
southern plateau and hills (SPH) and central plateau and hills (CPH)
and lower in islands, western himalayan (WH) , Gujarat plains and
hills (GPH) and western dry (WD) .
 Maintenance of the markets is the responsibility of the local
governments, which is done via the selected/elected members of
market committees.
 They levy a tax for every animal brought to the market and in return
provide amenities like water, shelter, feed and veterinary care at the
market and in return provide amenities like water, shelter, feed and
veterinary care at the market premises.
 In state like Haryana, by virtue of a cattle Fair Act, specially
appointed Cattle Fair Officers regulate the cattle markets.
 In Tamil Nadu, Erode weekly dairy cattle shandy runs on Thursdays.
This is an exclusive shandy for pregnant animals. Few buffaloes are
also marketed here.
 DAIRY CATTLE SHANDY - ERODE LOADING AND UNLOADI

PRICE NEGOTIATION ANIMALS ARE S

GOSHALS / GAUSHALA

 “Gaushala” means a charitable institution established for the purpose

of keeping, breeding, rearing and maintaining cattle or for the
purpose of reception , protection and treatment of infirm, aged or
 diseased cattle and includes a Pinjarpole or a Gosadan where such
cattle are kept.
 Goshalas are protective shelters in India for (cows) that have been
neglected. Goshalas focus on treating cows in accordance
with Hinduism philosophy.
 Generally Goshalas have been established by the public trusts for
maintaining old, infirm, unproductive cows and its progeny. The
central government as well as state government is also assisting these
Goshalas for cattle development.
 In many states (Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan) more number of
Goshalas are exist and they play vital role in protecting native cattle.
Under National Bull Production Programme these Goshalas has been
used to produce good quality indigenous bulls and preservation &
conservation of indigenous breeds.
 MODULE-16: ORGANIC LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

Learning outcomes

 On completion of this module the learner will be able to understand

the concept of organic livestock production and the advantages and
disadvantages of the concept in our country’s perspective.

DEFINITION

Click here for a web link

 Organic farming is the form of agriculture that relies on techniques

such as crop rotation, green manure, compost and biological pest
control to maintain soil productivity and control pests on a farm.
 Organic farming excludes or strictly limits the use of manufactured
fertilizers, pesticides (which include herbicides, insecticides and
fungicides), plant growth regulators such as hormones, livestock
antibiotics, food additives, and genetically modified organisms.
 "Organic agriculture is a production system that sustains the health
of soils, ecosystems and people. It relies on ecological processes,
biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the
use of inputs with adverse effects. Organic agriculture combines
tradition, innovation and science to benefit the shared environment
and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all
involved."
 International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements

ORGANIC GRASSLAND

 Organic grassland is the foundation stone of organic livestock

farming.
 In organic farming, the components of the whole farm system
interact closely and grassland plays the central role in this intricate
web, including the arable cropping phase.
 Grassland is important particularly in relation to nitrogen supply via
its influence on N-fixation, soil organic matter, structure and
biological activity and it also has a major role to play in restricting the
build-up of arable weeds and soil-borne crop diseases in arable
rotations.
  Ruminant livestock share this central role with grassland on most
successful organic farms, and the success of the livestock enterprise is
intimately tied up with the management and productivity of the
grassland.

CONSIDERATIONS FOR ORGANIC LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

Origin of Livestock

 Livestock and products from the livestock that are sold, labeled, or
advertised as organic must be from livestock that originate from
animals that were managed under continuous organic management
from the last third of gestation or at hatching.

Livestock Feed

 Livestock that are produced under organic management must have

their total ration that is comprised of agricultural products including
pasture, forage, and crops that are organically produced and handled
organically.
 There are certain nonsynthetic and synthetic substances that can be
used as feed additives and supplements.
 Dairy cattle under 9 months of age are allowed 20% of their feed
come from nonorganic sources.
 Plastic pellets, urea, manure, mammalian or poultry slaughter by-
products are not allowed.

Living Conditions

 An organic livestock producer must create and maintain living

conditions that accommodate natural behavior and health of the
animal.
 The living conditions must include access to outdoors, shade, shelter,
fresh air, direct sunlight suitable to the species, and access to pasture
for ruminants.

Waste Management

 Organic livestock producers are mandated to manage manure so that

is does not contribute to the contamination of crops, soil, or water
and optimizes recycling of nutrients.

Health Care
  Organic livestock production practices require the producer to
establish preventive health care practices.
 The health care practices include selecting the appropriate species
and type of livestock, providing adequate feed, create an appropriate
environment that minimizes stress, disease, parasites, administration
of vaccines and veterinary biologicals, animal husbandry practices to
promote animal well being in a manner that minimizes pain and
stress.
 Producers can not provide preventative antibiotics. Producers are
encouraged to treat animals with appropriate treatment, including
antibiotics and other conventional medicines when needed but
treated animals can not be sold or labeled as organic. Producers can
not administer hormones or other drugs for growth promotion.

Record Keeping/Audit Trail

 Organic livestock operations need to maintain records for a number

of reasons.
 Certainly, records are important for financial management of the
organic livestock enterprise.
 Likewise, records are important for the verification of organic status
of animals, production, harvesting, and handling practices associated
with the organic products and animals.
 Records are mandated to be maintained for 5 years, and must
demonstrate compliance with the Organic Food Production Act.

RECORDS TO BE MAINTAINED

 Records of the following must be maintained

o Medications administered (dates, doses, and sources).
o Feed bought or raised and fed (receipts, sources, organic
certificates, labels).
o Feed supplements (receipts, labels, sources, dates and quantity
administered).
o The weight of slaughter animals at slaughter or hanging carcass
weight.
o Purchase and sales records for livestock and livestock products
(dates, weights, quantities, description).
o All materials used in the on-site production of crops for feed
(receipts, source, dates and quantity applied).
o Records of finished product sales.

CHANGING LIVESTOCK TO ORGANIC

Dairy One-Year Herd Conversion

 Feed: Must be fed 100% organic feed for one year.

 Antibiotics: Prohibited for 1 year prior to milking. After conversion,
they are prohibited.
 Hormones: Except for oxytocin, they are prohibited for 1 year prior to
milking and after certification.
 Vaccines: May use approved vaccines and biologics as needed.
 Pasture: Must have access to pasture.

Poultry (Meat and Eggs)

 Feed: Must be fed 100% organic feed from the second day of life.
 Antibiotics: Prohibited.
 Hormones: Prohibited.
 Vaccines: May use approved vaccines and biologics as needed.
 Living Conditions: Must have access to the outdoors.

Slaughter Stock (Beef, Dairy, Hogs, Sheep, etc.)

 Feed: Must be fed 100% organic feed from the last third of gestation.
 Antibiotics: Prohibited.
 Hormones: Prohibited except for oxytocin
 Vaccines: May use approved vaccines and biologics as needed.
 Pasture Requirements: Must have access to the outdoors. Organic
pasture is required for ruminant livestock.