M - Com - I Sem - I Research Methodology All

H I
SHIVAJI UNIVERSITY, KOLHAPUR

CENTRE FOR DISTANCE AND ONLINE EDUCATION
Research Methodology (RM)

(MRM)
For
M. Com. Part-I
Semester - I
(In accordance with National Education Policy 2020)

(Implemented from the Academic Year 2023-24)
K J
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Kolhapur. (Maharashtra)
First Edition 2021
Revised Edition 2023
Prescribed for M. Com. Part-I
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(ii)
Centre for Distance and Online Education
Shivaji University, Kolhapur
 ADVISORY COMMITTEE 
Prof. (Dr.) D. T. Shirke Prof. (Dr.) Smt. S. H. Thakar

Hon'ble Vice Chancellor, I/c. Dean, Faculty of Science and
Shivaji University, Kolhapur Technology, Shivaji University, Kolhapur
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Management, Shivaji University, Kolhapur Centre for Distance Education,
Shivaji University, Kolhapur.
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Dean, Faculty of Humanities,
(iii)
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(iv)
Preface
The subject Research Methodology is instrumental to orient post-graduate students with research
design, research process and its significance in a particular discipline. We can educate and sensitize
students to take up their steps in research to contribute to the society at large.
This book is written for the purpose of students on distance mode. It is contemplated here that
the students will read the book, they will make exercise and come to the contact sessions with their
queries which can be solved in it. This book is for their basic preparation for their study however they
can make supplementary and extensive learning by using reference books.
This book aims at providing for a conceptual kit on research methodology to orient the students
with basic ideas about types, methods, design, process, data analysis and report writing etc. It was
challenge before authors to cover span of research methodology within four units. However, we have
contributed to our level best.
This book is divided into four chapters of ‘Research Methodology’ for M. Com. Part-I (Semester-
I). four units are on the topic of ‘Introduction to Research’, ‘Research Design’, ‘Data Collection and
Processing’ and ‘Analysis and Interpretation of Data’. The first unit covers meaning and objectives
of research, research in commerce and management, types of research, review of literature, research
process, methods of research: case study and survey method. The Second unit presents meaning and
components of research design, exploratory research design, descriptive research design, diagnostic
research design and experimental research design; meaning and types of hypothesis, process of
formulating hypothesis; sample designsampling techniques, random and non-random sampling methods.
The third unit comprises meaning of data, types of data, quantitative and qualitative data, primary and
secondary sources, methods of primary data collection, questionnaire method, interview method,
observation method, focus group interview method, types of questions in questionnaire, sources of
secondary data, classification, tabulation and graphical presentation. The fourth unit describes about
analysis and interpretation of data using various descriptive statistical tools (measure of central
tendency, measures of dispersion, correlation and regression) hypothesis testing by suitable methods
(Parametric and non-parametric tests), Chi-square test, One Sample ‘t’ test and independent sample ‘t’
test, layout of research project, steps involved in report writing, requisites of good research report.
Along with the theoretical components, illustration is given in every unit to understand and
learn every concept clearly. At every regular interval, objective type questions are given to check the
progress of the student. At the end of each unit, exercise is available which will be useful to students
to make preparation according to the syllabus stipulated.
We are grateful to Hon. Vice-Chancellor Prof. (Dr.) D. T. Shirke and Hon. Pro-Vice-Chancellor
Prof. (Dr.) P. S. Patil, Prof. (Dr.) D. K. More, Director, Centre for Distance Education and the Registrar
for their support and cooperation. We are thankful to all university staff for timely support for this
book.
 Editors 
Prof. (Dr.) Shrikrishna S. Mahajan Dr. Sarang S. Bhola
Senior Professor and Head, Associate Professor,
Department of Commerce and Management, KarmveerBhaurao Patil Institute of
Shivaji University, Management Studies and Research,
Kolhapur Varye, Satara.
(v)
Centre for Distance and Online Education Research Methodology
Shivaji University,
Kolhapur.
Writing Team
Sem. II
Writers Name Units
Dr. S. S. Mahajan 1, 3
Dept. of Commerce and Management,
Dr. S. S. Bhola 2, 4
Karmveer Bhaurao Patil Institute of Management Studies and
Research, Satara
 Editors 
Prof. (Dr.) Shrikrishna S. Mahajan Dr. Sarang S. Bhola

Senior Professor and Head, Associate Professor,
Department of Commerce and Management, KarmveerBhaurao Patil Institute of
Shivaji University, Management Studies and Research,
Kolhapur Varye, Satara.
(vi)
M. Com. Part-I
SIM I OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
(Syllabus in Accordance with NEP - 2020)
INDEX
Unit No. Topic Page No.
Semester-I
1. Basic of Research 1
2. Research Design 33
3. Data Collection and Processing 86
4. Analysis and Interpretation of Data 127
(vii)
Each Unit begins with the section objectives -
Objectives are directive and indicative of :
1. what has been presented in the unit and
2. what is expected from you
3. what you are expected to know pertaining to the specific unit,

once you have completed working on the unit.
The self check exercises with possible answers will help you
understand the unit in the right perspective. Go through the possible
answers only after you write your answers. These exercises are not to
be submitted to us for evaluation. They have been provided to you as
study tools to keep you in the right track as you study the unit.
Dear Students
The SIM is simply a supporting material for the study of this paper.
It is also advised to see the new syllabus 2023-24 and study the
reference books & other related material for the detailed study of the
paper.
(viii)
Unit-1
Basics of Research
INDEX:
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Presentation of Subject Matter
1.2.1 Meaning of Research
1.2.2 Objectives of Research
1.2.3 Research in Commerce and Management
1.2.3.1 Human Resource Management
1.2.3.2 Marketing Management
1.2.3.3 Finance and Accounting
1.2.3.4 Operations and Production Management
1.2.3.5 Cross-functional and Multi-disciplinary Research
1.2.4 Types of Research
1.2.4.1 Pure or Basic Research
1.2.4.2 Applied Research
1.2.4.3 Descriptive Research
1.2.4.4 Analytical Research
1.2.4.5 Quantitative Research
1.2.4.6 Qualitative Research
1.2.4.7 Historical Research
1.2.5 Review of Literature
1.2.6 Research Process
1.2.6.1 Defining research problem
1.2.6.2 Review of literature
1.2.6.3 Developing hypothesis
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1.2.6.4 Formulating the research design
1.2.6.5 Determining sample design
1.2.6.6 Data collection
1.2.6.7 Data analysis
1.2.6.8 Testing of hypothesis
1.2.6.9 Interpretation
1.2.6.10 Preparing research report
1.2.7 Methods of Research
1.2.8 Case Study Method
1.2.8.1 Meaning of Case Study Method
1.2.8.2 Characteristics of Case Study Method
1.2.8.3 Process of Case Study
1.2.8.3 Merits of Case Study Method
1.2.8.4 Demerits of Case Study Method
1.2.9 Survey Method
1.2.9.1 Meaning of Survey Method
1.2.9.2 Process of Survey
1.2.9.3 Types of Survey
1.2.9.4 Merits of Survey Method
1.2.9.5 Demerits of Survey Method
1.2.10 Historical Method
1.2.11 Experimental Method
1.3 Summary
1.4 Terms to Remember
1.5 Answers to Check your progress
1.6 Exercise
1.7 Reference for further study
2
1.0 Objectives:
After studying this unit you should be able:
1. To understand the meaning and objectives of research
2. To be familiar with the research in Commerce and Management
3. To classify the research into different types
4. To understand the review of literature and research process
5. To understand the methods of research: case study method and survey method.
1.1 Introduction:
The development of whole world is due to research in various fields of life.
Human being is benefited by the research undertaken in various subjects. The human
urge for new areas of knowledge has developed a sense for search and research in
him. Every society or economy has serious social, economic and political problems.
These problems need systematic, intelligent and practical solution. The business
organizations have managerial problems which also require solutions. The
innovation is solution for many problems and it comes from the research.
However, what is the research that we have to understand.

In this unit, we are going to see the meaning and objectives of research; the
research in Commerce and Management; types of research; review of literature;
research process; and the methods of research. This unit also includes the meaning,
advantages and disadvantages of case study method and survey method.
1.2.1 Meaning of Research
As per dialect, research refers to a search for new knowledge. However it is
systematic enquiry of a research topic. It is critical investigation of a phenomenon
with specific objectives. We can understand the meaning of research with the help of
definitions given by some thinkers. The characteristics of research clear us the
meaning of research. Research brings improvement in practical life.
3
Redman and Morey has defined research briefly as ‘systematized effort to gain
new knowledge.’
P. V. Young defined the research as ‘social research is the systematic method of
discovering the new facts or verifying the old facts, their sequences, inter-
relationship, causal explanations and the natural laws which govern them.’
D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson say ‘social research is manipulation of things,
concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend correct and verifying
knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in the construction of a theory or in the
practice of an art.’
Another definition of research is given by F. A. Ogg who says that ‘research
may or may not come to success; it may or may not add anything to what is already
known. It is sufficient that its objectives be new knowledge or at least a new mode or
orientation of knowledge.’
Clifford Moody has given whole process of research in his definition, he says
‘It comprises defining and redefining problems; formulating hypotheses or suggested
solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and making
conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they
fit the formulated hypothesis.’
According to Webster’s International Dictionary, the research has been defined
as ‘a careful and critical enquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles,
diligent investigation in order to ascertain something.’
Francis Rummel says ‘Research is a careful inquiry or examination to discover
new information or relationships and to expand and to verify existing knowledge.’
John W. Best says ‘Research may be defined as the systematic and objective
analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the developments
of generalizations, principles, or theories, resulting in prediction and possibly
ultimate control of events.’
Kerlinger defines research as ‘a systematic, controlled empirical and critical
investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among
natural phenomena.’
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1.2.1.2 Characteristics of Research:
(1) Research is a systematic, objective and logical process.
(2) Research is a systematic and critical investigation.
(3) Research is a serious and rigorous process of analyzing data with specific
purpose.
(4) Research is a controlled activity.
(5) Research is a valid experience and provides verifiable evidences.
(6) Research should be relevant.
1.2.2 Objectives of Research
The main objective of a research is to find out a truth which has not been yet
discovered. The specific objectives are as follows:
1. Creating knowledge: Research is a process of gaining new knowledge. It is
conducted to develop a new theory or to test an existing theory or to extend the
existing knowledge. Research always contributes to the knowledge.
2. Describing characteristics: Research is also conducted to describe accurately
the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group.
3. Diagnosis of problem: Research can be conducted to determine the frequency
with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else.
4. Testing relationship: Research is also conducted to test a hypothesis of causal
relationship between variables.
5. Welfare objective: Research should have social objective for broader view of
welfare of the society. It is always expected that research should be useful to the
society at large. After solving any problem
Check your progress-1:
(A) Fill in the blanks:
(a) ………………. is systematized effort to gain new knowledge.
(b) Research is a ………. and critical investigation.
(c) Research is a ……….. experience and provides verifiable evidences.
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(B) State whether the following statement is true or false
(a) Creating knowledge is one of the objectives of research.
(b) Describing characteristics is not the objective of any research.
1.2.3 Research in Commerce and Management
Research is backbone for all areas of business hence it is nothing but lifeline of
business studies. The development of various disciplines of commerce and
management is dependent on research. The research in commerce and management is
constantly done for effective and actionable decision-making. Most of the decisions
require additional information or information evaluation, which is addressed by
business research. There are different areas of business research which include:
1. Research in Human Resource Management and Organizational Behaviour
2. Research in Marketing Management
3. Research in Financial Management and Accounting
4. Research in Operations and Production Management and Supply Chain
Management
5. Research in Entrepreneurship and business models etc.
1.2.3.1 Human Resource Management:
Fundamental research in human resource management and organizational
behaviour can be applied by business organizations in their policies and programmes.
It may cover topics like (a) performance management, leadership analysis,
organizational climate and work environment studies, talent and aptitude analysis
and management, (b) employee recruitment and selection, (c) organizational
planning and development, (d) incentive and benefit studies, job analysis and
performance appraisal, employee benefits and reward analysis etc., (e) training and
development gap analysis, impact and effectiveness of training.
1.2.3.2 Marketing Management:
Research in marketing management includes broader industry specific studies.
Some market research agencies conduct such research and they are sold to business
organizations to assist their business decisions. Research in marketing consists of: (a)
market potential analysis, market segment analysis and demand estimation, (b)
6
market structure analysis, (c) consumer and business trend analysis, (d) buying
behaviour and customer satisfaction etc. Some organizations prefer to conduct the
research by their own product development department or R and D department. Such
department carries out research related to all 4Ps of marketing such as (i) product
research, (ii) pricing research, (iii) promotional research and (iv) place research.
Research in customer relation management, customer satisfaction and customer
loyalty etc. is now significant research carried out in the scenario of increased
competition.
1.2.3.3 Finance and Accounting:
Research in finance and accounting is vast area of business studies and
significant in decision-making. It includes: (a) capital market research, market micro
structure, corporate finance, (b) analysis of financial derivatives, (c) market-based
accounting research, (d) earning management, (e) risk management, (f) auditing and
accountability, (g) integrated financial reporting, (h) financial econometrics, (i)
merchant banking and insurance, (j) economic value added, and (k) micro-finance,
financial inclusion and financial literacy etc.
1.2.3.4 Operations and Production Management:
Research in operations and production management is highly focused and
problem-specific. Such research areas consists of operation planning, demand
forecasting and analysis, process planning, project management, maintenance
management, logistics and supply chain management, inventory management,
quality assurance, quality control, total quality management and quality certification
analysis etc.
1.2.3.5 Cross-functional and Multi-disciplinary Research:
Business research is not only confined to functional areas of management,
however, cross-sectional and multi-disciplinary approach is always useful for
businesses with considering changes in business environment. It requires research
areas such as corporate social responsibility, corporate governance and ethics,
technical support system, enterprise resource planning, knowledge management, data
mining and warehousing and artificial intelligence and so on. Business environment
is also integrated subject which carries out research on ecological and environmental
analysis, legal analysis, human rights and discrimination studies etc.
7
In this way, we can understand research in commerce and management in diverse
areas with various purposes.
(A) State whether the following statement is true or false
(a) There is no any space for research in Commerce and Management.
(b) Most of the decisions require additional information or information
evaluation, which is addressed by business research.
(c) Market potential analysis is made in the research of human resource
management.
(d) Market micro-structure is studied in finance research.
(e) Process planning is the topic of operations management.
1.2.4 Types of Research:
There are different type of research which may be pure research, basic research,
applied research, descriptive research, analytical research, quantitative research and
qualitative research etc.
1.2.4.1 Pure or Basic Research:
Pure research is also called as basic research or fundamental research. Such
research is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in
practice. Out of intellectual curiosity such research is carried out. It may aim to either
discover a new theory or refinement of an existing theory. Fundamental research may
include (a) the research deals with natural phenomenon and (b) the research related
to human behavior make generalization.
Pure research makes scientific contribution to the development of the theoretical
knowledge for e.g. Elton Mayo's Hawthorne Study's contribution to Behavioural
Science. The contribution of pure research may be seen in major four areas (i)
contributing new facts, (ii) putting theory to test, (iii) conceptual clarification and (iv)
interesting previously existing theories.
The examples of pure research we can find as Einstein's theory of relativity,
Joan Robinson's Imperfect Competition, Chamberlains Monopolistic competition,
Milton Friedman made new interpretations of the monetary phenomenon which
8
questioned some of assumptions of Keynesian theory etc. Basic research contributes
either by discovery of new theory or development in the existing theory.
1.2.4.2 Applied Research:
Applied research is the research which is to find out a solution for practical
problem which is being faced by society or business etc. The main aim of applied
research is to discover a solution for some practical problems. Following are the
examples of applied research:
a) The research which find out conclusions for social or business problem
b) The research which identify social, economic or political trends which affects an
institution
c) Marketing research
d) Evaluation research
Applied research provides solutions to practical problems, help to identify
critical factors in practical problem and develop alternative solutions. It is problem-
oriented and action-oriented. As far as business research is concerned, the research in
marketing carried out for developing a new market is treated as applied research.
1.2.4.3 Descriptive Research:
It is nothing but surveys and fact-finding enquiries. It aims at description of the
state of affairs. In this type of research in social science, researcher has no control
over the variable. Census of India which is done after every 10 years is famous
example of descriptive research which describes characteristics of Indian population.
Other examples of descriptive study include Economic Survey of India, World Bank
Reports, Pre-election Surveys etc.
1.2.4.4 Analytical Research:
Analytical research is the research when the researcher uses facts and
information already available and makes critical evaluation of the material. It focuses
on analyzing data in depth and examining relationships with different perspectives in
as many variables as possible. It is useful for measuring variables, comparing groups
and examining association between factors. There is wide scope for conducting
analytical research by using data collected by World Bank, International Monetary
Fund, Government departments, Reserve Bank of India, NABARD, NSE, BSE,
9
Central Statistical Organization and Centre for monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE)
etc.
1.2.4.5 Quantitative Research:
Quantitative research is based on quantitative measurements. The phenomenon
which can be expressed in terms of quantities to them quantitative research is
applicable.
1.2.4.6 Qualitative Research:
Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon. When we are
interesting to investigate
1.2.4.7 Historical Research:
Historical research is a study of past records and information sources with a
view to reconstructing
(A) State whether the following statement is true or false
(a) Pure research is also called as basic research or fundamental research.
(b) Evaluation research is categorized under applied research.
(c) Descriptive research aims at description of the state of affairs.
(B) Choose most appropriate alternative:
(1) Following are the examples of applied research:
(a) The research which find out conclusions for social or business problem
(b) The research which identify social, economic or political trends which
affects an institution
(c) Marketing research
(d) Theory developing research
(2) The contribution of pure research may be seen in major four areas (i)
contributing new facts, (ii) putting theory to test, (iii) applied research, (iv)
conceptual clarification and (v) interesting previously existing theories.
(a) (i), (ii), (iii) & (iv)
(b) (i), (ii), (iv) & (v)
(c) (i), (ii), (iii) & (v)
10
(d) (ii), (iii), (iv) & (v)
1.2.5 Review of Literature:
Review of literature is not mere reading of different resources. It is systematic
process of reviewing scholarly written sources like books and research papers/articles
published in journals etc. in the context of a particular research problem. With
different purposes it is done which may include (a) to gain subject insight, (b) to be
familiar with concepts relating to research problem, (c) to identify potential
relationship between the variables, (d) to formulate hypothesis, (e) to identify
methodology appropriate to research problem, (f) to check utility of data sources
used by other researchers and (g) to learn how others have written their reports.
After formulating of the problem, researcher has to conduct an extensive review
of literature related to the problem under study. This covers review of books,
journals, conference proceedings, government reports, published and unpublished
studies and theses etc. Most important part of review of literature is the review of
earlier studies on the similar topic or dimensions of research problem. We can
understand there are two-folds of review of literature i.e. (i) review concepts and
theories and (ii) review of previous research findings.
Review of literature is required to carried out at different stages of research with
different purposes:
1. At the beginning of research, to identify and select research problem, the
researcher has to review source materials, encyclopedia, reference books,
bibliography of doctoral dissertations, databases, theses in selected disciplines.
At this stage, review of literature is done for gaining preliminary orientation
about research topic, gaining ideas of recent trends in the field of knowledge,
knowing work already done and finding out research gap to avoid duplication.
2. When the research problem is formulated, the review of literature is made for
becoming familiar with appropriate research methodology, tools and techniques
relevant to the study. Hence, it is necessary to review previous studies in the
field, journals published and unpublished theses etc.
3. At the stage of operationalizing concepts, the researcher should review previous
studies in the field, journals published and unpublished theses etc. It is needed to
clarify the concepts and for knowing measurement techniques.
11
4. When the research proposal is prepared, review of literature include review of
sources like illustrated books on research methodology and published and
unpublished theses. It is required at this stage to develop alternative research
designs and for formulating hypothesis and defining sample design etc.
5. At the stage of constructing data collection instrument, the researcher has to
review the sources like illustrated books on research methodology and published
and unpublished theses and especially specimens of instruments and scales
appended to theses etc. Such review is don for gaining thorough knowledge of
tools and measurement techniques.
6. At the time of writing theoretical chapters in the research report, the researcher
should review journals, reference books and reports on the subject matter etc.
The purpose of review at this stage is to notes and complete bibliography.
7. When findings and conclusions are written at that time also review is useful to
strengthen them or justifying them with references of previous studies and also
justifying differences in the findings by specific reference.
By this discussion we can understand that the review of literature is not isolated
part of research report however every part of research report is ornamented by
glimpses of review of literature and their references either for comparison or
justification.
1.2.6 Research Process:
The research process consists of series of various actions, which are necessary to
effective research work. The stages in research process are listed as, selecting
research problems and stating of hypothesis, formulating of research design,
collecting, analyzing and interpreting of data.
Research process is a cyclic and interlinked with different stages. It is series of
actions or steps necessary to carry out research effectively. This research process
consists of steps such as (a) defining the research problem, (b) review of literature,
(c) developing the hypothesis, (d) formulating the research design, (e) determining
sample design, (f) data collection, (g) data analysis, (h) testing of hypothesis, (i)
interpretation and (j) preparing research report.
12
1.2.6.1 Defining research problem:
The first step of research process is defining research problem. The researcher
has to identify and select the research problem. This stage answers about 'why' and
'what' research is to be conducted. When sales are dipping in a specific market, the
marketer want to know why the sales are dipping in that market. Hence, the
researcher should come from broader to narrow approach. Firstly, we can fix which
is broader area, then identify topic and our research problem under this topic. When
the researcher decides about research problem, he/she has some investigative
questions on which you decide the objectives of a particular research and we can
write the statement of the research problem.
The problem has to be defined properly before research problem is taken for
study. The issue for inquiry or investigation should be identified and specified in
detail. Consequently it needs to define scope of the problem, justification of the
problem and feasibility of the problem.
1.2.6.2 Review of literature:
Review of literature is done with specific purpose of getting basic idea and
conceptual clarity about research problem, identifying theoretical gap and
methodological gap. The repetition of the same research problem is not expected.
The review of literature assists him in this respect. It is also useful in formulating
hypothesis.
1.2.6.3 Developing hypothesis:
Hypothesis is tentative assumption which may probable answer to the research
question. It is a working assumption for a specific research. It should be a logical
statement. 'By formulating a series of reasonable guesses of cause and effect, we are
able to understand and explore the events in our surrounding environment (Leedy
and ormrod, 2001). For proper evaluation, the researcher needs to define specifics in
operational terms. A hypothesis is a 'supposition made as a starting point for further
investigation from known facts' (Pearsall & Trumble, 1996). It has aim of generating
new knowledge. It should be novel and contain a testable prediction. Hypothesis may
be formulated on the basis of earlier theories or review of literature or pilot studies.
(The detailed discussion on hypothesis is made in chapter 2.7 page 52-68)
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1.2.6.4 Formulating the research design:
Research design is formulated while the research problem and objectives are
defined. It is nothing but blueprint of the research proposed. It will clear all future
things about research project i.e. when, how, why, where and who will do things
about research. It will clear the methods, tools and techniques to be adopted, the
methods of data collection, methods of data presentation and methods of data
analysis and interpretation. Research design also explain the structure of the research
project and the material to be used for it. On the basis of orientation of the research,
the researcher has number of techniques for testing the stated objectives. Such
orientation may be exploratory, descriptive or causal and so on. After defining
research problem, review of literature and developing hypothesis, the research design
is formulated for the proper planning and execution of the research.
1.2.6.5 Determining sample design:
Sample design of the research project clears population and sample of the study.
It also explains the adequacy of sample size, sampling method adopted and its
justification, basis of selecting sample. The researcher has to make sample most
representative of population. To avoid a probability of error in prediction, the
selected sample should be free from bias. The degree of precision/error should be
measurable and small enough to be deducted from the results. The selection of
probability or non-probability sampling depends on the nature of research, degree of
accuracy required and the time and financial resources available for the research.
1.2.6.6 Data collection:
Data collection is a crucial stage of research process. It is based on research
design. Before going into the field, scales of measurement is important issue
addressed. Before execution of data collection instrument we have check
measurement options. There is wide variety of data collection instruments available
to any researcher. They may be broadly classified as secondary sources and primary
sources of data. The data collection instruments include interviews, focus group
discussions, telephonic interview, mail survey, questionnaire or schedule etc. To
achieve objectives of a particular research, the researcher collect the data either
quantitative or qualitative. This stage requires systematic collection of data with
considering careful and rigorous quality checks to ensure the reliability and validity
of the data collected.
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1.2.6.7 Data analysis:
Firstly the data collected should be refined and processed for evaluating the
information in order to answer the research question(s) and test the hypothesis. The
data editing is also required to minimize errors and improve accuracy. Data analysis
depends upon the type of data i.e. quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative analysis or
statistical analysis is divided into two parts i.e. descriptive statistics and inferential
statistics. Qualitative data collected should be classified into broad categories to be
able to arrive at any inference and conclusion. In the present age, software like MS
Excel, SPSS or R etc. are used for data analysis.
1.2.6.8 Testing of hypothesis:
Testing of hypothesis is also a part of data analysis. It is one of the important
stages of research process. The researcher well understands his research objective,
because the type of test that will be used has to go in meeting the research objectives.
Test of hypothesis is an inference and a decision-making process in which we use
sample information to test whether a population parameter is less than, equal to or
greater than a specified value.
Testing of hypothesis is made according to univariate (population) analysis,
bivariate (population) analysis and multivariate (population) analysis. Test of
hypothesis may be test of association or test of differences. Parametric or non-
parametric test are alternatively applied for normal distribution and non-normal
distribution respectively.
1.2.6.9 Interpretation:
In simple words, an interpretation is the process of making the things simple and
clear. This stage involves interpretation and generalization. Researcher evaluates and
enhances data quality and assess potential for bias. Tools and techniques are applied
to give shape to the collected data. The expert-opinions can be tools for qualitative
research and the statistical methods can be tools for quantitative research.
Interpretation is making things simple and clear. It is the skill of researcher to link
the results with the research objectives, stating clearly the implications of the
findings and it is done with objective and rational approaches.
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1.2.6.10 Preparing research report:
Preparing research report is the final stage of research process. The report is
nothing but documenting whole research in a single report or communicating the
research in a particular form. It is the report regarding whole research from problem
formulation to the interpretation. The report communicates the reader all aspects of
research i.e. problem formulation, objectives, conceptual framework, review of
literature, scope and limitations of the research, research methodology, data analysis
and interpretation, findings, conclusions and suggestions etc. It appends enclosures
like specimen questionnaire and documents like financial statements etc. At the end,
the bibliography is also appended.
(a) …………. is systematic process of reviewing scholarly written sources like
books and research papers/articles published in journals etc. in the context
of a particular research problem.
(b) We can understand there are two-folds of ………. i.e. review concepts and
theories and review of previous research findings.
(c) The ………… consists of series of various actions, which are necessary to
effective research work.
(B) Choose the most appropriate alternative:
(1) Following is not the step of the research process……
(a) defining the research problem,
(b) selling books
(c) review of literature
(d) developing the hypothesis
(2) …………. is the last step of the research process.
(a) data analysis
(b) testing of hypothesis
(c) interpretation
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(d) preparing research report.
1.2.7 Methods of Research
Research methods refer to the methods of researchers use in performing research
operations. There are methods of research such as case study method, survey method,
historical method and experimental method etc.
1.2.8 Case Study Method:
The case study method is one of the most popular methods of research. Here, a
case is a unit of study and case study is the study of a unit. As far as history of case
study method is concerned, Fredric Le Play (1806-1882) firstly used this method in
studying family budgets. After that, Herbert Spencer used this method in his
ethnographic studies.
The case study method is a tool of social investigation which was intitially
developed in U. S. A. Actual introduction of case study as a method of sociological
field research was made by Thomas and Zeneniecki and their case studies known as
the 'Polish Peasant' by using personal diaries, letters, autobiographies and the files of
social agencies n the search for concrete and specific details about personal conduct
and group behaviour.
Clifford R. Shaw made an intensive study of a series of such cases and subjected
them to a careful analysis and comparison to unique and of common difference. It is
extensively used in psychology, education, sociology, economics, political science,
commerce and management and so on.
1.2.8.1 Meaning of Case Study Method:
A case study is an in-depth comprehensive study of a person, a social group, an
episode, a process, a situation, a programme, a community, an institution or any other
social unit.
1) Burges termed the case study method as "the social microscope".
2) According to P. V. Young, “case study is a method of exposing and analyzing
the life of a social unit”. (P. V. Young, Scientific Social Survey and Research,
p.229). She also explained that "A comprehensive study of a social unit- be that
unit a person, a group, a social institution, a district or a community- is called a
case study".
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3) Shivpao Young says that “case study method may be defined as a small
inclusive and intensive study of an individual in which investigator brings to
bear his skills and methods”.
4) According to H-Odum, "case study method is a technique by which individual
factor whether it be an institution or just an episode in the life of an individual or
a group is analyzed in its relationship to any other is the group".
5) Goode and Hatt say that "It is a way of organizing social data so as to present
the unitary character of the social object being studied".
6) According to Sart a Queen, case study is the examination of a single situation,
person, group or institution as complex wholes in order to identify types and
process".
Case study is the method which aims at studying deeply and thoroughly
different aspects of a social unit. Case study method is a careful and complete
observation of a social unit. This unit may be a person, a family, an institution, a
cultural group or even the entire community. All characteristics of such case are
studied under this method with comprehensive approach. In nutshell, we can say that
case study is a careful and complete observation of a social unit, be that unit a
person, a family or an institution, a cultural group or even the entire community.
Case study method is a form of qualitative analysis wherein careful and
complete observation of an individual or a situation or an institution is done. In this
method, efforts are made to study such and every aspect of the concerning unit in
minute detail. With its limitation, generalization may not be possible, however,
inferences can be drawn.
1.2.8.2 Characteristics of Case Study Method:
(a) Case study method is a single unit analysis.
(b) It is an intensive study of a social unit.
(c) Case study method is integrated study of all facets of a single unit.
(d) Case study method makes qualitative analysis of characteristics of a unit under
study.
(e) The interrelationship can be studied by case study method.
(f) The behavioural pattern of unit can be studied by using case study method.
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(g) It helps to generalize social science.
(h) It is flexible to adopt any data collection methods.
(i) With using case study method, the mutual interrelationship can be studied.
1.2.8.3 Process of Case Study:
The case study has a specific process to accomplish the objective of finding
characteristics of a unit under study. Such process of case study is divided into
following steps:
(a) Identifying specific problem
(b) Collection of data
(c) Analyzing problem
(d) Applying remedies
(e) Evaluating and Conclusion
(f) Taking follow-up
(a) Identifying specific problem: In the first step of case study method, specific
research problem is identified. The basic issues are defined. It selects and
formulate research problem in this step.
(b) Collecting data: The collection of data is the second step of case study method.
It also collects data regarding a particular case. Such data can be collected from
documents such as correspondence, diaries and personal and historical
documents etc. The researcher can also collect the data by taking in-depth
interview.
(c) Analyzing problem: The research problem is divided into rational easily
understood divisions. Such divisions can be examined separately. Analyzing
research problem is a process of comparing data collected according to
objectives set and identifying deviation, if any, and to influence it.
(d) Applying remedies: After defining and analyzing the problem, the suitable
remedies are suggested to solve the problem. It plays important role in case
study method.
(e) Evaluating and Conclusion: The case study method is used in education, law,
human resource management, organizational behaviour, marketing and so on.
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Different solutions should be suggested to the problem concerned. After
evaluating data collected regarding a particular unit, the researcher should come
out with conclusion.
(f) Taking follow-up: After identifying solution and applying it to a particular
problem, the researcher should take follow-up for determining effectiveness of
remedial actions.
1.2.8.3 Merits of Case Study Method
The case study method has some merits or advantages to the researcher and the
society.
(1) Intensive study: With the help of case study method, it is possible to study
intensively all aspects of a unit under study. It aims at studying everything about
few units. The study is done in comprehensive manner under this method.
(2) Flexible data collection: The researcher has freedom to approach the problem
from any angle he so desire. There is no need of sampling in this method. The
researcher can use more than one data collection method such as depth
interview, questionnaire, documents, individual letters and study reports etc.
(3) Useful for formulating hypothesis: The case study method helps to formulate
hypothesis. Goode and Hatt say ‘the depth of insight afforded by case study will
yield fruitful hypothesis for later, full scale study’.
(4) Less expensive: As compared to laboratory experiment, field experiment and
sample surveys, the case study method is less expensive.
(5) Comparative study: If two sets of cases are picked up, the independent case
studies can be done. After such case studies, the comparative study will be
possible.
(6) Real and enlightened record: This method helps us to collect real and
enlightened record of personal experiences. It is useful in using sociological
material as a real record of personal experience.
(7) In-depth study: In case of survey it is not possible to go into detail for each and
every unit. However, case study method provides an opportunity to make in-
depth study of social unit.
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(8) Suitable for diagnostic study: The case study method is most suitable for
diagnostic research and to develop strategy to solve the same problem.
(9) Useful for change study: The case study method is useful for understanding the
social change. The immediate reading of change is possible by this method.
1.2.8.4 Demerits of Case Study Method:
(1) Lack of objectivity: The case study method involves the relationship between a
researcher and the unit under study, which develops personal feeling and
emotions affects. Due to these effects, the objectivity is lost. Hence, there is
danger of subjectivity.
(2) Comparison not possible: In social research, values, attitudes, behaviour,
reactions, circumstances etc. of human being are different from each other. So it
is very difficult to find out to identical cases. Hence, it is not possible to
compare two cases.
(3) Time and money consuming: The case study method is intensive study which
study the all aspects and also its past, present and future. It requires more time,
more money and more man-power as it requires to study the natural history of
social unit minutely.
1.2.9 Survey Method:
If we look into the history of survey, it is found that in 300 B.C., Herodotus
talked of survey of population of Egypt and as such this method in crude form was
known to the people. In 11th Century, William, the Conqueror’s work ‘Dooms Day
Book’ also has traces of social investigation of problems with the help of surveys. It
became scientific in the writings of John Howard who conducted a survey of prison
houses of England and Wales. Le play, a French Social Reformer, undertook
research on the conditions of workers, after industrialization. Earnest Engles, a
German Economist made research on budget of families. He came to conclusion that
the pattern of desire of the people differed on the basis of their income.
Sorokin, the first American scholar, he was inspired by the work of Le Play.
Others who follow the same include Zimmerman and Trampton, Llyod Warner,
Ralph Linton etc.
21
Charles Booth studied poverty of London and used survey method and written
book ‘Life and Labour of People of London’. He introduced statistics in social
survey.
B. S. Rowntree studied economic conditions of the people on large scale. He
made survey of 16,362 families in New York. Survey conducted twice in 1899 and in
1936. He came to the conclusion that economic condition of 10% of the population
had improved.
Arthur Bowley picked up middle size towns in England. He wrote book
‘Livelihood and Poverty’. He made survey twice, used sampling techniques and
introduced comparative method in his study.
1.2.9.1 Meaning of Survey Method
Survey is the research method which is overlooking the phenomenon. It is
common method of diagonising and solving social problem. It is useful for method of
social investigation which is confined to particular area. Under this method, data may
be collected through observation, mailing questionnaire or interviewing. This is the
method of gathering data from respondents thought to be representative of some
population.
According to Festinger and Kat, “Many research problems require systematic
collection of data from population through the use of personal interviews or other
data gathering devices. These studies are usually called surveys, especially when
they are concerned with large and widely diverse groups of people.”
Mark Abram says, “A social survey is a process by which quantitative facts are
collected about the social aspects of a community composition and activities.”
Bogardus E. S. has defined survey as “A social survey is the collection of data
concerning the living and working conditions, broadly speaking the people in a given
community.”
According to E. W. Burgess, “A social survey is the scientific study of
conditions and needs of a commodity for the purpose of presenting a constructive
programme of social advance.”
As per S. M. Harison’s perception, “A social survey is a process by which
quantitative facts are collected about the social aspects of a community’s
composition and activities.”
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P. V. Young has defined social surveys in comprehensive manner as follows:
“Social surveys are concerned with
a. The formulation of a constructive programme of social reform
b. Amelioration of current or immediate conditions of a social pathological nature,
which have definite geographical limits and definite social implicaptions and
significance
c. These conditions can be measured and compared with situations which can be
accepted as model.”
On the basis of overview of all above definitions of social survey, we can summarize
the following characteristics of survey as given below:
(a) Social Survey are continued in Modern Times
(b) Characteristics of Modern Social Surveys
(c) Large Scale Social Surveys
(d) Regular Social Surveys
(e) Inter-disciplinary Nature
(f) No Collection of Unnecessary Data
(g) Employment of Trained Field Workers
1.2.9.2 Process of Survey:
The process of survey can be divided into different stages such as selecting
problem, defining objective, definitions, operationalization of concepts and
constructs, sampling, designing instrument and pre-testing, field work and data
collection, processing of data and tabulation, analysis of data and reporting.
(1) Selecting problem: The first stage of survey is selecting problem. The problem
should be defined in such a way that it must be clear and precise. It should be
socially useful.
(2) Defining objective: The aim of the study should be clearly defined in the line of
research problem already formulated.
(3) Definitions: The scope of the study should delimited and concepts should be
clearly defined so as to measure them properly afterwards.
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(4) Operationalization of concepts and constructs: For the purpose of analysis,
variables should be properly measured. Hence, concepts and constructs should
be operationalized for measuring idexes and scales.
(5) Sampling: Census survey is not possible all the times. The researcher can select
sample which is representative units of population.
(6) Designing instrument and pre-testing: Tools for data collection should be
designed properly in the light of objectives of the study. Schedule can be drafted
and it can be administered in pilot survey and it can be pre-tested with reliability
and validity of scales for the constructs.
(7) Field work and data collection: After pre-testing, the data can be collected from
the respondents. While collecting data, situation, mindset of respondent, attitude
should be taken into account. Psychological factors always affects on data
collection in survey method. The researcher should try to collect realistic data
with objectivity.
(8) Processing of data and tabulation: The data collected are processed which
include data cleaning, data editing, data transcription etc. After that data are
tabulated with the specific purpose of analysis as simple frequency table, one-
way table or two-way table, cross-table etc.
(9) Analysis of data: After processing of data, quantitative analysis is carried out in
two parts: descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. As per the research
design, data are analyzed with specific perspective.
(10) Reporting: The research report may be prepared in the detailed form or it can be
published in the form of research paper/ article.
1.2.9.3 Types of Survey:
Social surveys can be of different kinds. Survey can be very limited or very
comprehensive in nature. It can be conducted by the government or private agencies.
Briefly we can see the types of surveys as follows:
(1) Census or Sample Survey: Each and every unit of population is investigated in
census survey. In limited geographical scope, an individual researcher can adopt
sample survey. Otherwise, census survey may be time-consuming, costly and
required more efforts. Sample survey is limited to representative units of
population. It is a method of research which implicit that findings on the basis of
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data analysis of sample is attributable to whole population. Findings are put
forth about whole population on the basis of analyzing sample. It is possible
only when population is homogeneous.
(2) Regular or Ad hoc Survey: When survey is conducted after regular interval, it is
called regular survey. Regular surveys include surveys by RBI, Economic
Surveys of India, Census Survey made by the Registrar General of India etc.
When survey is conducted to find out some information required for a particular
purpose, it is called ad hoc survey. In this case, purpose of the survey is over as
soon as the object is achieved. The information required on regular nature, the
regular survey is suitable; however, ad hoc survey is suitable to collect data
related to certain specific subject matter.
(3) Direct or Indirect Survey: Direct survey interprets facts quantitatively. Indirect
survey concludes results out of the available data.
(4) General or Specific Surveys: Entire community is studied in a general way, in
case of general survey. Without any hypothesis, when general information of
any population is purpose of the survey, it is called general survey. General
surveys include Economic Survey of India, Survey of Banking etc. When survey
is conducted with specific aspect of the community, it is called specific survey.
It includes unemployment survey, health survey, survey of children for
identifying malnutrition etc.
(5) Social or Economic Survey: When social aspects are covered by the survey it is
called social survey. Social surveys may be based on demographic
characteristics of a group of people, social environment of people, people’s
opinion and attitudes and people’s behaivour and activities etc. Economic
aspects are involved in economic surveys. Economic surveys may include the
aspects like economic condition of people, working of economic units and
operations of an economic system etc.
(6) Official and Non-official Survey: Government can conduct official surveys for
policy prescription and intervention or welfare purposes. When surveys are done
without any help from government, which are done by individuals or
organizations. Such surveys are called non-official surveys.
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(7) Personal or Postal Survey: When the surveyor personally collect the
information from respondents, it s personal survey. If surveyor gets information
through post, it is postal survey.
(8) Primary or Secondary Survey: When surveyor himself starts work on particular
subject and personal collects data, it is primary survey. When surveyor does not
collect data on his own, instead he depends on the work which is already done
by somebody else, it is called secondary survey.
1.2.9.4 Merits of Survey Method
There are some advantages of survey method which are as follows:
(1) Versatility: Survey method is the only practical way to collect various types of
information such as personal characteristics, socio-economic data, attitude,
opinion, experiences and expectations etc.
(2) Thorough study: Survey method enables to study the problem thoroughly and
deeply in all aspects. By this method, causes of the problems also can be
studied. Remedies can be used to find solution to the problem.
(3) Generalization: Survey method provides drawing generalization about even
large population on the basis of sample studied.
(4) Useful or policy prescription: Survey method is very useful for administrators
and policymakers. Many states have taken legislative measure as a result of
findings of social surveys.
(5) Flexibility in method of collection: This method is flexible to use of various
methods of collecting data.
(6) Finding out unknown facts: Social surveys are able to find out unknown facts.
In every society, there are certain hidden problems which do not come to light
and hence not known to society. A survey reveals these facts and once these are
focused new theories are expounded.
(7) Verifying theories: Survey is useful instrument for verifying theories.
1.2.9.5 Demerits of Survey Method
Social surveys are really time consuming and also costly. So those should be
conducted with care and conscious. Survey method has certain limitations/ demerits.
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(1) Time consuming: Survey method is very time consuming. Sufficient time is
required to spend to complete survey.
(2) Feasibility of data: Survey method primarily collects data from primary sources
such as individuals, households or institutions. Its feasibility depends upon
willingness and cooperation of the respondents.
(3) Costly: Survey method has limitation of human and economic resources. Heavy
funds are needed for getting every survey conducted. Manpower is another
problem of survey. It is required in the form of trained investigators, field
workers etc. Administrative and field staff is required for survey method hence
it is costly method.
(4) Sampling Error: When sample survey method is adopted, it is subject to
sampling error. It is subject to sampling error. Its findings must be interpreted
with considering the probable implications of these errors.
(5) Response Errors: Survey method depends on verbal responses. At the time, the
respondent can give untrue or misleading answers. It is not possible all the times
to identify them. Hence, survey method is subject to response error. There is no
mechanism to verify the data.
(6) Not deep study: It is blamed that survey touches only the surface of the research
field and does not make deeper study.
(7) Unsuitable for past problem: Survey method can be used only for current
problem. Problems in the past cannot be explored by this method.
1.2.10 Historical Method:
When the researcher wants to investigate events and phenomenon in the past,
the historical method is adopted on the basis of historical documents and evidences.
A. N. Whitehead, a logician once said that “each emerging is perceived as
containing within itself all its past and seeds of its future”.
Historical study is a study of past records and other information sources with a
view to reconstructing the origin and development of an institution or a movement or
a system and discovering the trends in the past. Historical method is described as
“the induction of principles through research into the past and social forces which
have shaped the present”.
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1.2.11 Experimental Method:
If researcher wants to assess the effect of independent variable on dependent
variable by artificially controlling the effect of rest of the variables.
For e.g.- Crop yield per hectare is dependent variable and the factors such as soil
fertility, irrigation, quality of seed and cultural practices which influences the yield
are independent variables.
(a) Fredric Le Play (1806-1882) firstly used this method in studying…….
(b) Burges termed the case study method as ………..
(c) According to P. V. Young, ………. is a method of exposing and analyzing
the life of a social unit.
(d) Each and every unit of population is investigated in ………….
(e) The information required on regular nature, the ……. survey is suitable
(B) State whether the following statement is true or false
(a) When survey is conducted after regular interval, it is called regular survey.
(b) Government does not conduct official surveys for policy prescription and
intervention or welfare purposes.
(c) Case study method makes qualitative analysis of characteristics of a unit
under study.
1.3 Summary:
Human being is benefited by the research undertaken in various subjects. This
unit covered the meaning and objectives of research; the research in Commerce and
Management; types of research; review of literature; research process; and the
methods of research. This unit also includes the meaning, advantages and
disadvantages of case study method and survey method. The objectives of research
are creating knowledge, describing characteristics, diagnosis of problem, testing
relationship and welfare objective. The research in commerce and management is
constantly done for effective and actionable decision-making. There are different
28
areas of business research which include human resource management and
organizational behaviour, marketing management, financial management and
accounting, operations and production management and supply chain management
and entrepreneurship and business models etc. There are different type of research
which may be pure research, basic research, applied research, descriptive research,
analytical research, quantitative research and qualitative research etc.
Review of literature is systematic process of reviewing scholarly written sources
like books and research papers/articles published in journals etc. in the context of a
particular research problem. With different purposes it is done which may include (a)
to gain subject insight, (b) to be familiar with concepts relating to research problem,
(c) to identify potential relationship between the variables, (d) to formulate
hypothesis, (e) to identify methodology appropriate to research problem, (f) to check
utility of data sources used by other researchers and (g) to learn how others have
written their reports. The research process consists of steps such as (a) defining the
research problem, (b) review of literature, (c) developing the hypothesis, (d)
formulating the research design, (e) determining sample design, (f) data collection,
(g) data analysis, (h) testing of hypothesis, (i) interpretation and (j) preparing
research report.
There are methods of research such as case study method, survey method,
historical method and experimental method etc. A case study is an in-depth
comprehensive study of a person, a social group, an episode, a process, a situation, a
programme, a community, an institution or any other social unit. Survey is the
research method which is overlooking the phenomenon. It is common method of
diagnosing and solving social problem. It is useful for method of social investigation
which is confined to particular area. Under this method, data may be collected
through observation, mailing questionnaire or interviewing. This is the method of
gathering data from respondents thought to be representative of some population.
Historical study is a study of past records and other information sources with a view
to reconstructing the origin and development of an institution or a movement or a
system and discovering the trends in the past. If researcher wants to assess the effect
of independent variable on dependent variable by artificially controlling the effect of
rest of the variables, it is experimental research.
29
1.4 Terms to Remember:
1. Research: Research is the systematic method of discovering the new facts or
verifying the old facts, their sequences, inter-relationship, causal explanations
and the natural laws which govern them.’
2. Pure or Basic Research: Pure research is also called as basic research or
fundamental research. Fundamental research may include (a) the research deals
with natural phenomenon and (b) the research related to human behavior make
generalization.
3. Applied Research: Applied research is the research which is to find out a
solution for practical problem which is being faced by society or business etc.
4. Descriptive Research: Descriptive research is nothing but surveys and fact-
finding enquiries which aims at description of the state of affairs.
5. Analytical Research: Analytical research is the research when the researcher
uses facts and information already available and makes critical evaluation of the
material.
6. Review of Literature: Review of literature is a systematic process of reviewing
scholarly written sources like books and research papers/articles published in
journals etc. in the context of a particular research problem.
7. Case Study Method: A case study is an in-depth comprehensive study of a
person, a social group, an episode, a process, a situation, a programme, a
community, an institution or any other social unit. Case study is the method
which aims at studying deeply and thoroughly different aspects of a social unit.
Case study method is a careful and complete observation of a social unit.
8. Survey Method: Survey is the research method which is overlooking the
phenomenon. It is common method of diagnosing and solving social problem. It
is useful for method of social investigation which is confined to particular area.
Under this method, data may be collected through observation, mailing
questionnaire or interviewing.
9. Historical Method: Historical study is a study of past records and other
information sources with a view to reconstructing the origin and development of
an institution or a movement or a system and discovering the trends in the past.
30
10. Experimental Method: If researcher wants to assess the effect of independent
variable on dependent variable by artificially controlling the effect of rest of the
variables, it is an experimental research.

Answers to Check your progress:
(A) – (a) Research, (b) systematic and (c) valid
(B) – (a) True and (b) False
(A) Answer: (a) False, (b) True, (c) False, (d) True and (e) True.
(A) Answers- (a) True, (b) True and (c) True
(B) Answers- (1)- (d) and (2)- (b)
(A) Answer- (a) Review of literature, (b) review of literature and (c) research
process
(B) Answer- (1) - (b) and (2) - (d)
(A) Answer- (a) family budgets, (b) "the social microscope", (c) case study, (d)
census survey and (e) regular
(B) (a) True, (b) False and (c) True
1.6 Exercise:
1. What is research? Describe the objectives of research.
2. Explain the types of research.
3. Explain the review of literature, in detail.
4. What is case study method? Describe its merits and demerits.
5. What is survey method? Describe its merits and demerits.
31
6. Write short notes:
(a) Pure research
(b) Historical research method
(c) Research process
(d) Experimental research method
(e) Descriptive research
1.7 Reference for further study:

Kothari, C. R. and Garg, Guarav (2016). Research Methodology Methods and
Techniques (Third Edition), New Age International Publishers, London.
Krishnaswami, O. R. and Ranganathan, M. (2011). Methodology of Research in
Social Sciences, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai, Second edition, Sixth print.
Redman LV &Mory AVH (1923) The Romance of Research, pp. 6-10.
Young, P. V. (1953). Scientific Social Surveys and Research. New York: Pzentice-
Hall Inc., 1949. 621 pages. Nursing Research, 2(2), 95.
Slesinger, D. and Stephenson, M. (1930) The Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences. Vol.
IX, MacMillan Publications.

32
Unit-2
Research Design
2.1 Objective
After studying this Unit you will be able to:
1. Understand designing research protocol for research problem, the concept and
types of hypothesis.
2. Prepare research design.
3. Explain types of research designs, types of hypothesis and types of sampling.
4. Understand the sampling design and types of sampling methods.
5. Find relationship between research question, hypothesis and objectives.
6. Explain the process of formulation of hypotheses and do it in actual practice.
2.2 Introduction
Previous chapter narrates the basic concepts of research. We have studied the
definition of research and various objectives behind research. Research is purely a
science hence; it flows through scientific process from formulation of research
problem, finding the possible solution to the problem under study and designing the
implementation of the solution to achieve objectives. In commerce and management,
dealing with various business problems, we adopt different research techniques and
research methods. Survey method and case study method are popularly used, which
has been discussed in sufficient length in the previous chapter. Manager and
entrepreneur is a decision maker and for taking decisions he needs data. Since the
management decisions are rational decisions and not impulse, the decisions have to
take on the basis of data. The data would be available with the organization and if the
data is not available then it needs to be collected. At this instance of collecting
needed data, the research plays role.
This chapter is a step ahead to previous chapter and discusses research designs
to be adopted to resolve problems before management by collection and analysis of
relevant data.
33
2.3 Presentation of Subject Matter.
Section – 1
Research design is a blue print, a comprehensive and detailed document which
facilitates research in systematic and scientific manner. The document is a detailed
plan which answers every question arouses regarding research problem under study.
Unlike while building a home one has a detailed plan on a paper (often called as blue
print) and the home is build accordingly likewise the research design is a document
carries every details of conduct of research which drives towards a plausible,
applicable solution of a problem under study. The outcome of research always helps
managers in decision making with substantial evidences of facts. See in our day to
day life the activities we undertake we have planning. For a day away from home to
picnic or trekking we have planning on a piece of paper, here we are taking of
research which is expected to resolve a problem or help in decision making to
undertake few future strategies. The document research design is also termed as
research protocol.
Let’s understand the definition of research design.
2.3.1 Definition of Research Design:
Various authors have defined the concept research design, few definitions are
mentioned below.
A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure (Kothari & Garg, 2015)
“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis
of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure”. – (Selitiz, 1965)
“A Research Design is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for
collecting and analysis the needed information.” (Zikmund, 2008)
“The planned sequence of the entire process involved in conducting a research
study.” Prof. Miller
34
“The design results from controlling general scientific model into varied
research procedure.” (Young, 1939)
“A research design provides the framework to be used as a guide in collecting
and analyzing data.”
“A research design is a logical and systematic planning and it helps directing a
piece of research.” (Nargundkar, 2008)
From the above definitions we learn that
a. It is a systematic plan
b. It directs the entire research activity towards a specific point.
c. It provides a framework to researcher to act within
d. It specifies methods and procedures to conduct research
e. It laid down condition of collection and analysis of data.
In short, research design is systematic plan to find out the answer for a research
question under study. The research design mainly has six components as depicted in
the following figure.
Figure 1: Components of research design.
Invariably research design is expected to answer following WH questions.
35
What : What is the research problem under study?. What hypothesis
put to test ? and what are objectives of the study? .
Why : Why the study has been undertaken? What is the importance of
study? In what way and to whom the studey is going to be benefited?
Which: Which data and findings to be consider for building

suggestions/prescriptions and building models to solve the research
problem.
Whom: Sampling design. Whom to approach to get the variabels, to
get the data? The experts and the samples.
When: When to conduct the study? Period of conduct of study.
How: Statistical Design. Operational Design. Observational Design.

How to implement the research design? this talks about
implementation plan, opertional plan. How to investigate? How to
collect the data? How to analyse the data?
Source: (Composed by author)

While undertaking any research project students have to have above questions in
the mind to answer. The thought process should revolve around these questions. This
habit of thinking often around the questions would help to come out with quality
research and quality project.
The question ‘what?’ answers the major issue that what researcher/student wants
to do. The research problem is a set of questions to be answers. The answers to the
question we do not know and need to find out with conducting research. The
question ‘what?’ also set the hypothesis to test and laid down objectives of the study.
Researcher gets the specific point to attain from answering this question ‘what?’
Now why to conduct this research? or why to undertake this research? The
answer to this question narrates importance of research. And whom the research is
going to be benefited? It means the number of stakeholders going to be benefited
because of this research. And in what way the stakeholders are going to be benefited?
Thee answer to why details the importance of research.
36
Which data and findings to be considered for building suggestions or
prescriptions is answered by question which? Researcher collects the data on which
the analysis of data is done. Analysis leads to some findings and findings leads to
suggestions. The decision of appropriate scales, decision on acute variables to
measure what we want to measure is important. Appropriateness of selection of
variables and measurement scales only would help appropriate analysis and drawing
findings.
Research design also narrates the period a study to be undertaken in detail. The
studies in social sciences have time value. The social scenario may leads to different
opinions as per the change in time. For instance the workers may have a certain
opinion at the time economy going well towards their emoluments and facilities
receive by employer. The same workers may have different opinion on the same
issue when the economy is in recession. The research work in financial management,
stock market prices of shares, economics which are always time related. So the
decision of when the research is to be undertaken or at what time frame the research
has undertaken carries apex importance.
The next question while preparing research design to ask is how to conduct the
research. This question gathers the procedural stages of research design.
Every research design especially in social sciences has four important aspects as,
1. Sampling design
2. Observational design
3. Statistical design and
4. Operational design
Sampling design talks about the population, sampling unit, and overall sampling
frame. Whom researcher is going to approach and ask for the information, data or
opinion? How many individuals or organizations to approach are also decided in
sampling design i.e. number of samples to be approached. The detailed discussion of
sampling is done in the last section of this chapter only.
Observational design specifies conditions to observe, what to observe and note
down. The observational design is more relevant to qualitative studies. But even in
quantitative studies few qualitative observations plays role. For example, while
studying labour welfare facilities in a factory it if often needs not to ask about
37
availability of pure drinking water facilities, fire extinguisher, sufficient light
arrangements and ventilation and the like. These aspects merely can be observed by
researcher and utilized for data analysis. There are many aspects in quantitative
research as well which instead asking needs to be observed and utilized during data
analysis. A few research reports carry general observations or general findings. The
general observations and findings are mentioned are the outcome of observational
design.
Statistical design decides on processing and analytical tools of be applied on
collected data. Various statistical tools are available viz. measures of central
tendency, measures of dispersion, correction, regression and so. The very purpose of
teaching these statistical tools to students is to make use of the same for better
analysis of data and drawing meaning out of the analysis. The analysis, which is to
be used for decision making. It is expected that students should practice using this in
the project report and make project enriched. At the time of research design
researcher decides on data collection and select the tools to be used for data analysis.
Operational design explains how the entire research design is to be executed. It
is detailing of steps and procedure to execute the field work, data collection, data
feeding and data analysis within a given resources especially time and money.
So, by this time you might have come to know how important these WH
questions are.
2.3.2 Types of research designs:
There exist two basic research designs one is fundamental research also known
as ideal or basic research and second is applied research also known as practical
research.
Fundamental research meant to bring afloat the new facts which has not yet
discovered by any one. The detailing of these facts and further probing into its
relations with variables is basic task of fundamental research. Fundamental research
is a continuous process since there are many unexplored things in the nature and even
many unexplored facts about human behavior as such. So till the existence of
universe the fundamental research is warranted. We have very eminent research
institute dealing fundamental research, which is pride of India that is Tata Institute of
Fundamental Research, Mumbai. (TIFR) are basically into basic science, technology
and computers. Whereas applied research addresses real life problem. The
38
knowledge contributed by fundamental rese
research
arch is bringing in use to resolve real life
problems.
Besides these two basic research designs we have following four research design to
study.
Types of Research Design
Exploratory Research Design
Descriptive Research Design
Diagnostic Research Design
Experimental Research Design
Source: (figure composed by Authors)

Research designs mentioned above has a logical sequence.
To suffice
ice newly evolved want, to answer newly evolved questions and to find
out solutions to newly evolved problems, exploration is warranted.
The outcome of exploratory research is particularly in social sciences is the
categories and variables which influenc
influenced
ed human behavior in different capacities.
The different capacities mean, human as a social animal and human as a customer.
These Variables out of exploration are enough to describe population using
descriptive research and establishment of relationships is done using diagnostic
research design. The outcomes of diagnostic research are tested over a period of time
in different circumstances. This is to generalize outcomes to the population. This is
39
done using experimental research design. Successful experimentation is then
generalized to population as a solution to problem defined in exploratory research
design. A cycle of proposing solution to a problem hence, begins at exploration and
end up with experimentation.
1. Exploratory Research Design
Very meaning of exploration reveals to bring a float altogether new thing.
Exploratory research design is used to find the solution for new problems.
Definitions of exploratory research designs are,
Exploratory Research Design refers to, “Formulating a problem for more precise
investigation or of developing the working hypothesis from an operational point of
view.” – (Kothari & Garg, 2015)
Exploratory Research Design refers to, “Conducted as a preliminary step to
clarify and define the nature of a problem.”- (G., 2013; Zikmund, 2008)
“A Flexible design which must provide opportunity for considering different
aspects of the problems.” –B.D.Kulkarni, D. (1996)
“It is systematic scientific and at times the only when through which a social
scientists can check whether an idea, that sounds promising to him, has much appeal
in reality or not.” –Hasouneh, A. B. (2003)
Exploratory research manifest with something new in the domain knowledge.
The exploration facilitates further thinking in different perspective. It may also
facilitate the discussions and debates which are well explained and tested using
descriptive research design.
Exploratory research design is very flexible because, it is very difficult to
predict the time exploration would require and also difficult to limit the resources it
requires. No one can guarantee of results out of exploratory research. We have heard
Edison tried numerous to illuminate electrical bulb and he quote, “I have not failed.
I've just found 10,000 ways that won't work.” Research scholar registered for degree
does not deal with exploratory research since it is not sure when the research will
complete? whether it will complete or not?
For example we have to develop a model depicting green buying behavior. That
is a model depicts behavior of consumers towards purchasing the environment
40
friendly products/green products or we can say the products produced without
hearting the environment. Now a day we are talking about sustainable businesses.
And the sustainable businesses include care for an environment. Like organic
vegetables, fruits etc. Now for the development of such models research need to find
out the input variables, process variables i.e. buyers thinking process and output
variables. Since every individual has their own thinking process and the behavior to
reflect towards such products. Hence the study needs to probe into the psychological
variables to construct the model. Since the model building involve psychological
variables which are by nature very complex to understand. The mere development of
theoretical model does not suffice purpose but the step ahead the model needs to put
to test as well for its implementation. The successful testing of model gives inputs to
the businesses dealing in green product.
Such studies which are not much addressed by researcher needs exploration and
these are need to be addressed using exploratory research design.
2. Descriptive Research Design
Outcomes of exploratory research design are the inputs to the descriptive
research design which facilitates to check the scenario of variables manifested from
exploratory study within the existing population.
Descriptive research design answers the question, what it is about. And it does
not probe into the reasons behind the population scenario towards defined variables.
Definitions of descriptive research design are,
Descriptive Research Design refers to, “Which are concerned with describing
the characteristics of a particular individual or of a group.”- Garg , C. R. (2014)
“The Descriptive research designs enable researcher to describe or present
pictures of a phenomenon or phenomena under investigation.” –Hasouneh, A. B.
(2003)
“The true beginning of scientific activity consists…describing phenomena and
(Only) then in proceeding to group, clarify and correlate them...” –Bhandarkar, W.
&. (1992).
Features of descriptive research design are,
41
• Descriptive research design meant to explain the population features with
respect to phenomena under study. What it is?
• It has resource constraints especially time and money
• The design is rigid and does not allow many changes
• It brings in use descriptive statistical tools.
For example a study of investment pattern of people. Now this study studies
merely the investment made by samples under study drawn from a specific defined
population in different investment avenues. The study further may narrate the
association of demographic profile with the investment made, such as, inclination of
male and female samples towards investment. Or the inclination of different socio
economic class towards investment in different avenues and the like. This study only
describes the population under study about the investment pattern. The study does
not necessarily explain the reasons behind the same.
3. Diagnostic Research Design
Variables well defined in descriptive research design are taken to find out its
interrelations, dependability with gamut of variables and the like. The design used to
seek some sort of solution to the problem observed and under study. It purposefully
establishes the relationships between variables to find out the extent of different
variables are contributing to the existing problem and the like.
Definitions of research designs are,
Diagnostic Research Design refers to, “Determining the frequency with which
something occurs or its association with something else.” –Garg , C. R. (2014)
Diagnostic Research Design refers to, “Discovering what is happening, why is it
happening and what can be done about.” – M.Ranganatham, D. O. (2005)
“It is the most typical and simple problem solving strategy of the helper faced
with problems and crises on the job.” –B.D.Kulkarni, (1996)
“It may be concerned with discovering and testing whether certain variables are
associated.” –Bhandarkar, W. &. (1992)
“Diagnostic Research Design refers to scientific differentiation among various
conditions or phenomena for the purpose of accurately classifying these conditions.”
42
- Hasouneh, A. B. (2003)
Above definitions concludes that diagnostic research design is used for problem
solving using different inferential statistical tools.
Now for example continuing with the case we have seen above about study of
investment pattern. If researcher studies the determinants of investment pattern then
it requires diagnostic research design. Here researcher is finding the variables which
are influencing the decisions behind investment and the investment in a specific
investment avenue. The outcome of diagnostic research design could be a model for
example regression model and the like. For a defined population under study we can
state that the defined variables determine the investment in shares, mutual funds,
bank FD etc. which ultimately help decision maker to decide upon the segment to
target and focus advertising efforts.
4. Experimental Research Design
Experimentations are a base in physical sciences like chemistry, physics, botany
and the like. In social sciences especially experimentations are now widely used to
find out behavior of human being. In management human beings are considered as a
customer, consumer, employees, middlemen and the like. Studying behaviour of such
human being under different circumstances is of use in decision making. Hence,
management practitioners and researchers are using experimental research design.
For example, if a marketer shows a model of particular product which helps in
the safeguard of your house and property in house like gold, silver and cash in your
home. Looking towards the model which cost Rs. 2000/- and not more if marketer
ask you being a sample, that after launching this product would you buy this? Almost
90% of samples would reply Yes!! they would buy it. When the product actually get
launched in the market the sales does not turn out to 90% of targeted segment. Now
the question is why it is so? It is because the circumstances marketer ask about
possible purchase was different that the circumstances of actual purchase.
Say if I ask your opinion on a transaction happened with you, that on a retail
counter you bought a product and paid the amount. Say a product priced Rs. 160/-
you gave Rs. 200/- in return you get Rs. 50/- instead of Rs. 40/- what would you do?
The general answer I will receive is rather almost all would reply that I will bring to
the notice this fact and return Rs. 50/- for Rs. 40/- right? If it actually happens with
you, what would be the scenario? The scenario would be different. Isn’t it? So the
43
point here is there is likely to be difference in opinion and actual act. What is more
reliable for researcher to know is actual act. And measurement of actual act is at the
core of experimental research.
Experimental research design necessarily follows a hypothesis and seeks
relationship between two or more variables.
“More than a hundred ways of conducting such experiments and each these may
be termed as a experimental design.” -Donald Cambell & Julian Stanley
“Experimental research is designed to assess the effects of a particular variables
on a phenomenon by keeping the other variables constant or controlled.” –
M.Ranganatham, D. O. (2005)
“In Experimental Design the researcher can often exert a great deal of control
over extraneous variables and thus ensure that the stimuli in the experimental
conditions are similar.” – Hasouneh, A. B. (2003)
“Experimental method means those methods wherein researcher tests hypothesis
of casual relationship between variables.” B.D.Kulkarni, D. (1996)
Experimental research design follows three basic principles
One is principle of randomization – it refers to selection of samples strictly on
random basis to avoid possible biases.
Second is principle of replication – this means that experimentation should be
repeated more times. This may bring afloat extraneous variables which has impact on
results in experimentation.
Third principal is principal of local control- this refers to allow the indulgence of
extraneous variables to play role in experimentation. This would allow researcher to
know about extraneous variables which cause variability in measurement.
Extraneous variables then are studies for its inclusion in experimentation to minimize
experimental error.
The best example of experimental research design is Hawthorne experiment
which details the illumination effect on the productivity of employee. In
experimentation a single variable or set of variables play role of which the
impact is measure. Necessarily in experimentation there likely to be two groups
one is control group and second is experimental group. Say to test the effect of
44
newly develop tablet which increases iron/calcium content in the body. One
group of people can be given these tablets for a week and the changes into the
iron/calcium content in the body are measures. This can be measured and
analyzed in two ways. One is take the count before experiment i.e. giving the
tablets and compare it with the post tablet consumption count. Second way it
takes the count of iron/calcium of samples in control group and compare the
count it with the people in experimental group who have consumed the tablet for
a defined period.
In social sciences also we can have such experimentations. The English
aptitude of entire class can be measured first. Then for half of the class a special
coaching can be provided in an effort to increase the English aptitude. The
students can be selected using random sampling technique to avoid biasness.
After completion of coaching of a defined period. Again the English aptitude for
the entire class can be measures. The scores of students attending the coaching
and the students who were not the part of such coaching can be compared. This
testing will tell the impact of English coaching efforts. If significant difference
found then it can be said that the coaching has leads to improve the aptitude of
participants in the coaching class.
2.3.3 Features of Good Design
1. Reliability of data –good research design has more reliability of data collected.
Reliability refers to correctness of opinions collected from samples.
2. Experimental error –repetitive execution of research design in different context
if gives same results or similar results then it is considered to have less
experimental error and treated to be a good research design.
3. Information yields – researchers requires more data and information to test
hypothesis and suffice objectives effectively. The design which yields more data
and information with shallow instrument termed to be a good research design.
4. Flexibility – it means the design should be able to consider many different
aspects of a problem under study.
5. Economical –research design which consumes less resources especially money
and time and provides maximum utility is considered to be economical research
design.
45
Besides above mentioned points of features of good research design. Every
practical research has sampling design, statistical design, observational design and
operational design as their important components.
Invariably post graduate students at M.Com. MBA, PGDM program needs to
undergo summer implant training. The research design mostly bring in use is
descriptive research design and in rare cases diagnostic research design bring in use.
Since the summer project has to be completed within some 50 to 60 days it is
difficult to handle exploratory or experimental research design. The research protocol
template given below is suitable to descriptive and diagnostic research design
provides general guidelines and layout of points to be covered in research design
document. These points constitute the research design as well the same points
constitute the chapter titled, ’Research Methodology’ in the project report. Few of the
points are exceptions at the M.Com. and MBA level viz. hypothesis and pilot testing.
If any student is setting hypotheses to test and also conducting pilot testing then it is
more appreciating work.
After finalizing the organization to work in for summer in-plant training, student
has to decide on the research problem to be taken for study in consultation with
project guide allotted to you and industry expert. In line with research problem
follow the points given in the template below, student has to prepare a research
proposal/project proposal. After finalization of research proposal/research protocol
only the study has to be initiated.
How to Write a Research Protocol?
Research protocol is a document which describes scientific planning to conduct
research. It is a blue print of research that directs researcher at every stage of research
voyage. It talks about, what is the problem chosen for research? Where from the
problem arises i.e. Source of research problem with support of a review, how the
research problem is to be addressed i.e. methodology.
Contents of Research Protocol
Cover page: Contains title of the research, investigator’s name and other details,
affiliation, details of supervisor and the like.
Title to the Study:
It is short but inclusive, conveys the gist of research under study using technical
46
details mentioned in the scope of the study. It should give overall idea of research
problem under study.
1. Introduction:
Explain in detail the background and context of research issues under consideration.
2. Social or Management Problem:
Here discuss the research problem in detail with the support of literature review. The
crux of literature review should be supported in the discussion. On the basis of
context and review of literature list down number of questions which are unanswered
and still to be addressed to using research for scientific output. The outputs that can
be generalize to the population. The entire discussion should pave the way towards
finding research gap.
3. Statement of Research Problem:
From amongst the series of questions rose above in social or management problem
grouping on questions on the basis of similarity. Prioritize these groups of
questions. On the backdrop of resources available select an appropriate group of
questions for research. Write the justification of selection and depict its importance.
The detailing ends with title of research and justification of its suitability.
4. Hypothesis of the Study:
Hypothesis is answer to the research question(s) taken for study. Answer to the
select category of research question(s) stated above in statement of research problem
that are put to test.
5. Objectives of the Study:
These objectives are derived from hypothesis. Statements direct towards collection of
data.
6. Scope of the Study:
Need to specify what geography to cover and taken for sampling? (Geographical
scope) Which concepts the study revolves around? Are any new concepts under
study? (Conceptual scope) Which analytical tools to be used for data analysis and
testing of hypothesis? (Analytical scope) What period is to be considered for data
collection (Historical/periodic scope) especially applicable to secondary source data?
47
Specific gender focused by research (Biological scope). Scope determines the
context of application of research outcome.
7. Importance of the Study:
Specify for whom? and to what extent the study is important to society, industry,
organization (s), government and stakeholders. What are the possible outcomes of
the study?
8. Research Methodology:
8.1. Research Design: Need to specify the research design adopted either, an
Exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic or experimental.
8.2. Data Required: a list of data points require to test hypothesis and to suffice
objectives is to be specified in details.
8.3. Data Sources: From a data list mentioned above few data points are to be
gathered using secondary data sources and few are to be collected using primary data
sources. Mention bifurcated list of data points to be sourced under heading primary
data source and secondary data source clearly.
8.4. Instrument: Detailed description of data collection instrument used
(questionnaire or schedule or observation sheet). Mention nature of schedule i.e.
structured/unstructured, codified/non codified, closed ended/open ended. If
instrument is structured then what are the structures and their titles. Which
questions/variables every structure carries and how it is to be measured. Which
scales are used dichotomous, interval scales (Five point likert type scale, seven point
scale), ratio scales or mix of it? Open ended, close ended or mix of it.
8.5. Sampling: A justified description of nature of universe and population,
probability/non probability method used for selection of samples, size of samples,
sampling unit(s), statistical technique used for calculation of sample size,
justification for the representativeness and adequacy of samples.
8.6. Data Analysis: Details of scheme of data analysis. Statistical tools to be used for
data analysis. The descriptive statistical tools, inferential tools and statistics used for
hypothesis testing. Any special tools used for model building viz. regression
analysis, discriminant analysis, structural equation modeling and the like. Planning
on scheme of data presentation. into consideration by researcher.
48
8.7. Concepts Used: Detailing of concepts around which the research revolves. The
new defined concepts or the concepts defined by researcher that formulates base for
study. Or the concepts taken.
8.8. Pilot Testing: Planning of pilot testing or testings in case of series of pilots.
Samples to be handled, reliability and validity analysis. Hypothesis testing. Statistical
tools to be applied to pilot testing.
9. Organization of Research Report:
Narration on the articulation of report after completion with the help of different
chapters. The description of chapter contents to be given.
Description of Annexure:
Bibliography/References: APA, MLA, Harward style.
Annexure: Planning of list to be enclosed in the support to main report.
Time Table: Detailed plan of action coupled with time frame. It is to be prepared in
table format and carries four columns viz. serial number as first column, second
column is period, third column is description of planned work corresponding to
period and fourth column is remark/corrections/follow-up.
The documents ends with, Signature with name of research scholar and Signature
with name of research supervisor. It also carries the place and date where the
document is signed.
Since the research protocol is a planning it is to be written in future tense and after
execution of same, the actual detailed implementation is to be written in present tense
as initial chapter of research report which is generally titled as, ‘Research
Methodology’ or Introduction to the Study’.
© Copyright 2018
All right reserved
Source: Slideshare :http://www.slideshare.net/sarangbhola, March 2020.
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2.4 Check your progress - 1
Objective Type Questions
1. The document research design is also termed as ………………….
a) Research Protocol b) Hypothesis
c) Sampling d) None of the above
2. A Research design is ……..
a) It is a systematic plan
b) It specifies methods and procedures to conduct research
c) It laid down condition of collection and analysis of data.
d) All the above
3. The question when in research design sought the answer for.
a) Statistical design b) Period of conduct of study
c) Sampling design d) None of the above
4. Statistical design decides on the ….
a) Implementation of research design
b) Processing and Analysis of data
c) Conditions of observe
d) All the above
5. The logical sequence of research designs are
a) Experimental – Diagnostic – Descriptive – Exploratory
b) Exploratory – Descriptive – Diagnostic – Experimental
c) Descriptive – Diagnostic – Experimental – Exploratory
d) Diagnostic – Descriptive – Exploratory – Experimental.
6. One of the important principles of experimental research design is.
a) Principal of observation
b) Principal of sampling
50
c) Principal of randomization
d) None of the above
2.5 True of False
1. Research design specifies methods and procedures to conduct research
2. Research only talks about sampling and hypothesis
3. Research design is a blue print, a comprehensive and detailed document which
facilitates research in systematic and scientific manner.
4. The question whom ? in research design sort out sampling design issues.
5. Descriptive research design is very flexible.
6. Experimental research design necessarily follows a hypothesis
2.6 Fill in the Blanks:
1. Outcomes of exploratory research design are the inputs to the ------------
research design.
2. Principal of randomization refers to selection of samples strictly on …….. basis
to avoid possible biases.
3. ………. is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting
and analysis the needed information.
4. …………….. talks about the population, sampling unit, and overall sampling
frame.
5. ………… decides on processing and analytical tools of be applied on collected
data.
6. Fundamental research also known as ……….. research
51
Section –2
Hypothesis: Meaning and Types of Hypothesis, process of formulating
hypothesis.
2.7 Meaning of Hypothesis:

Hypothesis is a central and focal point of any research; it is a supposition about
desired results of research issues or research phenomenon under study. The research
study, especially academic research centered on the hypothesis. Research begins with
a problem or a question in the mind of researcher. The question arouses may be from
the literature or from the observation of researcher. The answer given to the question
using experience and knowledge is a statement of hypothesis. But all such answers
cannot be termed as hypothesis. The answers which are trivial or but obvious are not
hypothesis.
Say for eg. To a teacher if one asks where male students are intelligent or female
students? Then the obvious answer to this question is female students are more
intelligent than male students. Since, over a period of time it has been experienced
and witnessed. And for this no research is required hence, the answer to this question
is trivial statement and cannot be termed as hypothesis since it is not going to be
contributed anything new into the existing theory. If a further question asked
continuing with previous question that, if female are more intelligent then why male
students are getting placed in the campus over female students? Now here there
could be various answers to this question. One answer could be male students
possess more employability skills compare to female students. Now this statement
could be termed as hypothesis since, we do not have conclusive evidence to it. The
evidences need to be gathered and put to test.
Hypothesis is a skeptical assumption about desire results. The answer given to a
question by a person or research is correct from their perspectives. And also the
person or researcher feels like that after testing their answer should hold true.
2.7.1 Definition of Hypothesis:
Various authors have defined the term hypothesis. Few of these definitions are
presented here.
Hypothesis as a possible explanation of the phenomenon under observation …
52
Prof. C.T.Curien…….
“A hypothesis is a conjectural statement, of the relation between two or more
variables.” Kerlinger
“The guesses he (researcher) makes are the hypothesis which either solve the
problem or guide him for further investigation.” –Werkmeister
“Hypothesis as a testable statement of a potential relationship between two and
more variable.” – Mc Guigan.
Term hypothesis as a “Proposition, condition or principle which is assumed,
perhaps without belief, in order to draw out it’s logically consequences and by this
method to test its accord with facts which are known or may be determined.” -
Webster’s new international Dictionary of English language.
“Hypothesis is an explanation held after careful canvass of known facts, in full
knowledge of other explanations that have been offered and with a mind open to
change of view, if the facts disclosed by the inquiry warrant a different explanation.”
–- Chaddock
Above definitions of hypothesis reveals that hypothesis is ………..
1. A possible answer to a question.
2. Establishes imaginary relationship between two or more variables which needs
to be tested.
3. A guess may be correct, if not then it will guide further to researcher.
In short hypothesis is affirmatory statement which is an answer to a research
question of which the validity needs to be tested using scientific research.
2.7.2 Characteristics of Hypothesis:
In the process of stating the hypothesis students should see that the following
aspects of hypothesis are taken care of.
• Conceptual clarity
• Specificity
• Testability
• Availability of techniques
• Theoretical relevance
53
• Consistency –Two
Two or more propositions logically derived from the same theory
must not be mutually contradictory.
eg. There is no significant difference in the skills possesses before perusing
peru MBA
and skills possess after MBA course.
See in this example there is conceptual clarity since the example talks about
skills preferably managerial skills, the hypothesis is specific since it talks about skills
possess before MBA and skills possess aafter fter MBA course. The hypothesis can be
tested since we have a very good statistical tool i.e. paired sample‘t’ test. The
technique of testing is available, we can manually test is or even using a few
available statistical software we can test it. The hypot
hypothesis
hesis has theoretical relevance
since now a day’s much has been talked about skills i.e. employability skills and so
on. In the same fashion every hypothesis needs to be evaluated on the basis of
characteristics of hypothesis.
2.7.3 Types of Hypothesis:
Types of Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis
Altenative Hypothesis
Descriptive Hypothesis
Relational Hypothesis
Correlation Hypothesis
Explanatory Hypothesis
Statistical Hypothesis
Source: (figure compiled by Authors)

In the parlance of research invariably there are two types of hypotheses
discussed one is null hypothesis and another is alternative hypothesis.
54
The beauty of types of hypotheses is, the name suggest the nature of hypothesis.
lets study these types of hypotheses.
Null Hypothesis: the null hypothesis is statement which describes the normal and
natural position of any variable(s). It is a statement toned opposite to alternative
hypothesis. For example if a government report says that the male farm worker in
India receives wages of Rs. 300 per day and female farm worker receives wages of
Rs. 250 per day then the null hypothesis is
µ= Rs. 300 (for male farm worker)
µ= Rs. 250 (for female farm worker)
Now to check the claim of government regarding the wages received by male
and female worker researcher need to collect the data of wages from workers in
defined area and compare it with the claim of government using some relevant
statistical tool. The results so received from the calculations would decide where the
claim of government is correct or otherwise.
Alternative Hypothesis: Alternative hypothesis is statement proposed by researcher.
It is a statement which is an answer for a research question. This statement is
necessarily affirmative statement. Researcher expect that the testing of hypothesis
result in rejection of null hypothesis and acceptance of alternative hypothesis. It
means the educated guess as answer for research question is correct. Continuing with
example given above of farm worker wages, the alternative hypothesis is
µ≠ Rs. 300 (For male farm worker)
if, µ≠ Rs.300 then it could be that
µ˃ Rs.300 or
µ < Rs. 300
and
µ ≠ Rs. 250 (for Female workers)
if, µ ≠ Rs. 250 then it could be that,
µ ˃ Rs. 250 or
µ < Rs. 250
55
Now if the null hypothesis is rejected it means the alternative hypothesis is
accepted. This time is to decide which of the alternative hypothesis is accepted.
Since, we have three possibilities of alternatives.
Descriptive Hypothesis: The statement which describes the behavior of population
under study is termed as descriptive hypothesis. eg. The electronic gadgets along
with internet connectivity changed the lifestyle of rural people. Or say the savings
and investment pattern of rural people differs compared to their urban counterparts.
In the said examples we are only going to find out how the scenario of population is
under study. We are not going to find out the reason behind it. It means we are
finding the answer for a question what it is? And not why it is?
Relational Hypothesis: the relational hypothesis narrates the possible
relationship between two variables and or phenomenon.
eg. More the number of management cases attempted and discussed more the
possibility of quality placement.
The relational hypotheses have two sub types one is directional and another is
non directional. In directional hypothesis if one variable goes up then another might
go up or go down i.e. there might be positive or negative relationship between two
variables.
eg. More the income more would be the savings and hence investment. This is
directional hypothesis. Where the relationships have been attempted to established or
check between income, savings and investment.
Now the statement girls are more intelligent than boys is a non directional
statement. Since, we are talking about gender and also the intelligence. It is important
in this case to decide on measurement of intelligence. How we are going to measure
the intelligence, which also needs to be defined in the research design.
Correlation Hypothesis: Correlation means the relationship between two or more
variables. In correlation hypothesis the words positive, negative or no correlation has
been used. The claim is clearly mentioned. eg. There is positive correlation between
price of commodity and supply. When price of commodity goes up supply also goes
up. There is inverse relationship between price and demand. When price of
commodity goes up demand falls down. The directional hypothesis and correlation
hypothesis are sounding same. There is difference in the use of hypothesis sentence
56
construction. Since, in correlation we always use the words positive correlation,
negative correlation and no correlation which is explicitly not used in directional
relationship. Since this is the way the terms are defined.
Explanatory Hypothesis:
Explanatory hypotheses is one wherein the claims are made that one variable
caused other to occur eg. Elderly investors prefer to invest in safer investment
avenues as compare to younger investors prefer risky avenues.
Statistical Hypothesis:
One of the simplest forms of hypothesis formulation which uses population
parameter to state the hypothesis in the form of numbers only. The population
parameters eg. Mean, mode, median, variance, proportion etc.
eg. A company claims that there electric bulb has 3000 hours of life. Then in this
case the null hypothesis is
H0: µ = 3000 and alternative hypotheses are
H1: µ ≠ 3000
µ ≥ 3000
µ ≤ 3000
2.8 Process of Formulation and testing of Hypothesis:

1. Research issue:
2. Statement of research problem:
3. Hypothesis:
4. Research Protocol:
5. Data collection:
6. Select the relevant test:
7. Decide on level of significant, degrees of freedom and one tail or two tailed test:
8. Calculate the test statistics:
9. Decision on the basis of test statistics:
57
Above depicted the process of hypothesis formulation from step one to step 4
and from step 5 to step 9 are depicting hypothesis testing.
Let’s study first four steps of formulating the hypothesis.
1. Research issue: Research issue is a research problem unearthing
situation/event/happening which needs a solution and for which possible
solutions are exist. Amongst many problems we select one problem for study.
The problem leads many questions to answer. We prepare a list of questions
then attempt to group the questions carrying similar tone. After grouping of
these questions we prioritize these groups on the basis of attention it needed.
2. Statement of Research Problem: Second step of formulation of hypothesis is,
select appropriate set of category of research questions or a prioritized research
question from earlier step i.e. step one. While selecting question for statement of
problem the evidences against questions should be located. The set of questions
we select for research should be relevant and interesting. The research problem
should be manageable and should have something new to find out. The set of
questions we select to find out the answers with the help of systematic research
helps us to decide the title of research study. The title encompasses the
analytical, geographical, biological, contextual frame of the study. The title is
thought short explain the central problem under study.
3. Hypothesis: Third step is stating the hypothesis. As discussed earlier in this
chapter hypothesis is an affirmatory answer to the questions raised in step two.
4. Research Protocol: Then to test the hypothesis we need to develop a research
protocol. The term research design and research protocol are used synonyms
many a times. But research protocol is a document which is written much more
in details. The steps involved in the research are narrated much in details which
provide answers and guideline to every question a researcher have in his mind
regarding research problem under study. This is discussed earlier. The detailed
document needs to prepare which guides research student in the voyage of
research.
These are the four important stages of formulation of hypothesis. Then onwards
rest stages help to test the hypothesis in which development of data collection
schedule appropriately including variables which are going to help the testing of
hypotheses needs careful consideration. Data is collected, compiled and processed.
58
When hypothesis is formulated it needs to be testing using appropriate statistical
tools. Steps 5 to 9 details the same. The suitable data needs to be collected and
entered into worksheet for further process.
Rests of the stages are elaborative discussed with the help of five step method of
hypothesis testing proposed by Neave (1976)
Five Step Method - Neave (1976)
Formulate the Practical Problem in Terms of Hypothesis
Calculate Statistics
Choose a Critical Region
Decide the Size of Critical Region
Conclusion: Comparision of Statistics with Significance Level
Source: (Figure complied by Authors)

Step 1: Formulate the Practical Problem in Terms of Hypothesis:
The initial stage of hypothesis testing is formulation of hypothesis. The
statement needs to be decided to put on test. The null hypothesis is put to test which
is basically a standard or control with which the evidence pointing to the alternative
hypothesis
is can be compared.
Step 2: Calculate Statistics:
The statistical calculation is undertaken in this stage. The data for testing a
hypothesis has already been collected. Looking towards the scale of measurement
used and number of variables to put to test needs to be considered while selecting the
test statistics. The appropriate statistical tool is to be selected for example Chi-square
Chi
test,‘t’ test and the like. While selecting the test besides scale of measurement and
59
number of variables processed the conditions to use the respective tests also needs to
be considered.
Step 3: Choose a critical region:
Next step after selection of appropriate tool to test the hypothesis is selection of
critical region to test the hypothesis. Where it is going to be tested at two tails or
right tail or left tailed test. The figure below helps to understand the concept of
critical region.
• Right sided, so that we reject H0 if the test statistics is greater than or equal to
some (right) critical value.,
• Left sided, so that we reject H0 if the test statistics is less than or equal to some
(left) critical value
• Both-sided so that we reject H0 if the test statistics is either greater than or equal
to right critical value or less than or equal to left critical value.
Source of figure:
https://www.google.com/search?q=right+tailed+test+left+tailed+test+two+tailed
+test&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiJq6rvj7DqAhWOyzgG
HdF2C04Q_AUoAXoECAwQAw&biw=1366&bih=635#imgrc=GMz1W1aEWg
jgGM, 03.07.2020, 8.52am.
60
The statement of hypothesis itself directs the selection of critical region to test
the hypothesis where it is going to be tested at right tail or left tail or two tailed.
The examples given in following table would help to clarity the issue of
selection of critical region for testing of hypothesis.
Test Particulars Example H0 & H1
Left Tailed H1: parameter < value The wages of female H0: µ = 250
Test (One Notice the inequality farm labor is less than Rs. H : µ < 250
1
Tailed test) points to the left. 250/- per day.
Right H1: parameter > value Female students studying H0: µ = 60
Tailed Test Notice the inequality in M.Com score more H : µ > 60
a
(One Tailed points to the right. than first class.
test)
Two Tailed H1: parameter not equal The average of a vehicle H0: µ = 20
Test value claimed by company is H : µ≠ 20
1
Another way to write 20 kilometers per liter.
not equal is < or >
Notice the inequality
points to both sides.
From above table it is very easy to understand that the words less than, more
than directs the tail where hypothesis need to be tested. In the third case just plain
statement has been proposed and does not make any use of words more than or less
then.
Step 4: Decide the Size of Critical Region:
After deciding the tail where hypothesis is tested the next step is to decide on
critical region.
The decision on deciding critical region is based on the amount of risk the
research problem carries it means the degree of importance of the research problem
under study. Say for example a life saving drug is under test then naturally it needs to
be tested at 1% level of significance i.e. 99% level of confidence. This reveals that
after successful testing if the drug is introduced in market that there is probability
that out of 100 the 99 patients will have positive impact of the drug.
61
The levels of significance are set generally as 1%, 5% and 10%.
The confidence with which a null hypothesis is accepted or rejected depends
upon the significance level u
• A significance level of 5% means that the risk of making a wrong decision is
5%.
• The researcher is likely to be wrong in accepting a false hypothesis or rejecting
• A true hypothesis in 5 out of 100 occasions.
• A significance level of 1% provides 99% confidence
• A significance level of 10% provides 90% confidence
Following figures details the two tailed test and one tailed test with its statistical
critical value with which we need to compare the calculated test value for decision
making to either accept or reject the null hypothesis.
Two tailed test.
62
One Tailed Test
The critical values of different significance level of one tailed and two tailed tests are
summarized in following table.
Critical Value Level of Significance α
1% 5% 10%
Two tailed test Z = 2.58 Z = 1.96 Z = 1.645
Right tailed test Z = 2.33 Z = 1.645 Z = 1.28

Left tailed test Z = - 2.33 Z = - 1.645 Z = -1.28
1.28
Step 5: Conclusion: Comparison of Statistics with Significance Level:

After working out aforementioned steps now we have with us two values one is
standardized critical value and another is calculated value. Applying test on the data
we have calculated a values it is termed as calculated value and this value need to be
computed
ted with standardized critical value which already derived for us and generally
at the end of any book on statistics these values are given. We have to make
63
comparison of these two values to arrive at decision. The decision whether to reject
the null hypothesis or otherwise is to be taken and mention clearly.
Here we need to remember one important thing that while testing the hypothesis
we always test null hypothesis and also propose the description of null hypothesis
testing first.
Tools used to test the hypothesis.
The quest is to select the appropriate statistical tool to test the hypothesis. Every
statistical tool used to test the hypothesis has its own pre conditions regarding the
data. The pre conditions are measurement scale used to collect the data, number of
variables involved in hypothesis testing, normality of the data and the like. Before
selection of tool for testing the pre-requisite needs to be taken care of.
Generally for the beginners it is two important dimensions needs to be taken into
consideration while selecting the hypothesis testing tool. One dimension is the scale
of measurement of data. The data can be measured using either of the four scales.
One is nominal scale, second is ordinal scale, third is interval scale and fourth is ratio
scale. Second dimension needs to be taken into consideration is how many variables
are involved in testing of hypothesis. Either one variable or two variables or three
variables. It is called as univariate analysis, bi-variate analysis and multivariate
analysis. Now these two dimensions help to decide the appropriate statistical tool to
be selected to test the hypothesis.
Following table is exemplary to explain the tools.
64
Testing of Hypothesis
Number of Measurement Scale Used
Variables
processed Univariate Bi-Variate Multivariate
Chi-Square Test
Nominal K-S Test Chi-Square Test Chi-Square
Ordinal Count and % Rank Correlation Rank Correlation
Independent
Interval One Sample ‘t’ Test sample ‘t’ Test ANOVA
Paired ‘t’ Test Regression
Regression
Independent
Ratio One Sample ‘t’ test sample ‘t’ Test ANOVA
Paired ‘t’ Test Regression
Regression
22
Source: (compiled by Authors)

The table shows that if one variable is in process of which the data is collected
using nominal scale then chi-square test is useful. Likewise if the data is measured
using ratio scale and number of variables is more than two then Anova can be used.
If in this case researcher wants to establish the relationship then Karl Pearson
correlation coefficient followed by regression can be used.
We have very good‘t’ test family extensively used for hypothesis testing. If the
data is collected using interval and or ratio scale in any case of univariate or bi-
variate data appropriate test from‘t’ test family can bring in use.
The relevant discussion of hypothesis testing is done in chapter number 4.
2.9 Check your progress - 2.
Objective Type Questions. Choose the appropriate alternative
1. The major characteristics of hypothesis is
65
a. Conceptual clarity
b. Specificity
c. Testability
d. All the above
2. The hypothesis narrates the possible relationship between two variables is
termed as …
a. Descriptive hypothesis
b. Explanatory hypothesis
c. Relational hypothesis
d. None of the above
3. The hypothesis stated using population parameters viz. mean, median etc. is
termed as ….
a. Descriptive hypothesis
b. Statistical Hypothesis.
c. Explanatory hypothesis
d. Relational hypothesis
4. The statement of hypothesis can be tested at ….
a. Right tail
b. Left tail
c. Two tails
d. All the above
5. The critical value at 1% level of significance two tailed test is
a. 1.96
b. 2.58
c. -1.64
6. The critical value at 5% level of significance one tailed test is
66
a. 2.33
b. 1.64
c. 1.28
2.10 State whether the following statements are True or False.
1. Hypothesis is a central and focal point of any research.
2. Hypothesis is a skeptical assumption about desire results.
3. Hypothesis is a possible answer to a question.
4. Two or more propositions logically derived from the same theory must be
mutually contradictory.
5. Null and alternative hypothesis are the same statements.
2.11 Fill in the Blanks.
1. …………. as a possible explanation of the phenomenon under observation.
2. The statement of alternative hypothesis is …………….. to the null hypothesis.
3. Alternative hypothesis is statement proposed by ………….
4. If the null hypothesis is rejected it means the ……………. hypothesis is
accepted
5. In descriptive hypothesis the statement of hypothesis describes the behavior of
…………
Section – 3
2.12 Sampling
Research in social sciences has a biggest quest on sampling. The major
characteristic of sampling is of its representativeness of population. In physical
science like chemistry, medical, physics, biology, botany and the like only one
pigment, piece of material, drop of blood is enough as a sample since it represents
the entire population. The principal of homogeneity plays role. Hence, testing one
piece out of whole or testing one drop of blood out of entire body suffice the purpose
and the results received then are applicable to the whole lot. The experimentation
done on a sample gives same results on experimentation on whole lot. The subject of
67
social science is human beings and by nature human being is heterogeneous in
thoughts, attitude, behavior and personality. Hence, one person cannot represent the
entire population. Even in our family the thoughts and attitudes towards one issue are
different. To be more specific the thoughts and attitudes of twins does not found
same at most instances. This poses challenge before research scholar of social
sciences to decide on sampling frame on the magnitude of its representativeness. The
majority of the results of research are based on the very reason of representativeness
of sampling. In social science research we often take sampling study and the results
such found from study are generalize to the population. The way sampling behaves
we say the population behaves like the same. Hence, selecting the most appropriate
sampling which truly represents the population is a quest. The results are entirely
depending on the method adopted for selection of samples.
Various definitions of sampling are put forth by scholars few to mention here are:
2.12.1 Definition of Sampling:
The term sample should be reserved for a set of unit or portion of an aggregate
and material which has been selected in the belief that it will be representative of the
whole aggregates.
- Frank Yates
“A Sample may be defined as a part of population which selected and examined
for estimating the quality of the population.” – Sharma A. (2006)
“A Sample is a collection of observations representing only a portion of the
population.” Lapin L. L. (1973).
“A sample as the name implies is smaller representative of a larger whole.” -
William J.George and Paul K. Hatt
“A statistical method is a miniature picture or cross section of the entire group
or aggregate from which the sample” (Young, 1939)
Understanding sampling requires understanding few related concepts as
1. Universe: Universe is the maximum possible source of information. Say for
example researcher wish to assess opinions on changes in the university
examination system from the heads of the higher educational institute i.e.
principals of HEI affiliated to Shivaji University, Kolhapur. Now the question is
68
what is the universe of study? Universe of study is number of colleges affiliated
to Shivaji University, Kolhapur i.e. 293. So the universe is 293 principals.
2. Population: Population consists of whole set of data or information from the
entire universe which is considered to be the whole source of information. The
example we are studying in this case not all the colleges have appointed
Principals then in this case the number of available Principals is the population.
See that is the difference between universe and population.
The population is of two types one is finite population and second is infinite
population. Finite population where in one can count the size of information
source. If the information source is students, workers, housewife’s etc. then one
can count these information sources and even prepare a list of the sources.
Whereas infinite population refer to information sources which cannot be
counted. For example how many consumers in Kolhapur, Sangli and Satara like
to consume beverages or Pizza. Virtually the entire data sources are finite only
but sometimes counting a few data sources is difficult hence they are treated as
infinite. We can count how many consumers in these three districts consume
beverages then it is not impossible but difficult since we needs to apply different
kind of methodology and would also consume much resources. The type of
population i.e. finite and infinite determines the type of sampling method to
select the samples.
3. Sampling frame: Sampling frame is a defined part of a population. This is a final
list of sources of information finalized by researcher from which a few samples
are going to pick up for study. For example out of 293 colleges only 193
colleges found to have principal appointed then the population for the study is
193. Then looking towards the issue/problem under study we finalized the list of
principles to be considered for study, say principal having a particular
experience, principal as per gender, principles working in single faculty college
or multi faculty colleges and so on. The final list of principles would be
prepared and then from the list applying appropriate statistical technique the
number of samples get finalized.
69
Source: (Figure developed by Authors)
One very important characteristics of sample students have to remember is,
samples must be representative of population. This is very difficult in case of social
sciences. Hence one person’s opinion cannot be considered as the opinion of
population. Likewise one student’s response towards quality of teaching in a
particular college cannot be considered as the opinion of entire class.
Statistically capital letter ‘N’ is denoted to know the population and small letter
‘n’ is denoted to know sample.
2.12.3 Types of Sampling:
Following diagram narrates the different types of sampling.
70
Entire types of sampling are classified into two groups one is random sampling
also called as probability sampling and another is non rrandom
andom sampling also called
as non probability sampling.
Random Sampling Non Random Sampling

(Probability Sampling) (Non Probability Sampling)
Simple Random Sampling Quota Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling Convenience Sampling
Systematic Sampling On the Spot Sampling
Sequential Sampling Purposive Sampling
Multi Stage Sampling Snow Ball Sampling
Source: (figure composed by authors)

Random Sampling: (Probability Sampling):
Random sampling is one where every sample in the population has equal
opportunity or chance to participate as a sampl
sample in the study.
Say in a class of 60 students, teacher wish to take feedback on the understanding
of a topic delivered. Applying random sampling every student has equal chance to be
selected as sample to provide feedback on. If teacher asks to specific students
s
pointing out or students seating at first bench then it is not termed as random
sampling. Since here few specific students only have pointed out and others have not
given an opportunity to be a part of feedback. The random sampling generally has
less
ss sampling errors as compared to non random sampling.
Simple Random Sampling: This sampling method to select the sample in which out
of the total population researcher select the number of samples by providing equal
opportunity to every sample. The simpl
simplee method to select such samples is lottery
method. Say you have to select 10 people from a group of 30. Just make 30 chits
71
naming individual in every chit, put those chits in a box, mix it well and blindly take
10 chits out of the box. Make a list of those 10 names they are your samples. In case
of large size of population using Ms-Excel also the random numbers are generated
and out of list of population the computer generated sample numbers is to be termed
as samples for the study.
Stratified Random Sampling: when the population is large and moreover
heterogeneous in that case for getting good and representative results. The population
is groups on the basis of some variables to make it homogeneous. The number of
homogeneous groups is called as stratum. From every stratum using simple random
sampling mentioned above the samples are selected and taken for study are termed as
stratified ransom sampling. There are two methods into stratified random sampling.
One is proportionate stratified sampling and disproportionate sampling. In
proportionate stratified sampling the sampling is selected in the ratio of population of
group. And in disproportionate sampling the samples are taken without considering
the size of stratum.
For example few studies need to understand the opinions on the basis of gender
differences. In such case when we classify the samples in two groups of gender i.e.
male samples and female samples and then we take appropriate size of samples using
random sampling method then this is stratified random sampling since the samples
are classified into two stratums i.e. male and female. Likewise few studies demand
stratification of companies on the basis of their constitution i.e. public limited
companies, private limited companies, partnership firms, proprietary firms,
cooperative firms and the like.
Systematic Sampling: the first unit is drawn at random from the selected class
interval and the remaining units are systematically and purposively drawn. eg. The
size of the population (N) is 500, and the size of the sample (n) is 50; then the
proportion of the sample would be (N/n=10) 1:10. The first unit may be chosen at
random from the first interval i.e. 1-10. Suppose the first unit drawn is 5, then the
second would then be 5+10=15(5+K), where K stands for N/n; the third sample
would be 5+K+K i.e. 5+2K=25.
For example to study the satisfaction of workers towards welfare facilities
provided by large scale company. A list of all workers arranged in a alphabetic order
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is to be taken. Following the above formula the samples are to be selected for study.
In drawing systematic sampling the updated data of population is needed.
Sequential Sampling: the process of selecting a small number of samples from a
large population. Sequential sampling is generally used in industrial tests. Statistical
quality control of finished products. In a pharmaceutical company, small samples are
drawn from each batch in a sequential manner to test the quality in which case
sequential sampling is useful.
For example a pharmaceutical company or a company producing milk products
like paneer, ice crème or a company manufacturing hair oil, edible oil will have a
policy to pick up every 100th product or every 1000th product from a production line
for testing to decide whether the product is in line with defined parameters of quality.
The 100th or 1000th product will be tested in laboratory for its defined quality
parameters.
Multi Stage sampling: the selection of sample is made in different stages. The
selection is made in different stages so called multi stage sampling. This method is
used when the universe is very large area.
eg. Study the migrated labour in sugar industry of Maharashtra.
i. Prepare list of district where sugar factories are in existing. And select randomly
few districts for study.
ii. Prepare list of sugar factories from the selected district. And select randomly
few sugar factories for study.
iii. Prepare list of all migrated labour from selected sugar factors. Suppose the list
of labour is 1000.
iv. Select randomly number of labour to be studies. eg. 10% or 20% etc.
Another example is when one wish to take a election poll multistage sampling is
used. To know the opinion of citizens of nation towards an economic policy,
educational policy and the like then multistage sampling is used.
Non Random Sampling: (Non Probability Sampling)
It is exactly opposite to random sampling, where every sample in the population
does not get equal opportunity to be selected as a sample.
This is deliberate effort to select the sample for study.
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Quota Sampling: This sampling is parallel to stratified sampling. In quota
sampling for better representation of population the entire population is divided into
various groups i.e. stratum and from every stratum the number of samples to be taken
are decided. The stratums are done on the basis of some kind of similarities like
gender, income group, age group, occupation and the like. The samples from such
sub groups are selected to find a general opinion of the entire group. For example
there is quite a possibility the different gender and people from different socio
economic class may have different preferences towards investment and also have
different objectives behind investment. In such case quota sampling is preferred.
Convenience Sampling: The name itself suggests that the sampling is drawn at the
convenience of researcher is termed as convenience sampling. This method of
sampling preferably used during pilot testing. For example researcher takes samples
from their nearby vicinity so to avoid travelling. Or researcher would include those
people as samples that are easily get ready to cooperate to give feedback to data
collection instrument. Your own friend circle or for a teacher their own students are
better example of convenience sampling.
On the Spot Sampling: sometimes some persons opt for their own inclusion or non-
inclusion in the sample units. In this case, researcher may select such samples on the
spot. Reporters usually use this method of sampling. At the place of event happened
reporter interview the people who are available at the place and seen the event
happened. Many a times the sample already listed for inclusion but due to non
availability the sample needs replacement. At this stage also on the spot sampling
technique is used. Many a times we see the journalist while taking the opinions of
people about a particular happening they use on the spot sampling. The people who
are available to comment on and also ready to participate in the discussion are taken
and interviewed.
Purposive Sampling: the name itself suggests the nature of purposive sampling. The
samples are purposefully selected and taken for study. Say for example researcher
wish to study the effect of a particular cosmetic on the fairness of skin. In such case
samples using the specific cosmetic need to be identified and taken for study. This
act of identifying a specific sample using a defined cosmetic is purposeful act.
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Snow Ball Sampling: Snow ball is used when the population is scattered and niche
in nature. It is difficult for a research student to exactly identify the samples from the
population. In such cases one sample is identified and from the same sample the
references for next samples are taken. Say for example researcher with to study the
quality deployment function of racing bikes then finding racing bikes users is
difficult hence, in this case anyhow from the population one racing bike user is
identified and from him information of such racking bike owner/users will be taken.
From the next sample racing bike user the additional information on racking bike
users will be taken. This method is termed as snow ball sampling.
2.12.4 Features of Good Sampling:
1. Representative Character: Sample must be representative of population. Since in
social sciences most of the time people are the samples and the very
characteristics of population is, it is heterogeneous. From this heterogeneous
population selecting samples that would represent the population is difficult
task.
2. Small sampling error: Sample design must be such which results in a small
sampling error.
3. Adequate number of samples: entire study is governed by the representative
units. Since the opinions are very subjective in social sciences it is necessary
that their number should be adequate. We often use the statistical formulae to
calculate the sample size.
4. Economic Viability: Sample design must be viable in the context of funds
available for the research study.
2.13 Sample Size Calculation:
There is range of formulas to calculate the sample size. But for our discussion
we are going to limit only two formulas.
As we have discussed above that the population is of two types one is finite and
another is infinite population.
We have simple two formulas below one is used when the population is finite
and another is used for infinite population.
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Where,
n= sample size
N = Size of population
e= sampling error
for example,
Principal of college wish to take feedback from students regarding different
facilities provided in the college. Facilities like sports, library, computer laboratory,
language laboratory and the like college students strength is 3200 students. The
question is how many students to be taken as a sample?
By using above formula and assuming 5% sampling error the sample size is
calculated as below.
n = 3200/1+3200 (0.05)2
n= 355.5 the calculated sampling size needs to be rounded off since we cannot have
half student to interview hence the final sample size is 356.
Following formula is used to calculate sample size where population is infinite
means the exact information resources are difficult to calculate.
For example
You want to know the additional likely flavors preferred by consumers of potato
chips. In this case the consumers to be considered who consumes potato chips often.
We cannot estimate the size of number of consumers in a defined geography. In such
cases following formula is to be used.
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Where,
n= sample size
Z= the desired level of significance (confidence level)
S= standard deviation
e= tolerable sampling error
The assumed tolerable sampling error is 5% and the standard deviation is 0.66.
at 5% level of error the value of ‘Z’ should be taken at 95% confidence level i.e.
1.96.
So plugging the above figures in given formula yields,
n=((1.96*0.66)/0.05))2
n=669.36
rounded off to 670
So the adequate sample size calculated using stated formula is 670.
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Source: (https://www.slideshare.net/sumitmonk/samle-size, 1.9.2020, 6.00pm)
2.14 Check your progress – 3
Objective Type Questions
1. The type of random sampling includes
a. Simple random sampling
b. Stratified random sampling
c. Systematic sampling
d. All the above
2. The type of non random sampling includes
a. Quota sampling
b. Convenience sampling
c. On the spot sampling
d. All the above
3. Random sampling is also called as
a. Non probability sampling
b. Probability sampling
c. Both probability and non probability sampling
4. In the formula of sample size calculation the term ‘e’ refers to
a. Exact figure
b. Extract from population
c. Sampling error
d. Estimated figure
5. The feature of good sampling includes
a. Economic viability
b. Adequate number of samples
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c. Representative of population
d. All the above
2.15 True of False
1. Sample is a miniature picture of the entire group
2. Universe is the maximum possible source of information
3. Universe and population and same concepts.
4. The population is denoted by small letter n and sample is denoted by capital
letter N
5. Random sampling is one where every sample in the population has equal
opportunity or chance to participate as a sample in the study.
2.16 Fill in the Blanks
1. Sampling frame is a defined part of a……………….
2. Samples must be ……………… of population.
3. Statistically small letter ‘…. ’ is denoted to know sample.
4. Non random sampling also called as ……….. sampling.
5. In the formula of sample size calculation ‘s’ explains ……………….
2.17. Solve the following examples
1. A pharmaceutical distributor having supplying medicines to 326 retail counters
in a city wish to know the satisfaction of retailers towards the services provided
by a distributor. Calculate the sample size for 1% level of significance, 5% and
10% level of significance.
2. Researcher wanted to know the satisfaction towards government functioning
during a calendar year/financial year or in the pandemic situation like Covid-19
and the like. Calculate the sample size to be approached.
2.18 Summary :
Finding the answers to the research questions are pivotal. Research design is a
systematic way to find the answers to the research problem. The research design has
four major sub designs within it, sampling design, statistical design, operational
design and observational design. Research design is a systematic plan and
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comprehensive document which answers the basic questions what is the research
problem under study, why the study has to be undertaken, which data needs to be
considered (the variables and categories), from whom the data is to be collected
(sampling), when the data is to be collected and how to analyze the data and interpret
it. There are four major designs of research i.e. exploratory research design,
descriptive research design, diagnostic research design and experimental research
design. Every research design has its own features. The important concept in research
design is hypothesis. Since the entire research is revolves around this concept. We
undertake research to test the hypothesis. Hypothesis is a end point of research.
Hypothesis is skeptical assumption about the results of research. When researcher
has a question or questions in mind then the question or questions are answered by
researcher with almost care using the experience and knowledge acquired. The
answer is tentative not confirm whether it is right or wrong and hence put to test. So
the statement of answer which put to test is hypothesis. There are major two types of
hypotheses one is null hypothesis and another is alternative hypothesis. Researcher
tests the null hypothesis. The science has evolved towards every stage of research.
Hypothesis testing as well a scientific process which involves five steps, first is
formulate the practical problem in terms of hypothesis then calculate statistics,
choose a critical region, decide the size of critical region and last is draw the
conclusion. One of the important aspects of research design is sampling. Since in
social science we get the data from people and hence sampling carries importance.
Sampling is cross section of population. It is a smaller representation of larger
population. Since always it is not possible to attain the entire population under study.
We take a small portion of population and study and then the results we get out of it
we generalize it to the population. We say that population behaves like this since we
got it known from the samples. Since the generalization of results are based on the
results of population the right selection of sample carries utmost importance. Sample
must be representative one of population and that is the quest. Selection of sample
can be done by two methods one is probability sampling method and another is non
probability sampling method. Probability sampling means every sample has equal
opportunity to be selected as sample and non probability method is quite reverse to it.
The science has developed and formulae are available to calculate the sample size.
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2.19 Terms to Remember -
a. Research Design: is a document that detailed plan which answers every question
arouses regarding research problem under study.
b. Components of research design: what (problem under study, hypothesis and
objectives of study), Why (importance of study), which (data, findings and
suggestions), whom (sampling design, variables detailing) , when (period of
study) and how (statistical design, operational design, observational design).
c. Types of research designs: Four types of research design, exploratory research
design, descriptive research design, diagnostic research design and experimental
research design.
d. Three basic principles of experimental research design: Three principles, one is
principle of randomization, principle of replication and principle of local
control.
e. Features of good research design: reliability of data, experimental error,
information yields, flexibility and economical.
f. Hypothesis: Hypothesis is a central and focal point of any research; it is a
supposition about desired results of research issues or research phenomenon
under study. Hypothesis is a possible explanation of the phenomenon under
observation.
g. Types of hypothesis: Null hypothesis, alternative hypothesis, descriptive
hypothesis, relational hypothesis, correlation hypothesis, explanatory hypothesis
and statistical hypothesis.
h. Five steps for testing hypothesis: First is formulate the practical problem in
terms of hypothesis, calculate statistics, choose a critical region, decide the size
of critical region and the last is comparison of statistics with significance level.
i. Sampling: sampling as a part of population which selected and examine for
estimating the quality of the population.
j. Random sampling: Random sampling is one where every sample in the
population has equal opportunity or chance to participate as a sample in the
study.
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k. Non random sampling: It is exactly opposite to random sampling, where every
sample in the population does not get equal opportunity to be selected as a
sample.
l. Types of random sampling: Simple random sampling, stratified random
sampling, systematic sampling, sequential sampling and multi stage sampling.
m. Types of non random sampling: Quota sampling, convenience sampling, on the
spot sampling, purposive sampling and snow ball sampling.
2.20 Answers to check your progress –
Section: 1
Answers to the questions:
MCQ type questions 1 a 2 d 3 b
4 b 5 b 6 c
True of False 1 True 2 False 3 True
4 True 5 False 6 True
Fill in the blanks 1 Descriptive 2 Random 3 Research
Design
4 Sampling 5 Statistical 6 Ideal /Basic
Design Design
Section: 2
MCQ type questions 1 D 2 C 3 B
4 D 5 B 6 B
True of False 1 True 2 True 3 True
4 False 5 False 6
Fill in the blanks 1 Hypothesis 2 Opposite 3 Researcher
4 Alternative 5 Population 6
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Section: 3
MCQ type questions 1 d 2 d 3 b
4 c 5 d
True of False 1 True 2 True 3 False
4 False 5 True
Fill in the blanks 1 population 2 representative 3 n
4 non 5 Standard
probability Deviation
Solve the examples 1 1% = 316 2 670
5% = 180
10% = 77
2.21 Exercise:
a. Define research design and narrate various components of research design.
b. Elaborate different types of research designs.
c. Details the contents of research design.
d. Narrate the basic principals need to be observed in experimental research design.
e. Which research design according to you is more reliable to get the accurate
results – Justify your answer.
f. Define a term hypothesis and briefly narrate the different types of hypothesis.
g. Hypothesis is backbone of any research project – discuss.
h. Elaborate the process of formulating and testing of hypothesis.
i. Discuss the five step method of hypothesis testing.
j. Define sampling and explain the concepts related to sampling.
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k. Brief the different types of sampling
l. Explain the sample size calculation.
G., Z. W. (2013). Business research methods. UK: South-Western Cengage
Learning.
Kothari, C. R., & Garg, G. (2015). Research Methodology - Methods and Techniques
(3rd Reprint ed.). New Delhi: New Age Internaional Publishers.
Michael, V. P. Research Methodology. Mumbai : Himalaya Publishing House .
Nargundkar, R. (2008). Marketing Research. Bangalore: Tata McGraw-Hill
Education.
Sachdeva, J. K. (2011). Business Research Methodology (Vol. 2nd Revised).
Mumbai: Himalaya Publishing House.
Selitiz, C. (1965). Research methods in social relations. New York: Methuen & Co.
LTD.
Young, P. V. (1939). Scientific Social Surveys and Research. New York: Prentice-
Hall, Inc.
Zikmund, W. G. (2008). Business Research Methods. Mason (Ohio): South-Western
Cengage Learning,.

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Unit-3
Data Collection and Processing
INDEX:
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2.1 Meaning of Data
3.2.2 Types of data
3.2.2.1 Quantitative and Qualitative data
3.2.2.2 Primary and Secondary data
3.2.2.3 Types of Data for Social Sciences Needs
3.2.3 Data Collection from Primary Sources
3.2.3.1 Advantages of primary data
3.2.3.2 Disadvantages of primary data
3.2.4 Questionnaire Method
3.2.4.1 Meaning of Questionnaire Method
3.2.4.2 Types of questionnaire
3.2.4.3 Types of questions
3.2.4.4 Advantages of Questionnaire Method
3.2.4.5 Disadvantages of Questionnaire Method
3.2.5 Interview Method
3.2.5.1 Meaning of Interview Method
3.2.5.2 Types of Interview
3.2.5.3 Advantages of Interview Method
3.2.5.4 Disadvantages of Interview Method
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3.2.6 Observation Method
3.2.6.1 Meaning of Observation Method
3.2.6.2 Types of Observation
3.2.6.3 Advantages of Observation Method
3.2.6.4 Disadvantages of Observation Method
3.2.7 Focused Group Interview Method
3.2.7.1 Meaning of Focused Group Interview Method
3.2.7.2 Advantages of Focused Group Interview Method
3.2.7.3 Disadvantages of Focused Group Interview Method
3.2.8 Schedule and Questionnaire
3.2.8.1 Schedule
3.2.8.2 Difference between Schedule and Questionnaire
3.2.9 Data Collection from Secondary Sources
3.2.9.1 Advantages of secondary data
3.2.9.2 Disadvantages of secondary data
3.2.10 Data Processing
3.2.10.1 Classification
3.2.10.2 Tabulation
3.2.10.3 Graphical Presentation
3.3 Summary
3.4 Terms to Remember
3.6 Exercise
3.7 Reference for further study
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3.0 Objectives:
After studying this unit you will be able to:
1. To explain the meaning and types of data
2. To describe the advantages and disadvantages of primary data and secondary
data
3. To understand different methods of primary data collection such as
questionnaire, interview, observation and focus group and their meaning,
advantages and disadvantages
3.1 Introduction:
Research process includes one of the important stages of data collection which is
dependent on the research problem identified and carried out for accomplishing the
research objectives. This unit covers meaning of data, types of data, methods of data
collection and data processing and graphical presentation.
3.2 Presentation of Subject Matter:

This is core section of the unit in which we will learn various aspects of data
collection data processing and data presentation. It presents the meaning of data,
types of data-quantitative and qualitative, sources- primary and secondary, methods
of primary data collection-questionnaire method, interview method, observation
method, focus group interview method, types of questions in questionnaire, sources
of secondary data, classification, tabulation and graphical presentation.
3.2.1 Meaning of Data
‘Datum’ is singular whereas ‘Data’ is plural. In the research process, the
collection of data is very important stage. If researcher does not carefully decide
about various issues related to collection of data, he may create may hurdles himself.
If he takes proper precautions while collection of data, the analysis will be easier and
comfortable as far as proper selection of statistical techniques are concerned. Sources
of data can be classified into two types which are: (i) data collected from primary
sources and (ii) data collected from secondary sources. We can say that the data can
be treated as bases or raw material for analysis.
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3.2.2 Types of Data:
Data can be classified on different basis. Such classification may be quantitative
data vs. qualitative data, primary data vs. secondary data and
3.2.2.1 Quantitative and Qualitative data:
(1) Quantitative Data: Quantitative data is statistical and is typically structured in
nature. This data type is measured using numbers and values. Quantitative
data can be broken into further sub-categories. These categories are called
discrete and continuous data.
(a) Discrete data is just data that cannot be broken down into smaller parts.
This type of data consists of integers (positive and negative numbers, e.g., -
100, 10, 100, and so on) and is finite (meaning it reaches a limit).
For e.g.- how many phones were sold last year,
(b) Continuous data is data that can be infinitely broken down into smaller
parts or data that continuously fluctuates.
For e.g.- weight, age, time taken to complete the task etc.
(2) Qualitative Data: Qualitative data are non-statistical and are
typically unstructured or semi-structured. It is categorized on basis of properties,
attributes, labels, and other identifiers. Qualitative data identifiers can be
subjective, making qualitative data analysis a complex process with numerous
possibilities and structures.
In case of a room, colour of walls, ventilation, lighting etc. are qualitative data
identifier whereas height, width, length, area, number of doors, number of windows
etc. are quantitative data identifiers.
3.2.2.2 Primary and Secondary data:
There are two types of data on the basis of sources of data i.e.- primary data and
secondary data.
(1) Primary Data: It is the data which is originally collected for the first time by the
investigator himself or his representative for pre-defined specific objective. For
e.g. Researcher Mr. X collected data from respondents by using questionnaire, it
is primary data for Mr. X’s research. The collection of primary data is costlier
and time consuming as compared to secondary data.
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(2) Secondary Data: It is the data which is collected by somebody else and which is
used by the researcher. For e.g. Researcher Mr. Y used data which is originally
collected by RBI, for Mr. Y’s research. The collection of secondary data is
relatively less costly than the collection of primary data.
3.2.2.3 Types of Data for Social Sciences Need:
On the basis of need of social sciences, data can be classified into three types:
(1) Data regarding human being, (2) Data regarding organization and (3) Data
regarding territorial areas.
(1) Data regarding human being consist of education, age, sex, income, class,
religion, marital status, occupation, family type, family size, location of
household, life style etc. It also includes behavioural variables like attitude,
opinion, awareness, knowledge, practice, intention etc.
(2) Data regarding organization include data related to organization’s origin,
ownership, objectives, resources, functions, performance and growth etc.
(3) Territorial data are geophysical data, resources endowment, population,
occupational pattern, infrastructure, structure, degree of development etc. of
village, cities,talukas, districts, states and the nation.
3.2.3 Data collection from Primary Sources:
This data are also called as primary data. Primary data are first hand data.
Primary sources are original sources from which data are collected by any researcher
yet nobody has collected the same data. Primary data can be collected through
various methods such as mailing, interviewing, focus group and observation etc.
3.2.3.1 Advantages of Primary Data:
1. Fresh Data: Through primary sources a fresh data are collected as per the
requirement of the study. A researcher can collect this data on the basis of
definitions adopted by his own study. It is nothing but the first hand data.
2. Accurate Data: While collecting primary data, a researcher can maintain
accuracy at appropriate level. He can avoid the circumstances which create
errors in data collection of primary data. He can take precautions to collect the
accurate data.
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3. Reliable and Valid Data: The reliability and validity can be tested while
collecting data or by pilot survey it can be tested. It is possible in case of
primary data to collect reliable and valid data.
4. Easy Access: The primary data are collected direct from respondents and not
from any other organization. So it is easy to collect it from them with easy
access. In many types of collection of primary data, face to face interaction
results into the data required.
5. Collection of suitable Data: The collection of primary data is nothing but
creating a new dataset. So suitable data can be collected while collecting
primary data considering objectives of the study.
3.2.3.2 Disadvantages of Primary Data:
1. Costly Data: More cost is required for collecting primary data. The researcher
has to spend money for developing and mailing questionnaire, meeting
respondents to take their interview etc.
2. Time Consuming: Sometime frequent meetings are required if the respondent is
busy with his own work. It will take more time which increase the cost. As
secondary data are readily available, primary data require more time because it
is collected from field.
3. Difficult in Broader Scope: If the scope of the study is broader, it is highly
impossible to collect primary data, in individual capacity of a researcher. For
e.g. collecting data from throughout the country.
4. Personal Limitations: Primary data is not ready, it is collected from
respondents. So the quality of data depends upon skills of researcher or
enumerator. It means quality of data is dependent on abilities of person who
collects data.
5. Misleading Data: The reliability of primary data is dependent on answers given
by respondents. If they have not given valid answers, the data may be mislead.
1. ‘Datum’ is singular whereas ……… is plural.
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2. The data type which is measured using numbers and values is called
……………
3. …………… is the data which is originally collected for the first time by the
investigator himself or his representative for pre-defined specific objective.
(B) State whether the following statements are ‘true’ or ‘false’:
1. The data regarding organization include data related to organization’s
origin, ownership, objectives, resources, functions, performance and growth
etc.
2. The data regarding infrastructure of villages is territorial data.
3.2.4 Mailing Method/ Questionnaire Method:
Questionnaire is an instrument through which the data are collected by mailing
it to respondents. It is nothing but a set of questions; the data are collected in the
form of answers to such questions. It is prepared exclusively for the specific purpose.
3.2.4.1 Meaning of Questionnaire Method: We can be familiar with the meaning of
questionnaire after discussing following definitions:
1) G. Lundburg- “Fundamentally, the questionnaire is a set of stimuli to which
illiterate people are exposed in order to observe their verbal behaviour under
social stimuli.”
2) Bogardus- “A questionnaire is list of questions sent to a number of persons for
them to answer. It secures standardized results that can be tabulated and treated
statistically.”
3) Goode and Hatt- “In general the word questionnaire refers to a device for
securing answers to questions by using a form which respondent fills in
himself.”
It is a set of questions which is sent to respondents and the investigator himself
does not go to the informant for collecting information. The respondent returns it
after filling answers to the questions. Then this data are used for research project.
3.2.4.2 Types of questionnaire:
Forms of questionnaire may be broadly divided into two parts as structured
questionnaire and unstructured questionnaire.
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1) Structured Questionnaire: In structured questionnaire, questions are set in
advance. It includes definite questions. According to P. V. Young, 'Structured
questionnaires are those which pose definite, concrete and preordained
questions, that is, they are prepared in advance and not constructed on the spot
during the questioning period.' The forms of questions may require closed
responses or open responses.
2) Unstructured Questionnaire: When pre-decided questions cannot serve the
purpose of our research, the researcher frame out on the spot questions to get
appropriate responses. In this case, questions are not set in advance.
3) Open Form Questionnaire: In this form, all open ended questions are asked.
Here the respondent has freedom to give his own answer in detail. It provides
greater depth of response.
4) Close Form Questionnaire: It is closed or restricted form of questionnaire. It
provides selection of alternatives or ranking the items or checking an item from
the list. The respondent has no freedom to elaborate his answer or stating
reasons.
5) Mixed Questionnaire: It is a combination of close and open forms of
questionnaires. It is more useful in social research. Here, characteristics of both
forms are available.
6) Opinion Questionnaire: The opinion, attitude or preference regarding some
phenomenon is sought through opinion questionnaire.
7) Pictorial Questionnaire: In this method, pictures are used to promote interest of
respondents in answering questions. For answering the questions, alternative
answers are given in the form of pictures and the respondent is required to tick
mark any of them. It is more suitable if the respondents are illiterate or less
educated.
3.2.4.3 Types of Questions:
There are different types of questions such as closed ended questions and open
ended questions.
1) Closed Ended Questions: The answers to be given by respondents are made
restricted to the certain alternatives. The respondents are required to select
answer from such alternatives. Closed ended questions include dichotomous
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questions, multiple choice questions and scaled questions. It has limitation that
the respondent cannot explain his views or reasons. Such questions are as
follows:
(a) Dichotomous Questions: The questions where maximum two alternatives of
answer are given those questions are called dichotomous questions. Example-
'Yes' or 'No'.
Dichotomous Question
Do you have a bank account? (i) Yes (ii) No
(b) Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs): In such type of questions, multiple

alternatives of answer are given and respondent has to select one of them which
is the most appropriate alternative. It is a popular type of closed ended question.
Following is the example of MCQ.
Multiple Choice Question
'What is status of your business unit?
(i) Micro enterprise (ii) Small enterprise (iii) Medium enterprise (iv) Large scale
enterprise
(c) Scaled Questions: When responses are graded on a continuum, they are scaled
questions. Likert scale, semantic differential scale and rank-order scale are examples
of such scales.
Likert Scale Question
My manager provides Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly

constructive criticism agree disagree
Semantic Differential Scale Question
How do you rate your performance? Good Average Bad
Rank Order Scale Question
When you select the product, rank what your priorities are.
(i) Price
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(ii) Quality
(iii) Availability
2) Open Ended Questions: When options of answers are not given, they are called
open ended question. Here the respondent has an opportunity to explain or
elaborate answers. Such questions include completely unstructured questions,
word association testing question, sentence completion question, story
completion question, picture completion question and thematic appreciation test
question etc.
3.2.4.4 Advantages of Questionnaire Method:
It is very popular method of primary data collection because it has several
advantages.
(1) Cost Saving: Questionnaire is sent to respondents and he replies the questions.
So it is less costly than interview method as researcher/investigator has to meet
each and every respondent for taking interview which is costly due to travelling
cost. In case of questionnaire method, postage is cost which relatively less. Now
days, it is sent by email or social media it is like free of cost.
(2) Time Saving: Questionnaire saves time. Simultaneously several persons can be
approached. For the same, interview method may take very long time.
(3) Anonymity is possible: It is not required to indicate respondent’s name on the
questionnaire. They can express their views and opinions frankly without any
influence. Anonymity is meaningful in this method.
(4) No Pressure: This method gives less pressure for immediate response and gives
more time to think on it and answer the questions. They can complete it with
their convenience.
(5) Uniformity: Questionnaire is impersonal technique. Questionnaire has its
standardized wording and sequence of questions as well as standardized
instructions for recording responses. Hence, uniformity from one measurement
situation to another is provided by virtue.
(6) Wider Scope: By using questionnaire, wider geographical areas can be covered.
(7) Free from bias: This method is free from the interviewer’s bias as there is no
personal contact between the respondents and the investigator.
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3.2.4.5 Disadvantages of Questionnaire:
(1) Illustrate and less educated: Questionnaire can be administered with those
people who can read and understand the questions. The scope of using this
method is very limited when percentage of literacy is very low. Complex
questionnaire requiring elaborate written replies can be administered on very
small percentage of population.
(2) Low response: As compare to other methods, questionnaire method gets low
response. Sometime resulting sample may not be representative.
(3) Incomplete responses: Several questionnaires may have unanswered questions
and incomplete responses.
(4) Misinterpretation: Some respondents do not understand questions properly,
hence they may misinterpret the questions and give answer with different
direction.
(5) No clarification: This method allows little opportunity for respondents to seek
clarification of questions and statements made in the questionnaire.
(6) Bias: Misleading or ambiguous questions allow bias to creep in. Bias can come
in data due to certain choices in multiple choice questions or due to faulty layout
of the questionnaire.
3.2.5 Interview Method:
Interview is one of the methods of collecting data. Under this method, interview
schedule is an instrument of collecting data. The investigator takes interview of
respondents to seek answers to the questions formulated in interview schedule.
3.2.5.1 Meaning of Interview Method:
In this part, we will learn the meaning of interview method by listening various
definitions of interview.
1) According to P. V. Young, “Interviewing is not a simple way to conversation
between an interrogator and informant. Gestures, glances, facial expressions,
pauses often reveal subtle feelings.”
2) Goode and Hatt have stated that “Interview is fundamentally a process of social
interaction.”
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3) As far as interview is concerned, Fred N. Kerlinger said that “The interview is
face to face inter-personal situation in which one person, the interviewer asks a
person being interviewed, the respondent, questions designed to obtain answers
pertinent to research problems.”
4) According to P. V. Young, “It may be sen as an effective, informal, verbal, non-
verbal, conversation, initiated for specific purposes and focused on certain
planned content areas.”
5) About interview, Eckhardt and Ermann stated that “Interviewing is a data
collection procedure involving verbal communication between the researcher
and respondent either by telephone or in a face to face situation.”
Interview is initiated by the investigator. It is a process completed by
interviewer and interviewee. It is thus a system in which both the investigators as
well as the informants discuss the problem under research. The objective of an
interview is to collect information about unknown facts through face to face contacts.
It is very important and popular method of collecting data for the purpose of
research.
3.2.5.2 Type of Interview:
The interviews may be classified into types of interview as: Structured
interview, Unstructured interview, Focused interview, Clinical interview and Depth
interview.
(a) Structured Interview: When predetermined questions are put in interview, it is
called structured interview or directive interview. We can say it is an interview
made with a detailed standardized schedule. The same questions are put before
all respondents and in the same order. Each question is asked in the same way in
each interview, promoting measurement reliability. It is used for large-scale
surveys.
(b) Unstructured Interview: The unstructured interview is also called uncontrolled,
unaided and non-directive interview. In this method, the interviewer does not
follow any list of pre-determined questions. Interviewer is also permitted to give
his own definition of particular social situation and also importance of events
from his view point. The interviewer allows the respondent to talk freely about
given topic with a minimum of promoting or guidance. This type of interview is
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more useful in case studies rather than in surveys. It is also more useful in
gathering information on sensitive topics.
(c) Focused Interview: It takes place only with such persons who have been
involved in a particular concrete situation. It is the interview where the
investigator attempts to focus the discussion on the actual effects of a given
experience to which the respondents are exposed. ‘The interview is focused on
the subjective experiences of the respondent i.e. his attitudes and emotional
responses regarding the situation under study.’ (*Merton, R.K. et. al., The
Focused Interview, Glencoe: The Free Press, 1956).
(d) Clinical Interview: Broad underlying feelings or motivations are studied in
clinical interview. It collects data regarding individual’s life experiences rather
than the effect of specific experiences. It is similar to the focused interview but
with a subtle difference.
(e) Depth Interview: It is an intensive and searching interview aiming at studying
the respondents’ opinion, emotions or convictions on the basis of an interview
guide. Dr. Fay B. Karpf has defined depth interview as the interview which
“deliberately aims to elicit unconscious as well as other types of material
relating especially to personally dynamics and motivations.” Depth interview is
a lengthy procedure in which free expression is fully encouraged. This method
helps in revealing important aspects of psycho-social situations. The interviewer
should handle such situation with great care.
(f) Personal Interview: Interviewer takes interview of a single person, it is called
personal interview. It is believed that such a person possesses the required
information and that will serve his purpose. According to Bogardus, “attitudes
and changes in them may best be secured by the personal interview method.” In
personal interview, the view expressed are his own and spontaneous and not
under group influence.
(g) Group Interview: A group interview is one in which the interviewer does not
meet any single individual but the group of persons who are concerned with the
subject matter as a whole. The group interview is suitable for gathering routine
information. The idea is that since all are involved and concerned obviously all
may be met at one sitting so that time is saved.
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(h) Formal Interview: Formal interview are known as structured interview. It has
form of questions to be put is already determined. The interviewer presents a set
of well-defined questions and notes down the answers of informant in
accordance with prescribed rules.
(i) Informal Interview: Informal interview are known as unstructured interviews.
The interviewer has full freedom to make suitable alternatives in the questions
suitable for a particular situation.
(j) Qualitative Interview: Qualitative interviews are such which are not
quantifiable and are also very complex. It attempts at finding out attitudes,
values and behaviours which are not measurable and vary from individual to
individual.
(k) Quantitative Interview: It is interview which is concerned with quantity. In
these interviews facts are collected from a large number of persons.
3.2.5.3 Advantages of Interview Method:
1) This method achieves high rate response participation. It has both inflow and
outflow of ideas.
2) It helps in collecting information from the incapable like children or illiterate
persons. In interview the interviewer can assist them to understand the question
and to answer properly.
3) It helps in collecting information from the reluctant.
4) It is possible to go deep into the problem. It enables a trained and qualified
interviewer to study the research problem much deeper.
5) The interviewer can crosscheck whether the information being collected is
correct.
6) It is flexible as the interviewer can reframe the question if informant cannot
understand it.
7) Emotions and fears can be appreciated while interviewing the informant and
especially when he becomes emotional and excited.
8) Viewpoints of respondents are recorded by interviewer himself; therefore, the
information collected will be most reliable.
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9) Interview method can be used on all types of persons.
3.2.5.4 Disadvantages of Interview Method:
1) The interviewer has to meet every respondent, so it is costly method.
2) Due to different characteristics of every person, it is problem of validity and
reliability measurement, when interview method is adopted.
3) The stress on specific aspect is given in research but this stress may be changed
while interviewing respondent.
4) There is too much reliance on memory in interview method. The interviewer
wants to collect data regarding many things so the collection is dependent on
memory.
5) In interview method, too much reliance is on an individual who is expected to
share his views-points, impressions and feelings.
6) The interviewer and interviewee have different world of discourse. They have
different social philosophies so they may ascribe different values and meaning
of social phenomenon.
7) The subjective nature of unstructured interview create problem that the data
collected cannot be subject to statistical treatment.
8) It is difficult to find trained interviewers because everybody cannot take
interview unless and until he has the skill of taking interview.
9) It is difficulty in persuading the interviewee for providing the information. It is
possible only when he is confident.
1. …………… questions include dichotomous questions, multiple choice
questions and scaled questions.
2. ……………is an intensive and searching interview aiming at studying the
respondents’ opinion, emotions or convictions on the basis of an interview
guide.
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1. When options of answers are given, they are called open ended question.
2. Questionnaire method is less costly than interview method.
3. Interview is initiated by the interviewee.
3.2.6 Observation Method:
In fact today, our different acts, social behaviours, attitudes and present day
fashions are the result of observation. For study of social problems or business
studies, observation method had been and is being used continuously. Under
observation method, the data from the field is collected with the help of observation.
Observation of social behaviour can produce values if it includes an adequate
description of the character of social atmosphere of the larger unit of activity within
which the specific social act occurs. It is oldest method of study (data collection).
3.2.6.1 Meaning of Observation:
According to P. V. Young “Observation may be defined as systematic viewing,
coupled with consideration of seen phenomena”(Young, P. V., p.161).
Concise Oxford Dictionary has defined observation as “accurate watching,
noting of phenomena as they occur in nature with regard to cause and effect and
mutual relationship.”
Observation is nothing but seeing the things either from a distance or going near
to the object of study.
Webb and Webb (1932) have pointed out all social research begins and ends
with observation.
(Webb, Sidney and Webb, Beatrice, Methods of Social Study, London:
Longmans Green, 1932, p.158)
Observation is divided into three processes: sensation, attention and perception.
Sensation is gained and perception. Sensation is gained through the sense organs
which depends upon the physical alertness of the observer. Then comes attention on
concentration which is largely a matter of will power with adequate training and
experience can make it almost a matter of habit. The third process is perception
which comprises the interpretation of sensory reports. The perception enables the
mind to recognize the facts.
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Observation becomes scientific, when it (a) serves a formulated research
purpose, (b) is planned deliberately, (c) is recorded systematically and (d) is
subjected to check and control on validity and reliability (Krisnaswami and
Ranganathan, 2011).
(Krishnaswami, O. R. and Ranganathan, M. (2011). Methodology of Research
in Social Sciences, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai, p.169)
3.2.6.2 Types of Observation:
Observation can be classified into the categories like simple observation,
controlled observation, participant observation, non-participant observation, direct
observation and indirect observation.
(1) Simple or non-controlled observation: In this method, observation is made in
natural course without extra influences, controls or guidance or instructions
from external agencies and factors. It is generally not very reliable because
observation itself may be biased and coloured by the views of the observer.
When the observation is made in the natural surroundings and the activities are
performed in their usual course without influence, it is called as simple or
uncontrolled or natural observation. The most important advantage of this
method is that it becomes impossible to have first-hand knowledge of the group
to be studied without extra influences and pressures.
(2) Controlled Observation: It is generally carried out according to definite pre-
arranged plans which might include considerable experimental procedure.
Employee behaviour studies are commonly carried out with the help of this
method. Controlled observation may be by control over phenomena or control
over observer. In this method, researcher can use the devices like detailed
observation plan, observation schedule, team observation, use of control groups,
use of hypothesis, use of sociometric scales and use of mechanical appliances
etc.
(3) Participant Observation: If the observer participates with the activities of this
group under study it is known as participant observation. The observer can
understand the emotional reactions of the observed the emotional reactions of
the observed group, and get a deeper insight of their experiences. The degree
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and the period of participation vary with the purpose of study and the practical
demands of the situation.
(4) Non-participant Observation: In which method, observer does not participate in
observation, it is called non-participant observation. The observer does not
actually participate but watches everything from a distant. Goode and Hatt say
“Non-participant observation is, then, usually quasi-participant observation.”
(5) Direct Observation: Observation is done personally by the observer, it is direct
observation. It is flexible and allows the observer to see and record subtle
aspects of events and behaviour. He is also free to shift places, change the focus
of the observation, or concentrate on unexpected events.
(6) Indirect Observation: When recording is done by mechanical, photographic or
electronic means, it is called indirect observation. It is less flexible than direct
observation, but it is less biasing and less erratic in recording accuracy.
3.2.6.3 Advantages of Observation Method:
(a) Direct Method: It is most direct mean of data collection. Due to this method, it
makes it possible to study behaviour and interactions. Many aspects of human
behaviour can be studied directly of observation method.
(b) Simplicity: It is simple method of data collection. It is not technical and requires
relatively less training for making observation.
(c) Useful for hypothesis: The observation method is useful for formulating and
testing of hypothesis. The observation method enables researcher to know about
the sequences and the cause-effect relationship. On that basis, researcher can
formulate and test hypothesis.
(d) Accurate and Reliable Data: This method provides accurate data. The data
collected by observation are based on first-hand perception by the eyes. It is not
based on retrospection or reflection
(e) Eye witness: Observation provides eye-witness for research conducted.
Observation makes it possible to capture the whole event as it occurs.
(f) Suitable for proper analysis: Observation improves the opportunities for
analyzing properly the contextual background of behaviour.
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3.2.6.4 Disadvantages of Observation Method:
(a) Not Suitable: Observation is not always suitable. All occurrences are open to
observations. Occurrences can be observed when the observer has at hand. All
occurrences are not lend themselves to study by observational techniques.
(b) Only Current Situation: Observation is not possible for past occurrences and
incidents. Observation is possible only for present.
(c) Sampling Difficult: Observation method may have difficulties in obtaining
representative sample. Observation is possible with permission. It is not possible
in all types of people.
(d) Expensive: For adopting observation method, researcher has to go every places
where he wants to observe the occurrences. It will make expensive the collection
of data.
(e) Lack of proper orientation: Observation requires great attention and observer
should be properly oriented. However, every observer may not be properly
oriented for making observation.
3.2.7 Focused Group Interview:
Focused group method was developed by sociologist Robert Merton and his
colleagues in 1940s. It is highly versatile and dynamic method of collecting data
from representative group of respondents.
3.2.7.1 Meaning of Focus Group:
This method is used for qualitative research. A focus group refers to an
interview carried out by a trained researcher whose role is both to ask questions and
to observe participants with the group. For this purpose a group of 8 to 10 individuals
is made to take their interview.
Tuckman (1965) formulated linear model of group development which is
comprehensive. Chrzanowska (2002) has stipulated stages of focus group discussion
which are: forming, storming, norming, performing ad mourning. The skilled
moderator is required for focus group discussion who conduct whole discussion. He
plays key role to supervise the group discussion as far as nature, content and validity
of the data are concerned.
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3.2.7.2 Advantages of Focus Group Method:
Focus group method has following benefits:
(1) Idea generation: Focus group provides idea generated through discussion. The
interaction between members of group helps to refine and rephrase the
perspective into a usable solution. Such discussion generates ideas which are
useful to solve the problems.
(2) Group dynamics: The moderator initiates the debate. Some members express
their opinion. Members’ involvement increases. They present reactions and
counter-reactions. It brings openness in group discussion.
(3) Process advantage: The focus group discussion provides considerable
flexibility in extracting the relevant information. It provides a simultaneous
condition and collection of data from many respondents at a single point of time.
(4) Reliable and valid data: According to objectives of the study, the moderator
determine the structure of discussion, hence, reliable data is possible. The
recording of data does not give opportunity to human bias and error in collecting
data.
(5) 10 Ss advantages: Zikmund(1997) articulated advantages of focus group
discussion which can be called 10 Ss advantages. Synergy, snowballing,
serendipity, stimulation, security, spontaneity, specialization, structure, speed
and scrutiny are 10 Ss advantages of focus group method (Wilson, 2010). The
researcher can observe how a group interact and it examines both the verbal and
non-verbal communication.
3.2.7.3 Disadvantages of Focus Group Method:
There are some disadvantages of focus group method
(1) Group dynamics as disadvantage: In group discussion, the members might
present not their own but along the lines of the group expression. Instead of own
opinion, members try to involve in group conformity.
(2) Scientific process: The group discussion under this method is indicative and it
should not be generalized. It is difficult to analyze the data when answers
obtained are varied and are in narrative form.
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(3) Moderator bias: As success or failure of focus group discussion is dependent on
the skill of moderator. It is rare to have unbiased moderator and consequently
have unbiased discussion.
(4) Limitations: For conducting focus group discussion, there are some limitations
such as inability to acquire a suitable venue, difficulty in attracting suitable
participant and lack of experience in organizing.
1. …………. is a set of questions like questionnaire, prepared and
administered for collecting data from respondents.
2. ………….. (1997) articulated advantages of focus group as 10 Ss.
1. When the observer participates in observation, it is called non-participant
observation.
2. When recording is done by mechanical, photographic or electronic means,
it is called indirect observation.
3. Focus group interview method is used for qualitative research.
3.2.8 Schedule and Questionnaire:
3.2.8.1 Schedule:
A schedule is also a set of questions like questionnaire, prepared and
administered for collecting data from respondents. According to Goode and Hatt,
“schedule is the name usually applied to a set of questions which are asked and filled
in by the investigator in a face to face situation with another person.”
Bogardus says that “a schedule is a form of abbreviated questions which
interviewer keeps with him and fills out as he proceeds with his enquiry.”
A schedule may be of different types like interview schedule, observation
schedule, rating schedule, document schedule, institutional survey schedule etc.
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3.2.8.2 Difference between Schedule and Questionnaire:
The main aim of schedule and questionnaire is to collect the data from
respondents and both are instruments of collecting primary data, however, there is
difference between them.
Schedule Questionnaire
1) Schedule is used as tool for 1) Questionnaire is sent by mail to
interviewing. respondent to be answered.
2) Schedule is filled in by interviewer 2) It is filled in by respondent.
(researcher or enumerator) while taking
interview.
3) Schedule can be used for observation. 3) Questionnaire cannot be used for
observation.
4) It is direct method of data collection. 4) It is indirect method of data collection.
5) Very short questions are included in 5) Lengthy question can be included in
the schedule. questionnaire to get detailed information.
6) The data collected through schedule 6) The reliability of data collected by
are more reliable. questionnaire in doubtful.
7) A limited area can be covered by 7) A wide area can be covered by
schedule method. questionnaire method.
8) An investigator can collect the 8) The clarification of questions is not
information from uneducated people by possible in questionnaire method.
clarifying question and its purpose.
9) When schedule is used for 9) In questionnaire method, researcher is
interviewing, interviewer will try to get dependent on respondent for collecting
answer from respondent by clarifying the data. The respondent can stick-up with
questions. Hence, respondent will give his level of answering questions.
detail answer.
10) The data collected by schedule will 10) The data collected by questionnaire
be completely representative as may not be completely respresentative.
clarification or explanation is possible.
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3.2.9 Data collection from Secondary Sources:
This data are also called as secondary data. Secondary data are the data which
have been collected by somebody else and used by the researcher. Secondary sources
may be books, journals, reports etc.
3.2.9.1 Advantages of Secondary Data:
1. Quick and Cheap: Secondary data are readily available as it is collected by
someone else. Once their source of documents and reports are identified,
collection of data is just a matter of desk work. The researcher can access data
quickly and cheaply.
2. Coverage of Wider Scope: Without much cost, longer reference period and
geographical scope can be covered if secondary data is option for researcher.
3. Generalization Possible: The database is broadened by secondary data through
which generalization is possible scientifically.
4. Supporting Verification: The secondary data may be used as support to verify
the findings based on the primary data.
3.2.9.2 Disadvantages of Secondary Data:
1. Non-suitability: Our needs may not meet with the available data because there
may be difference between the definition adopted by those who have collected
the data and meaning expected by us. In such case the available data may be not
suitable.
2. Inaccuracy: The desired accuracy may not be available in secondary data. We
have to know how data were collected by them, then it may be possible to assess
the accuracy. But it is not possible in many situations.
3. Outdated Data: The secondary data may not be uptodate and become obsolete
because of time lag required to publish it. Population census data are published
three or four years later after compilation and afterwards no few figures would
be available for next ten years.
4. Non-accessible Data: What type of data the social scientist require, may not be
available easily. The accessibility depends primarily on proximity. Sometime
the organizations are reluctant to avail the data to the researchers.
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5. Difficult to test Reliability and Validity of Data: In which situation the data
have been collected is not known. So it is difficult to test reliability and validity
of secondary data.
3.2.10 Data Processing:
After collecting data, the next step is to arrange data for processing and proper
presentation. Before analysis of data, data should be processed properly. The data are
processed carefully and systematically for statistical treatment and meaningful
interpretation.
The data processing comprises questionnaire checking, editing, coding,
classification, tabulation, graphical presentation, data cleaning and data adjusting.
The stages of data processing provides us minimizing errors.
(1) Questionnaire Checking: Questionnaires are examined after data collected for
checking whether they are acceptable or not. If this work is not simultaneously
while collecting data, we have to do it after collection of data. The incomplete
questionnaire is not acceptable. The questionnaire answered by inappropriate
person is not acceptable. The questionnaire answered in such a way that who
could not understand questions.
(2) Editing: Editing is the process of examining the data collected. It is done to
detect errors and omissions. Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate,
consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as possible.
(3) Coding: Coding is the process by which data are organized into classes and
numerals or other symbols are given to each item according to the class in which
it falls. Coding have tow operations: deciding the categories to be used and
allocating individual answers to them.
(4) Classification: We can see the next stage of data processing: classification in
the next section in detail.
3.2.10.1 Classification: Classification is a process of grouping the statistical data. It
is the process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common
characteristics. Entire data are divided into groups or classes, by making
classification. It can be done either classification according to attributes or
classification according to class-intervals.
The four types of classification are given below:
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(1) Qualitative Classification: It refers to classification of data made according to
some attribute or quality such as sex, literacy, religion etc.
For e.g.- The classification of the whole population as per sex, literacy and
employment which we can see in the following table.
Table 3.1
Classification of Population of a city according to Sex, Literacy and
Employment
Employment Male Female
Literate Illiterate Total Literate Illiterate Total
Employed 200000 400000 600000 100000 200000 300000
Unemployed 40000 200000 240000 20000 100000 120000
240000 600000 840000 120000 300000 420000
(2) Quantitative Classification: It refers to the classification of data according to

some characteristics that can be measured such as height, weight, age etc. As per
this classification, data are classification by assigning arbitrary limits call class-
intervals.
For e.g.- The marks obtained can be classified in the class-intervals as 0-34, 35-
59, 60-74 and 75-100 as per standard of passing.
(3) Chronological or Temporal Classification: It refers to classification with
respect to time.
For e.g.- The sale of Kolhapur outlet of the company is given quarter-wise:
Table 3.2
Quarter-wise Sale at Kolhapur outlet
Quarter Sale in Rs.
1st Quarter 2020-21 10,00,000
2nd Quarter 2020-21 20,00,000
3rd Quarter 2020-21 50,00,000
4th Quarter 2020-21 40,00,000
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(4) Geographical or Spatial Classification: It refers to classification made with
respect to places.
For e.g.- The yield of onion in India state-wise such classification is called
spatial classification.
Table 3.3
State-wise Production of Onion in India
Name of State Production in thousand tonnes
Maharashtra 5355.39
Madhya Pradesh 3859.83
Karnataka 3197.40
Gujrat 1303.07
Rajsthan 1292.20
Rules for classification of data (Tulsian and Zunzunwala, 2018):

(1) The classes should be unambiguously defined.
(2) The classes should be exhaustive. It means every observation must get classified
into a class.
(3) As far as possible, the classes should be of equal width.
(4) The number of classes should neither be too larger nor too small.
(5) Width of class interval is decided first by fixing the number of class intervals
and then dividing the total range into those many classes.
ோ௔௡௚௘
Class width = ே௢.௢௙ ஼௟௔௦௦௘௦ ௗ௘௖௜ௗ௘ௗ
3.2.10.2 Tabulation:
Tabulation is presenting data in tabular form. It is systematic representation of
the information collected in the data in rows or colums according to certain
characteristics. Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying it is
compact form for further analysis. It presents the information in concise and
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attractive manner. It helps to make data easy to read understand. It helps to make a
comparison of two or more sets of data gathered on the same characteristics.
Firstly classification is made. Then preparing table is one of the important steps.
Tabulation may be done by hand, mechanical or electronic. Table can be divided into
different categories such as frequency tables, response tables, contingency tables,
univariate tables, bivariate tables, statistical tables and time series tables.
3.2.10.2.1 Elements of Table:
(1) Table number: Every table should be properly numbered by which anybody can
identify the specific table when there are large numbers of tables. Table numbers
may be consecutive serial numbers. Alternatively chapter-wise numbering is
also preferred. For e.g.- For Chapter-1, the table number will be 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 and
so on whereas for Chapter-4, the table number will be 4.1, 4.2, 4.3 and so on.
(2) Title of table: Table should have brief, simple and clear title. It should be self-
explanatory. It should be given in bold type.
(3) Number of Columns and Rows: Each table should be prepared in just adequate
number of columns and rows. Columns and rows should be divided by means of
thin or thick rulings.
(4) Stubs or row designations: Heading should be given to each row of the table. It
is called stubs. It explains what the figures in row represent. Instead of taking
full question from the instrument, brief and clear heading should be given in the
form of sub.
(5) Captions or Columns headings: Headings should be given to each column of
the table. It explains what the figures in column represent. Instead of taking full
question from the instrument, brief and clear heading should be given in the
form of caption.
(6) Body of the table: The actual data should be so arranged that any figure may be
readily located. Comparable figures should be arranged side by side. Size of the
column should be as per requirement. Arrangement of items should be
according to the problem. Totals of each columns and rows as well as grand
total should be given as far as possible.
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(7) The unit of measurement: The unit of measurement should be noted below the
title. If different units are there, they may be given along with ‘stubs’ or
‘captions’ whichever appropriate.
(8) Source: The source of information should be mentioned below the table.
(9) Foot-notes: These may be given below the table. They may be explanation
about the concept used in table or any estimation made, if any.
Specimen of Table
Table Number
Title of the Table
Designation in units
Caption or Column head Total
Stub-head
Yes No
High
Moderate
Low
Foot-note:
Source:
3.2.1.2.2 Type of Table:
Table can be classified as one-way table, two-way table, three-way table and so on.
(1) Simple table or One-way table: The table which is prepared for only one quality
or characteristic, is called simple table or one-way table. It presents the
distribution of cases on only a single dimension or variable.
Table 3.4
Marks-wise Distribution of Students
Marks obtained Number of Students
00-20 05
20-40 10
113
40-60 45
60-80 65
80-100 15
Total 140
(2) Two-way Table: The table which is prepared on the basis of two qualities or
characteristics. It presents the distribution in terms of two variables.
Table 3.5
Marks and Gender-wise Classification of Students
Number of Students
Marks obtained
Male Female Total
00-20 03 02 05
20-40 07 03 10
40-60 32 13 45
60-80 35 30 65
80-100 07 08 15
Total 84 56 140
(3) Three-way Table: The table which is prepared on the basis of three qualities or
characteristics. It is also called as mani-fold table. It presents the distribution in
terms of three variables.
Table 3.6
Marks, Stream and Gender-wise Classification of Students
Number of Students
Marks Male Female Total
Arts Science Commerce Arts Science Commerce Arts Science Commerce
114
00-
20
20-
40
40-
60
60-
80
80-
100
Total

(A) Choose the most appropriate alternative:
1. …………….is the first stage of data processing.
(a) Classification
(b) Questionnaire Checking
(c) Editing
(d) Coding
2. …………….. is not one of the types of classification.
(a) Quantitative Classification
(b) Qualitative Classification
(c) Geographical Classification
(d) Personal Classification
(a) The number of classes should neither be too larger nor too small.
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(b) Tabulation is not the process of summarizing raw data and displaying it is
compact form for further analysis.
(c) Table should have brief, simple and clear title
3.2.10.3 Graphical Presentation:
It is a technique of presenting the data visually in the form of graph. The
quickest understanding is availed by graphical presentation. It eliminates the dullness
of the numerical data. If data are presented in the form of diagram or graphs, the
comparison of data is much easier.
Graphical presentation should be made in the line of research objectives.
According to the purpose, graphical tool should be selected. It is very useful to
prospective readers who are non-technical and general public. Graphic forms should
be simple, clear and accurate. The most commonly used graphic forms are as
follows:
(1) Bar Chart
(2) Multiple Bar Chart
(3) Sub-divided Bar Chart
(4) Histogram
(5) Ogive Curve
(6) Pie-chart
(7) Pictogram
(8) Frequency Polygon
(1) Bar Chart: Bar chart is a chart that uses either horizontal or vertical bars to
show comparisons between categories. The length various bars is in the ratio of
the magnitude of the given data. The bar chart is prepared when the data indicate
different values of a variable over a period of time or data represent different
situations.
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Specimen Bar chart
Bar chart indicates data category in a frequency distribution. It shows relative

numbers or proportion of multiple categories. It also summarizes a large data set in
visual form. With considering its benefit, it is widespread used in business, the media
and research as well. Though there are these benefits, however, it requires additional
explanation.
(2) Multiple Bar Chart: Multiple bar chart is one graph in which two or more bars.
It is used to represent district values for more than one item that share the same
category. It provides comparison of the values of different variables in a set and
comparison of the values of the same variable over a period of time.
Multiple Bar Chart
117
(3) Sub-divided Bar Chart: It is one dimensional diagram in which bar is sub-
divided. It is used to represent data in which the total magnitude is divided into
different components. It helps in identifying and comparing the difference
between the components.
Sub-divided Bar Chart
(4) Histogram: A histogram is a two dimensional chart. It is a graphical

representation that is helpful to organize and display the data in more user-
friendly format. It is a series of adjacent vertical rectangles with bases,
proportionate to width of the class intervals on x-axis and with area of the
rectangles proportionate to the number of frequencies along y-axis of the
corresponding class intervals.
Histogram
118
Histogram helps in comparing process within specified limits. It summarizes
large data and assists in decision-making.
(5) Ogive Curve: Ogive is a graph that represents the cumulative frequencies for the
classes in a frequency distribution. An ogive is obtained by plotting the
cumulative frequency on yy-axis against the class boundaries on x-axis.
axis.
Ogive helps to determine graphically the number of proportion, observation
above or below the given value of variable. It facilitates the comparison of two
frequency distributions.
Ogive Curve
There are two types of ogives (cumulative frequency distribution graphs).

graphs)
Less than ogive: It is drawn on the basis of cumulative frequencies which are in
ascending order. Here, cumulative frequencies are plotted against upper limits from
left to right of respective class. It has upward slope because it is an increasing curve.
curv
More than ogive: It is drawn on the basis of cumulative frequencies which are in
descending order. Here, cumulative frequencies are plotted against lower limits of
respective class. It is downward slope from left to right because it is an decreasing
curve.
(6) Pie-chart: Pie-chart
chart is also called as circle graph. It makes use of sectors in a
circle. The angle of sector is proportional to the frequency of the data. It is a
circular diagram in which are is proportionately divided among the various
components off a given variable. It is a good way of displaying data when you
want to show how something is shared or divided.
119
Illustration: The following picture shows percentages of types of transport that
sample of 500 people uses most often:
Pie-chart: Type of transport
a) How many people use bus most often?

b) How many people don’t use train most often?
c) How many people use bicycle or car most often?
Solution:
Certainly, total frequency is N = 500.
a) 20% of 500 people use bus most often.
In other words, the answer is 20% x 500 = 0.2 x 500 = 100 people.
b) 10% of 500 people use train most often.
Therefore, we have (100%
(100%–10%) x 500 = 0.9 x 200 = 450
In conclusion, 450 people don’t use train most often.
c) 30% of 500 people use bicycle most often and 40% of them use car most often.
Therefore, we have (30% + 40%) x 500 = 70% x 500 = 0.7 x 500 = 350.
In conclusion, 350 people use bicycle or car most often.
120
(7) Pictogram: Pictogram refers to a chart that uses pictures to represent data. Each
picture or symbol may represent one or more units of the data. Pictogram is also
called as pictograph.
Pictogram
(8) Frequency Polygon: Frequency polygon is a graph that uses lines that connect
points plotted for the frequencies at the midpoints of the classes, frequencies are
represented by the heights of the points. The main purpose in constructing a
polygon is to locate the mode (i.e. the value of the variable having maximum
frequency of a series).
Frequency Polygon

(A) State whether the following statements are ‘true’ or ‘false’:
(a) The bar chart is prepared when the data indicate different values of a
variable over a period of time or data represent different situations.
(b) A histogram is a one dimensional chart.
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(c) The main purpose in constructing a polygon is to locate the mode
(B) Fill I the blanks:
1. ……………..is also called as circle graph.
2. ………….is a graph that represents the cumulative frequencies for the
classes in a frequency distribution.
3.3 Summary:
The collection of data is very important stage in the research process. Data can
be classified as quantitative data vs. qualitative data, primary data vs. secondary data
and types of data for social sciences needs. The advantages of primary data are fresh
data, accurate data, reliable and valid data, easy access and collection of suitable
data. The disadvantages of primary data costly data, time consuming, difficult in
broader scope, personal limitations and misleading data.
Questionnaire is an instrument through which the data are collected by mailing
it to respondents. It is nothing but a set of questions. There are different types of
questionnaires such as structured questionnaire, unstructured questionnaire, open
form questionnaire, close form questionnaire, mixed questionnaire, opinion
questionnaire and pictorial questionnaire. The different types of questions are used in
questionnaire such as closed ended questions, dichotomous question, multiple choice
question, scaled questions and open ended questions. The advantages of
questionnaire method are such as cost saving, time saving, anonymity is possible, no
pressure, uniformity, wider scope and free from bias. The disadvantages of
questionnaire are such as illustrate and less educated, low response, incomplete
responses, misinterpretation, no clarification and bias.
Interview is one of the methods of collecting data. The objective of an interview
is to collect information about unknown facts through face to face contacts. There are
various types of interviews such as structured interview, unstructured interview,
focused interview, clinical interview, depth interview, personal interview, group
interview, formal interview, informal Interview, qualitative interview and qualitative
interviews
Under observation method, the data from the field is collected with the help of
observation.
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Observation is divided into three processes: sensation, attention and perception.
Observation can be classified into the categories like simple observation, controlled
observation, participant observation, non-participant observation, direct observation
and indirect observation. The advantages of observation are such as direct method,
simplicity, useful for hypothesis, accurate and reliable data and eye witness and
suitable for proper analysis. The disadvantages of observation method are such as not
suitable, only current situation, sampling difficult, expensive, and lack of proper
orientation.
A focus group refers to an interview carried out by a trained researcher whose
role is both to ask questions and to observe participants with the group. Focus group
method has advantages such as idea generation, group dynamics, process advantage,
reliable and valid data and 10 Ss advantages. This method has some disadvantages
also which are group dynamics as disadvantage, scientific process, moderator bias
and limitations.
A schedule is also a set of questions like questionnaire, prepared and
administered for collecting data from respondents. A schedule may be of different
types like interview schedule, observation schedule, rating schedule, document
schedule, institutional survey schedule etc. Schedule is filled in by interviewer while
taking interview while questionnaire is sent by mail to respondent to be answered.
Secondary data are the data which have been collected by somebody else and
used by the researcher. Secondary sources may be books, journals, reports etc. There
are advantages of secondary data such as quick and cheap, coverage of wider scope,
generalization possible and supporting verification. The disadvantages of secondary
data are such as non-suitability, inaccuracy, outdated data, non-accessible data and
difficult to test reliability and validity of data.
The data processing comprises questionnaire checking, editing, coding,
classification, tabulation, graphical presentation, data cleaning and data adjusting.
Classification is a process of grouping the statistical data. The four types of
classification are called qualitative classification, quantitative classification,
chronological classification and geographical classification.
Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying it is compact
form for further analysis. Table can be divided into different categories such as
frequency tables, response tables, contingency tables, univariate tables, bivariate
123
tables, statistical tables and time series tables. They are also classified as one-way
table, two-way table and three-way table. Elements of table include table number,
title of table, number of columns and rows, stubs or row designations, captions or
columns headings, body of the table, the unit of measurement, source and footnotes.
Graphical Presentation is a technique of presenting the data visually in the form
of graph. Types of charts include bar chart, multiple bar chart, sub-divided bar chart,
histogram, ogive curve, pie-chart, pictogram and frequency polygon.

1. Primary data: Primary sources are original sources from which data are
collected by any researcher yet nobody has collected the same data.
2. Secondary data: It is the data which is collected by somebody else and which is
used by the researcher.
3. Questionnaire: Questionnaire is an instrument through which the data are
collected by mailing it to respondents. It is nothing but a set of questions.
4. Schedule: Schedule is the name usually applied to a set of questions which are
asked and filled in by the investigator in a face to face situation with another
person.
5. Focus group: A focus group refers to an interview carried out by a trained
researcher whose role is both to ask questions and to observe participants with
the group.
6. Classification: It is the process of arranging data in groups or classes on the
basis of common characteristics. Entire data are divided into groups or classes,
by making classification.
7. Tabulation: Tabulation is presenting data in tabular form. It is systematic
representation of the information collected in the data in rows or colums
according to certain characteristics.
3.5 Answers to check your progress
(A) 1. Data, 2. Quantitative Data, 3. Primary data
(B) 1. True, 2. True
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(A) 1. Close ended, 2. Depth interview
(B) 1. False, 2. True, 3. False
(A) 1. Schedule, 2. Zikmund
(B) 1. False, 2. True, 3. True
(A) 1.- (a) Questionnaire Checking, 2.- (d) Personal Classification
(B) 1. True, 2. False, 3. True
(A) 1- True, 2.- False, 3- True
(B) 1- Pie-chart, 2.- Ogive
3.6 Exercise
1. What are different types of data?
2. What is primary data? Explain the advantages and disadvantages of primary
data.
3. What is secondary data? Describe the advantages and disadvantages of
secondary data.
4. Explain advantages and disadvantages of questionnaire method.
5. Describe benefits and limitations of interview method.
6. What is focused group interview? What are its advantages and disadvantages?
7. Explain different types of graphs?
8. Write short answers of the following questions:
(a) What are types of questionnaire?
(b) What are types of interview?
(c) What are types of observation?
(d) What are types of classification?
(e) Explain the process of tabulation.
(f) What are types of tables?
125
9. Write short notes on the following points:
(a) Types of questions
(b) Schedule and Questionnaire
(c) Data processing
(d) Elements of table
(e) Bar chart
(f) Pie chart
(g) Histogram
References:
Banerjee, Subhojit and Roy Ramendu (2010): Fundamentals of Research
Methodology, Kitab Mahal, Allahabad, Second Edition.
Campbell, N. (1952): What is science?, New York, Dover, p.110.
Jonathan Wilson (2010): Essentials of Business Research, Sage Publications India
Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, South Asia Edition.
Krishnaswami, O. R. and Rangnatham, M. (2011): Methodology of Research in
Social Sciences, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai, 2nd Edition, 5th Reprint.
Merton, Robert K .; Fiske Marjorie; Kenddl, Patn (1956). The Focused Interview,
Glencoe: The Free Press, 1956.
Steven, S. S. (1951): Mathematics, Measurement and Psychophysics, in Steven, S. S.
(Ed.) (1951): Handbook of Experimental Psychology, New York, John Wiley &
Sons, p.1.
Torgerson, W. S. (1959): Theory and Method of Scaling, New York, John Wiley &
Sons, p.19.
Thurstone, L. L. and Chave, E. J. (1929): The Measurement of Attitude, University of
Chicago Press, p.5.
Tulsian, P. C. and Jhunjhunwala, Bharat (2018). Business Statistics, S. Chand and
Company Limited, New Delhi.
Young, P. V. (1956): Scientific Social Survey and Research, Prentice-Hall.

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Unit-4
Analysis and Interpretation of Data
4.0 Objective –
After studying this Unit you will be able to:
1. Understand the concept, tools and techniques of analysis and interpretation of
data.
2. Analyze and interpret data with computing measures of central tendency,
measures of dispersion, correlation and regression.
3. Explain the methods of hypothesis testing and their application.
4. Explain the layout of research project and prepare such layout.
5. Find relationship between the nature of data and analytical tool to use.
6. Explain concept and types of research report and characteristics of good report.
7. Write a research report.
4.1 Introduction
The previous chapter dealt with data, collection of data and processing of
collected data. The data collection instrument has been discussed in sufficient length.
The chapter also dealt with classification and tabulation of data. Having collected the
data using data collection instrument or data collected from secondary sources it is
needed to be analyzed. The analysis of data is done using statistical tools and
techniques. Present chapter probe detailed into the statistical tools used to analyze the
data.
To make it more practical and easy to understand a live survey data has been
used. The online questionnaire has been executed to the first year and second year
students studying in MBA in the institute affiliated to Shivaji University have been
collected using Google form and their responses have been invited. The
questionnaire (Google Form) is attached at the end of this chapter (refer annexure
number 01). The data of first 20 students of MBA-I and MBA-II have been only
taken as sample for analysis in this chapter. The detailed code sheet (refer annexure
number 02) along with data sheet (refer annexure number 03) has also been given.
127
The solved examples in this chapter are based on the data from the data sheet.
Also the exercise questions are asked based on the data in the data sheet.
4.2 Analysis of Data:
Analysis of data is an important step in research process. Collected data should
be systematically analyzed. Data analysis means searching and showing the
relationship between or among the tabulated data. Analysis shows the pattern of
correlation between the data.
“Processing of data refers to concentrating, recasting, and dealing with the data
so that they are as amenable to analysis as possible, while analysis of data refers to
seeing the data in the light of hypothesis of research questions and the prevailing
theories and drawing conclusions that are as amenable to theory formation as
possible”. …by Prof John Gatting.
“Analysis of data involves a number of closely related operations that are
performed with the purpose of summarizing the collected data and organizing these
in such a manner that they will yield answer to the research questions or suggest
hypothesis or questions if no such questions of hypothesis had initiated the study”.
….by Wilkinson and Bhabdarkar.
Data analysis means to establish an association or relationship between
variables. Analysis has supported by interpretation where positive correlation or
negative correlation. The analysis can use statistical parameters for drawing
quantifiable inference. In data analysis, high degree or low degree of variables should
be measured. The degree may be positive or negative or liner. The researcher can be
used mean, median; mode, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, t-test, z-test,
etc can be applied for interpretation of data. These statistical parameters are very
useful for data processing and drawing inference. In data analysis cross checking the
fulfillment of objectives and hypothesis testing is undertaken. Data processing is
required for analysis and interpretation of the data. The required data has collected
through questionnaire or schedule and observation. The researcher has to check that
all questions have filled or not, quality of the respondents, sampling method wise
questionnaire, respondent sincerity while filled the questionnaire, impression of the
respondents about questionnaire etc.
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4.2.1 Interpretation of Data:
The very important in any research especially in social sciences, is an
interpretation of the collected and analyzed data. Interpretation is drawing inferences
from the data. Interpretation has to be done very carefully; otherwise misleading
conclusions may be drawn. Interpretation means establishing relationship among
different variables. This is based on observation made by the researcher in his data
collection period. Interpretation provides conceptual and suggestive parameters for
the selected subject. It helps for drawing number of useful and applicable inferences
and findings. Interpretation is the last stage of the research where different
inferences, sequential order, findings, and applied suggestions. Any researcher is not
only fact finding activity but also relation to the previous findings, cross sectional
analysis, fulfillment of objectives and hypotheses etc. Interpretation is required for
knowing the research finding, knowing abstract principles behind findings, guidance
for future research, establishing relationship among the variables, etc.
Section - I
4.3 Measure of central tendency, measures of dispersion.
Measures of central tendency are a value attempt to describe the central position
of the set of data. The most common measures of central tendency are mean, median
and mode.
Definitions of Average:
1. "Averages are statistical constant which enable us to comprehend in a single
effort the significance of the whole." A.L.Bowley
2. "An average is a single value selected from a group of values to represent them
in some way, a value which is supposed to stand for whole group of which it is a
part, as typical of all the values in the group." A.E.Waugh
3. "An average is a sometimes called a measure of central tendency because
individual values of the variable usually cluster around it. Average are useful,
however for certain types of data in which there is little or no central tendency."
Crum and smith
4. "An average is a single value within the range of the data that is use to represent
all of the values in the Series. Since an average is somewhere within the range of
129
the data, it is sometimes called a measure of central value." Croxton and
Cowden
efinition of Arithmetic Mean: “Arithmetic mean is a set of observations is
Definition
their sum divided by the number of observations.”
Suppose i f the given n observations are, then their arithmetic
mean, usually denoted by is given by:
= =
where,
∑x= Sum of the values N = Number of values.
Definition of Median:
“The median is that value of the variable, which divides the group in two equal parts,
one part comprising all the values greater and the othe
other,
r, all values less than the
median.”
Formula:
Median =size of ( th item
Definition of Mode: “Mode is the value which has the greatest frequency density in
its immediate neighborhood.” –
Formula:
Mode= the value having maximum frequency.
Above given three measures of central tendencies are most widely used in data
analysis.
4.3.1 Measures of Dispersion
Dispersion refers to the spread of the data how one data point is spread from
another data point. In the analysis the term dispersion is very im important.
portant. It might
possible that the mean of two series would be same that does not reveals that the two
series performs the same. It is the dispersion tell researcher about the performance. If
the value of measures of dispersion especially standard deviati
deviation
on is small then it can
be stated that the series has less variability and it has more consistency.
130
Definition of Measures of Dispersion:
“Dispersion is the measure of the variation of the items.” - A.L.Bowley
Dispersion is a measure of the extent to whic
which
h the individual items vary.” -
L.R.Connor ”Dispersion or spread of the degree of scatter or variation of the
variables about central value.” -B.C.Brooks.and W.F.L.Dick.
"The degree to which numerical data tend to spread about and average value is
called the variation or dispersion of the data.” - Spiegel.
We have few commonly used measures of dispersion. Even in our routine life
also we use some of the measures of dispersion especially range is widely used in
common transactions.
Let’s get into little depth to understand these measures of dispersions.
4.3.2 Range
It is the difference between the minimum and maximum items of the series. It is
generally used in quality control.
4.3.3 Standard Deviation

Standard deviation is the most important and commonly used measure of
dispersion. It measures the absolute dispersion or variability of a distribution. A
small standard deviation means a high degree of uniformity in the observations as
well as homogeneity of the series.
Definition
Standard deviation is the positive square root of the average of squared
deviations taken from arithmetic mean.
131
Alternatively,
Coefficient of standard deviation is a relative measure of standard deviation.
4.3.4 Variance
The variance is the square of standard deviation and is denoted by 2.
We have to understand that calculating every statistics there are formulae
available we need to understand the formulae. There different formulae also available
to calculate same statistics one has to un
understand
derstand the alternate use of such formulae.
Beyond the use of formulae and mechanical calculations what more important is
the very interpretation of figure derived out of statistical calculations.
Now let’s understand the aforementioned concepts of mea measures
sures of central
tendency and measures of dispersion with the help of examples based on the data we
have collected.
We are taking a data of MBA
MBA-II year students age only to calculate measures of
central tendency and dispersion.
4.3.5 Case 1:
Calculate the
he measures of central tendency and measure of dispersion for the age of
MBA-I year students.
22 23 20 22 20 25 22 21 21 22 25 21 23 20 22 23 24 21 21 21
Solution:
First we arrange the data in ascending order as follows
20 20 20 21 21 21 21 21 21 22 22 22 22 22 23 23 23 24 25 25
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Formula:
We are going to use following formulae to calculate desired measures of central
tendency and measures of dispersion.
1) X̅= ∑ xi / n= (Sum of all values / Total Number of values)
2) Median = {(n /2)th term + [(n/2) +1]th term} /2
3) Mode = Most of the value
4) Range= Maximum Value – Minimum Value = (L-S)
5) Coefficient of range =( L- S) / (L + S)
7) Standard Deviation (σ) =[√ ( ∑ xi^2 /n) – ( ∑ xi/n)^2]
8) Coefficient of s.d= (σ/ X̅)
9) Variance =σ^2
Calculations:
1) X̅= ∑ xi / n= (Sum of all values / Total Number of values)
X̅=439 /20
X̅=21.95
2) Median = {(n /2)th term + [(n/2) +1]th term} /2
Median = {(20 /2)th term + [(20 /2) +1]th term} /2
Median =[ (10 )th term + (11)th term ]/2
Median = (22+ 22) /2
Median =22
3) Mode = Most common value = 21
4) Range= Maximum Value – Minimum Value = (L-S)
Range= ( 25-20)
Range = 5
5) Coefficient of range =( L- S) / (L + S)
Coefficient of range =( 25-20) / (25+20)
133
Coefficient of range =0.1111
Standard Deviation (σ)
Here n=20
Sr.No X X^2
1 22 484
2 23 529
3 20 400
4 22 484
5 20 400
6 25 625
7 22 484
8 21 441
9 21 441
10 22 484
11 25 625
12 21 441
13 23 529
14 20 400
15 22 484
16 23 529
17 24 576
18 21 441
19 21 441
20 21 441
Total 439 9679
134
Standard Deviation (σ) =[√ ( ∑ xi^2 /n) – ( ∑ xi/n)^2]
Standard Deviation (σ) =[√ ( 9679 / 20) – ( 439/20)^2]
Standard Deviation (σ) =[√ ( 483.95) – ( 481.8025)]
Standard Deviation (σ) =(√ 2.1475)
Standard Deviation (σ) =1.4654
6) Coefficient of S.d= (σ/ X̅)
Coefficient of S.d= (1.4654 / 21.95)
Coefficient of S.d= 0.0668
7) Variance =σ^2
Variance =(0.0668)^2
Variance =0.0046
4.4 Check your progress:
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Data analysis means to establish an association or ……………. between
variables.
a. Association
b. Merit
c. Relationship
2. Interpretation is drawing …………… from the data.
a. Inferences
b. Conclusions
c. Resulting meaning
d. All the above
3. Measures of central tendency are a value attempt to describe the …………. of
the set of data.
a. Central position
135
b. Right end position
c. Left end position
4. The most common measures of central tendency are ……………..
a. Mean
b. Standard deviation
c. Variance
d. All the above
5. The median is that value of the variable, which divides the group in
……….equal parts.
a. Three
b. Four
c. Two
d. All the above
6. Mode is the value which has the ………….. frequency density in its immediate
neighborhood.
a. Lowest
b. Greatest
c. Nearest
7. Dispersion refers to the …………. of the data
a. Spread
b. Center
c. Tail
8. It is the difference between the minimum and ………… items of the series.
a. Maximum
136
b. Central
c. Left tailed
d. Right tailed
9. Standard deviation is the ……………… of the average of squared deviations
taken from arithmetic mean.
a. Negative square root
b. Multiplication
c. Deviation
d. Positive square root
10. The variance is the square of ……………….
a. Standard deviation
b. Mean Deviation
c. Range
4.5 Case Example 1:
Calculate the measures of central tendency and measure of dispersion for the CET
scores of MBA-II year students.
25 35 91 38 51 31 48 60 23 52 79 36 46 45 52 40 55 54 48 41
Section - II
4.6 Correlation and Regression:
Correlation is a statistical tool which studies the relationship between two
variables.
Correlation analysis is a statistical procedure by which we can determine the
degree of association or relationship between two or more variables.
Coefficient of correlation is a measure of such a tendency, i.e. the degree to
which the two variables are interrelated is measured by a coefficient which is called
the coefficient of correlation.
137
Definition – The relationship between two variables such that a change in one
variable results in a positive or negative change in the other variable and also a
greater change in one variable results in corresponding greater or smaller change in
the other variable is known as correlation.
‘When the relationship is of a quantitative nature, the appropriate statistical tool
for discovering and measuring the relationship and expressing it in a brief formula is
known as correlation’. – Craxton and Cowden.
The coefficient of correlation between the two variables x, y is generally
denoted by r or rXY.
Covariance is an, ‘absolute measure’ and coefficient of correlation is relative
measure of association.
The coefficient of correlation between the two variables x and y is generally
denoted by r or r xy or p (x,y) or p.
4.6.1 Properties of coefficient of correlation:
1. It is a measure of the closeness of a fit in a relative sense.
2. ficient lies between - - and +1 i.e. -1 r 1.
Correlation coefficient
3. The correlation is perfect and positive if r=1 and it is perfect and negative if r= -
1.
4. If r=0 then there is no correlation between the two variables and thus the
variables are said to be independent.
5. The correlation coefficient is a pure number and is not affected by a change of
origin and scale.
6. It is a relative measure of association between two or more variables.
Ref:
https://www.google.com/search?q=diagrams+of+correlation+positive+and+negative
138
+correlation&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiU6cj3
ved=2ahUKEwiU6cj3-uzqAhXe3XMBHcoOAmMQ2
uzqAhXe3XMBHcoOAmMQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=diagrams+of+correlation+positive+and+negative+correlation&g
s_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzoICAAQsQMQgwE6AggAOgUIABCxAzoECAAQQzoHCA
AQsQMQQzoECAAQCjoGCAAQBRAeOgYIABAIEB46BggAEAoQGDoECAAQ
GFD9fFiSyQFgoswBaAFwAHgAgAGfAogBll
GFD9fFiSyQFgoswBaAFwAHgAgAGfAogBllKSAQYwLjUwLjiYAQCgAQGqAQ
KSAQYwLjUwLjiYAQCgAQGqAQ
tnd3Mtd2l6LWltZ8ABAQ&sclient=img&ei=EIkeX5ShJ967z7sPyp2ImAY&bih=63
5&biw=1366#imgrc=ikLqb7i9v05m3M
5&biw=1366#imgrc=ikLqb7i9v05m3M, 27.07.2020, 1.29pm.
4.6.2 Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation
Karl Pearson (1857-1936)
1936) gave following formula for measuring the magnitude
of linear correlation coefficient between two variables.
4.6.3 Let’s study the correlation with an example from our case.
We will attempt two examples of correlation one is
Calculate the Correlation between HSC marks and Graduation marks and second is
Calculate the Correlation between graduation marks and CET score.
HSC Graduation CET
64.9 69.6 36
53.9 53.77 35
69.5 53 29.8
66.6 55.55 67
64.2 69.24 20.5
59 65 94.45
53 52 40
65.7 61.52 43
64.7 45.67 38.11
82 77 36
61.7 68.94 49
70.3 75.08 51
58.8 67.38 39
139
69 64 39
60 70 78
54 48 39
50 62 38
70 63 50
63.2 72.28 52.11
68.7 66 51
First we will calculate the Correlation between HSC marks and Graduation marks
For the same using the formula we need to calculate few figures viz. Xi square,
Yi square and multiplication of xi and yi. So preparing such table below we will
calculate the figures.
( xi)2 (yi)2 (xiyi)
This column is This column is This column is the
Graduation the square of the square of multiplication of
HSC Marks
Marks figures given figures given I figures in column
( xi)
(yi) in column column 1 and column 2 i.e.
number one number two multiplication of
i.e. xi i.e. yi xi x yi
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
64.9 69.6 4212.01 4844.16 4517.04
53.9 53.77 2905.21 2891.21 2898.203
69.5 53 4830.25 2809 3683.5
66.6 55.55 4435.56 3085.8 3699.63
64.2 69.24 4121.64 4794.18 4445.208
59 65 3481 4225 3835
53 52 2809 2704 2756
65.7 61.52 4316.49 3784.71 4041.864
64.7 45.67 4186.09 2085.75 2954.849
82 77 6724 5929 6314
61.7 68.94 3806.89 4752.72 4253.598
70.3 75.08 4942.09 5637.01 5278.124
58.8 67.38 3457.44 4540.06 3961.944
140
69 64 4761 4096 4416
60 70 3600 4900 4200
54 48 2916 2304 2592
50 62 2500 3844 3100
70 63 4900 3969 4410
63.2 72.28 3994.24 5224.4 4568.096
68.7 66 4719.69 4356 4534.2
Total the respective columns
( (yi)= ( xi)2 ( yi)2=
( xi)2= 81618.6
xi)=1269.2 1259.03 ( yi)2= 80776 80459.26
Now we got all the figures we want for n=20, here 20 is the sample size or we can
say the cases we have processed. Now plug in the figures in the formula to calculate
correlation as follows.

. .!
.

=
.^ .!^
.
.

".##
.

=
. .
$ . .
. .

=

. .
.
=
√ .
.
= .
=0.4392
Correlation between HSC marks and Graduation marks is 0.4392
Now using the diagrammatic scale of correlation given above this correlation of
0.4392 is interpreted as low positive correlation.
So there is low positive correlation between HSC marks and Graduation marks.
141
Let’s solve another example, to calculate th
thee correlation between graduation
marks and CET score.
Correlation between graduation marks and CET score.
Graduation CET
marks marks (xi)2 ( yi)2 (xi)(yi)
(xi) ( yi)
69.6 36 4844.16 1296 2505.6
53.77 35 2891.21 1225 1881.95
53 29.8 2809 888.04 1579.4
55.55 67 3085.8 4489 3721.85
69.24 20.5 4794.18 420.25 1419.42
65 94.45 4225 8920.803 6139.25
52 40 2704 1600 2080
61.52 43 3784.71 1849 2645.36
45.67 38.11 2085.75 1452.372 1740.484
77 36 5929 1296 2772
68.94 49 4752.72 2401 3378.06
75.08 51 5637.01 2601 3829.08
67.38 39 4540.06 1521 2627.82
64 39 4096 1521 2496
70 78 4900 6084 5460
48 39 2304 1521 1872
62 38 3844 1444 2356
63 50 3969 2500 3150
72.28 52.11 5224.4 2715.452 3766.511
66 51 4356 2601 3366
( yi)2= (xi)(
(xi)=1259.03 ( yi)=925.97 (xi)2=80776.01 48345.92 yi)=58786.78
142
.! ."
.

=
.!^ ."^
. .

. .

=
. . . .
.
=
. .
.
=
√ .
.
=
.
= 0.1718
Correlation between Graduation marks and CET marks is 0.1718
Again this correlation is also very low positive correlation. Looking towards this
figure the figure nearer to zero but the figure is not exactly zero hence, this figure is
termed as very low positive correlation and good as no correlation.
Having studied the correlation now let’s study the concept of regression.
Generally regression is followed by correlation.
4.7 Regression
Regression is a statistical measure that attempts to determine the strength of the
relationship between one dependent variable (Y) and a series of other changing
variables (independent variables) (X).
Linear regression: Y = a+bx+e
Where,
Y = Dependent variable
a = constant (population Y intercept)
b = Population slope coefficient
x = independent variable
e = random error
143
4.7.1 Definition:
Regression analysis is a mathematical measure of the average relationship
between two or more variables in terms of the original units of the data – M.M. Blair.
One of the most frequently used techniques in Economics and Business
research, to find a relation between two or more variables that are related usually is
Regression Analysis. – Taro Yamane.
Regression Analysis attempts to establish the Nature of Relationship between
the variables, that is, to study the functional relationship between the variables x and
y, and thereby provides a mechanism for predication or forecasting – Ya-Lun –
Chou.
Regression Helps…………
1. Analyze the relationship between y and x since y = f(x1, x2,x3, …………, xk)
2. How much y changes with changes in each of the x’s (x1, x2, x3 ……xn).
3. Forecast or predict the value of y based on the values of the X’s.
Now let’s take a practical example to understand the linear regression analysis.
4.7.2 Case: CET scores are dependent on the HSC and graduation marks.
Here we have used regression analysis where CET score is dependent variable
and marks scored at HSC and Graduation are independent variables. Our effort is to
check whether the CET score of a candidate is dependent on the HSC and graduation
marks or otherwise.
So the formula to calculate regression is,
Y=b0 + b1x1 +b2x2
to get the values of above formula we, first need to calculate,
∑&
1) X̅1= '
∑&
2) X̅2=
'
∑(
3) Y̅=
'
4) b0= Y̅-b1 X̅1-b2 X̅2
144
[ ∑& ∑ &( – ∑ & & . ∑ & ( ]
5) b1=
[ ∑ & ∑ & – ∑ && ]
[ ∑ & ∑ & ( – ∑ && . ∑ &( ]

6) b2= [ ∑ & ∑ & – ∑ && ]
Observation Table:
From raw data we go following figures of CET score of n=40 candidates
CET HSC Graduation
Y̅ X̅1 X̅2
38 50 62
46 63 71
35 53.85 53.77
36 64.92 69.6
20.5 64.15 69.24
48 63.54 59
45 57 58
40 53 52
38 60 60.13
79 80.5 59
94.45 59 65
55 55 69
40 72 65
41 83 65
36 60.31 73.36
78 60 70
51 68.66 66
43 65.69 61.52
29.8 69.53 53
60 58 71
23 80 69
91 64.45 58
39 58.8 67.38
49 61.67 68.94
52.11 63.23 72.28
145
50 70 63
52 64.46 65.12
54 54.92 51
51 70.31 75.08
48 60 61.74
25 61 64
35 70.31 59.14
67 66.6 55.55
51 55 62
31 51.38 57.56
52 75.69 61.61
38.11 64.65 45.67
39 54 48
39 69 64
36 82 77
Calculations:
To facilitate the figures for our formula lets prepare a table as below.
Sr.No Y X1 X2 X1 X2 X1Y X2Y X12 X22
1 38 50 62 3100 1900 2356 2500 3844
2 46 63 71 4473 2898 3266 3969 5041
3 35 53.85 53.77 2895.515 1884.75 1881.95 2899.823 2891.213
4 36 64.92 69.6 4518.432 2337.12 2505.6 4214.606 4844.16
5 20.5 64.15 69.24 4441.746 1315.075 1419.42 4115.223 4794.178
6 48 63.54 59 3748.86 3049.92 2832 4037.332 3481
7 45 57 58 3306 2565 2610 3249 3364
8 40 53 52 2756 2120 2080 2809 2704
9 38 60 60.13 3607.8 2280 2284.94 3600 3615.617
10 79 80.5 59 4749.5 6359.5 4661 6480.25 3481
11 94.45 59 65 3835 5572.55 6139.25 3481 4225
12 55 55 69 3795 3025 3795 3025 4761
13 40 72 65 4680 2880 2600 5184 4225
14 41 83 65 5395 3403 2665 6889 4225
15 36 60.31 73.36 4424.342 2171.16 2640.96 3637.296 5381.69
16 78 60 70 4200 4680 5460 3600 4900
17 51 68.66 66 4531.56 3501.66 3366 4714.196 4356
18 43 65.69 61.52 4041.249 2824.67 2645.36 4315.176 3784.71
146
19 29.8 69.53 53 3685.09 2071.994 1579.4 4834.421 2809
20 60 58 71 4118 3480 4260 3364 5041
21 23 80 69 5520 1840 1587 6400 4761
22 91 64.45 58 3738.1 5864.95 5278 4153.803 3364
23 39 58.8 67.38 3961.944 2293.2 2627.82 3457.44 4540.064
24 49 61.67 68.94 4251.53 3021.83 3378.06 3803.189 4752.724
25 52.11 63.23 72.28 4570.264 3294.915 3766.511 3998.033 5224.398
26 50 70 63 4410 3500 3150 4900 3969
27 52 64.46 65.12 4197.635 3351.92 3386.24 4155.092 4240.614
28 54 54.92 51 2800.92 2965.68 2754 3016.206 2601
29 51 70.31 75.08 5278.875 3585.81 3829.08 4943.496 5637.006
30 48 60 61.74 3704.4 2880 2963.52 3600 3811.828
31 25 61 64 3904 1525 1600 3721 4096
32 35 70.31 59.14 4158.133 2460.85 2069.9 4943.496 3497.54
33 67 66.6 55.55 3699.63 4462.2 3721.85 4435.56 3085.803
34 51 55 62 3410 2805 3162 3025 3844
35 31 51.38 57.56 2957.433 1592.78 1784.36 2639.904 3313.154
36 52 75.69 61.61 4663.261 3935.88 3203.72 5728.976 3795.792
37 38.11 64.65 45.67 2952.566 2463.812 1740.484 4179.623 2085.749
38 39 54 48 2592 2106 1872 2916 2304
39 39 69 64 4416 2691 2496 4761 4096
40 36 82 77 6314 2952 2772 6724 5929
Total 1875.97 2558.62 2518.69 161802.8 119912.2 118190.4 166420.1 160717.2
Calculations:
∑&
1) X̅1= '
X̅1= 2558.62/40
X̅1= 63.9655
∑&
2) X̅2= '
X̅2=2518.69/40
X̅2=62.96725
∑(
3) Y̅=
'
.
Y̅=

Y̅=46.89925
147
[ ∑& ∑ &( – ∑ & & . ∑ & ( ]
4) b1=
[ ∑ & ∑ & – ∑ && ]
[ . . – .. .]

b1= [ . . – . ]
[ ]

b1= [ ]

b1=
b1=0.262020587
[ ∑ & ∑ & ( – ∑ && . ∑ &( ]
5) b2=
[ ∑ & ∑ & – ∑ && ]
b2= [(166420.1) (118190.4) – (161802.8) (119912.2)]/ [(166420.1) (160717.2) –

(161802.8)2]
b2= [19669258187–19402129714] / [26746572496 – 26180146088]
b2= (267128473 / 566426408)
b2=0.471603
6) b0= Y̅- (b1 X̅1 – b2 X̅2)
b0= 46.89925 – [(0.262020587)(63.9655)] - [(0.471603)(62.96725)]
b0= 46.89925 - 16.76027786 - 29.695544
b0=0.443428141
7) Y= b0 +b1X1 +b2X2
After calculation of above now we can establish the regression as,
Y= 0.4434+ (0.2620)X1+(0.471603)X2
It means dependent variable i.e. CET score = 0.4434 times x1(HSC marks) plus
0.4716 times x2 (Graduation marks).
Now with this we can estimate the figure of dependent variables as well with
having known HSC and Graduation marks of candidate
51, 55, 62
Y = 0.4434(55)+ 0.4716 (62)
Y = 24.39 + 29.24
148
Y = 53.62
Actual figure of y is 51 and from our regression statement we got the figure
53.62 we got little deviation, but the estimated figure is close to 51.
Multiple Choice Questions:
1. Correlation is a statistical tool which studies the ………………..between two
variables
a. Relationship
b. Dependability
c. Independence
2. Correlation coefficient lies between plus 1 and …….
a. Plus 1
b. Minus 1
c. Zero
3. If r=0 then there is ………………. between the two variables
a. Perfect positive correlation
b. Perfect negative correlation
c. No correlation
d. Low positive correlation
4. The dependent variable in regression analysis is generally denoted by English
letter ……….
a. X
b. e
c. b
d. Y
149
5. In linear regression Y = a+bx+e the letter e stands for……………..
a. Dependent variable
b. Constant
c. Independent variable
d. Random error
4.9 Case 1: Calculate the correlation between HSC marks and graduation marks
using our collected data from MBA-II year students.
Case2: Calculate the correlation between Graduation marks and CET score using our
collected data from MBA-II year students.
Case 3: Calculate the correlation between CET score and HSC marks from MBA-II
year students.
HSC 61 70 65 60 55 51 64 58 80 76 81 60 63 57 65 72 55 55 60 83
Graduation 64 59 58 60 62 58 59 71 69 62 59 73 71 58 65 65 69 51 62 65
CET 25 35 91 38 51 31 48 60 23 52 79 36 46 45 52 40 55 54 48 41
Case 4: Work out the regression analysis and find out the dependability of graduation
score on HSC score.
Graduation 69.6 53.8 53 55.6 69.2 65 52 61.5 45.7 77 68.9 75.1 67.4 64 70 48 62 63 72.3 66
HSC 64.9 53.9 69.5 66.6 64.2 59 53 65.7 64.7 82 61.7 70.3 58.8 69 60 54 50 70 63.2 68.7
Section - III
4.10 Hypothesis Testing:
In chapter two we have studied in detail the process of formulation of
hypothesis; here we are going to study the process of hypothesis testing.
Just to remind that, Neave has proposed five steps of hypothesis testing as follows.
150
Five Step Method - Neave (1976)
Formulate the Practical Problem in Terms of Hypothesis
Calculate Statistics
Choose a Critical Region
Decide the Size of Critical Region
Conclusion: Comparision of Statistics with Significance Level
Source: (Compiled by Authors)

The above steps we have learned in details in chapter 2, now we are going to see
some practical problems using different statistical too
tools.
The data annexed has used for testing the hypothesis.
We have put to test five hypotheses as follows,
1. H01: The gender of students studying in MBA and their graduation are
independent.
2. H02: Parent’s current profession and students future plans are independent.
3. H03: There is no association between the income of parents and stay of vicinity.
4. H04: There is no significant difference between the CET score of MBA-I
MBA and
MBA-II
II year students.
5. H05: There is no significant difference between the agreement on output of
MBA syllabus among MBA
MBA-I and MBA-II Year students.
We will take our set hypotheses one by one to test.
4.10.1 Hypothesis: H01: The gender of students studying in MBA and their
graduation are independent
151
Here we have taken gender on nominal scale and graduation also on nominal scale
and we want to see whether these two variables are associated to each other or they
are independent means not associated to each other. See since both the variables are
measured on nominal scale hence we need to use chi-square test to find out
association between variables.
Formula to calculate chi-square test is as below.
,- .-
1) χ2cal = ∑/-0 .-
Where-
Oi = observed Frequencies
Ei = Expected Frequencies
2) χ2tab = (R-1) (C-1),α here we are calculating the degrees of freedom with the help
of this formula.
Where,
R= Number of rows
C= Number of columns
α= Level of significance
Observation Table:
Gender of Samples * Graduation Held Cross tabulation.
Graduation Held Total
B.Com. B.Sc. B.A. B.E. BBA/ Any
BCA Other
Gender Male Count 8 5 2 1 2 2 20
of Expected 7.5 6.5 1.0 1.5 2.5 1.0 20.0
Samples Count
Female Count 7 8 0 2 3 0 20
Expected 7.5 6.5 1.0 1.5 2.5 1.0 20.0
Count
Total Count 15 13 2 3 5 2 40
Expected 15.0 13.0 2.0 3.0 5.0 2.0 40.0
Count
152
Calculations:
Sr.No. Oi Ei (Oi-Ei) (Oi-Ei)2 Oi − Ei2/Ei
(Observed (Expected
frequency) frequency)
1 8 7.5 0.5 0.25 0.0333
2 5 6.5 -1.5 2.25 0.3462
3 2 1.0 1 1 1
4 1 1.5 -0.5 0.25 0.1667
5 2 2.5 -0.5 0.25 0.1
6 2 1.0 1 1 1
7 7 7.5 -0.5 0.25 0.0333
8 8 6.5 1.5 0.25 0.3462
9 0 1.0 -1 1 1
10 2 1.5 0.5 0.25 0.1667
11 3 2.5 0.5 0.25 0.1
12 0 1.0 -1 1 1
Total 40 Oi − Ei2/Ei
= 5.2924
From above table we calculate,

,- .-
χ2cal = ∑/-0
.-
χ2cal = 5.2924
and
χ2tab = (R-1) (C-1), α
= (2-1) (6-1), 0.05
= (1) (5), 0.05
χ2tab = 11.71
Calculated by using chi-square table at 0.05 level of significance
153
Result:
χ2cal =5.2924 <χ2tab=11.71
Hence, H0 i.e. null hypothesis is accepted at 5% level of significance and
alternative hypothesis is rejected.
Interpretation:
The gender of students studying in MBA and their graduation are independent.
It means there is no any association found between gender of students studying in
MBA and their graduation.
Note:
If the calculated value of chi-square is less than the table value then null
hypothesis is accepted and alternative hypothesis is rejected.
4.10.2 Hypothesis:
H02: Parent’s current profession and students future plans are independent.
Here also the case is same like above hypothesis. Both the variables have been
measured using nominal scale and hence, chi-square test has brought in use.
Observation Table:
Profession of Parents of Samples * Future Plan of Samples Cross tabulation
Future Plan of Samples Total
Business Self- Employme
Profession nt
al
Professio Count 3 0 15 18
n of Farmer Expecte
5.0 1.4 11.7 18.0
Parents of d Count
Samples Count 5 1 1 7
Business Expecte
1.9 .5 4.6 7.0
d Count
Self- Count 1 0 0 1
Professiona Expecte
0.3 0.1 0.7 1.0
l d Count
154
Count 2 2 10 14
Employmen
Expecte
t 3.9 1.1 9.1 14.0
d Count
Total Count 11 3 26 40
Expecte
11.0 3.0 26.0 40.0
d Count
Calculations:
Oi Ei
Oi − Ei2/Ei
Sr.No (Observed (Expected (Oi-Ei) (Oi-Ei)2
value) value)
1 3 5.0 -2 4 0.8
2 0 1.4 1.4 1.96 1.4
3 15 11.7 3.3 10.89 0.9308
4 5 1.9 3.1 9.61 5.0579
5 1 0.5 0.5 0.25 0.5
6 1 4.6 -3.6 12.69 2.8174
7 1 0.3 0.7 0.49 1.6333
8 0 0.1 -0.1 0.01 0.1
9 0 0.7 -0.7 0.49 0.7
10 2 3.9 -1.9 3.61 0.9256
11 2 1.1 0.9 0.81 0.7364
12 10 9.1 0.9 0.81 0.0890
Total 40 Oi − Ei2/Ei
=15.6904
From above table we can calculate,

χ2cal = Oi − Ei2/Ei
=15.6904
χ2tab= (R-1) (C-1), α
155
= (4-1) (3-1), 0.05
= (3) (2), 0.05
= 6, 0.05
χ2tab = 12.392 ….. Value calculated by using chi-square table at 5%
level of significance
Result:
χ2cal = 15.6964 >χ2tab=12.392
Hence H02 (Null Hypothesis) is rejected at 5% level of significance.
Interpretation:
Parent’s current profession and students future plans are associated.
4.10.3 Hypothesis:
HO4: There is no significant difference between the CET score of MBA-I and
MBA-II year students.
Here we have taken actual scores of students of CET from MBA-I year and
MBA-II year students. Now these two groups are different though we have taken a
common variable of score i.e. CET score. So to find the statistical difference between
these two series of data we are using independent sample‘t’ test to test the
hypothesis. The hypothesis we are going to test at 5% level of significance.
Formula:
So formula to calculate independent sample‘t’ test is,
t= (X̅i - X̅ii/S.E.)
Here,
X̅i = is mean of first series
X̅ii = is mean of second series
S.E. = Standard error of mean
Now how to calculate the S.E.
S.E. = s * √1/n1 + 1/n2
156
Now calculation of s = √n1s12 + n2s22/n1+n2-2 (here the value of s = value of
standard deviation)
&7 (7
tCal =
8√ /'9 /'
where,
S= standard derivation from the population
In this chapter at the beginning we have studied the calculation of standard
deviation by using the formula: [√ ( ∑ xi^2 /n) – ( ∑ xi/n)^2]
Now we are clear about the process and all the required formula are with us.
Let’s start for calculations.
First we will prepare a table as below which will facilitate data for further
calculations.
MBA12 MBA22
MBA1 CET MBA2 CET Square of column 1 Square of column 2
Score (x) Score (y) (x2) (y2)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
36 25 1296 625
35 35 1225 1225
29.8 91 888.04 8281
67 38 4489 1444
20.5 51 420.25 2601
94.45 31 8920.803 961
40 48 1600 2304
43 60 1849 3600
38.11 23 1452.372 529
36 52 1296 2704
49 79 2401 6241
51 36 2601 1296
39 46 1521 2116
39 45 1521 2025
78 52 6084 2704
39 40 1521 1600
157
38 55 1444 3025
50 54 2500 2916
52.11 48 2715.452 2304
51 41 2601 1681
925.97 950.00 48345.92 50182.00
Now we have basic calculations ready with us.

We need to calculate mean of MBA- I and II CET scores
∑:-
1. X̅= /-
= 925.97/20 = 46.30
∑;-
2. Y̅= = 950.00/20 = 47.50
/
Now let’s calculate the standard deviation of both the series.

S.D. of MBA-I CET Score
= [√ ( ∑ xi^2 /n) – ( ∑ xi/n)^2] = (√ (48345.92/20)-((925.97/20)2)
= √ 2417.30-2143.55
= √ 273.74
= 16.55
S.D. of MBA-II CET Score
= (√(50182.00/20)-(950.00/20)2)
= (√2509.1 – 2256.25)
= √252.85
= 15.90
Now we should calculate standard error for which we need value of s (refer formula
above of calculation of s)
S= √(20*16.552)+(20*15.902)/20+20-2
= √5478.05+5056.2/38
= √277.2
= 16.64
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Now calculate the figure of standard error
S.E. = s * √1/n1 + 1/n2
= 16.64 * s * √1/20+1/20
= 5.2620
Now we have calculated all the values we require to calculate the value of ‘t’
‘t’ = (X̅i - X̅ii/S.E.)
= (46.30-47.50)/5.2620
‘t’ = - 0.228
After calculating the value of‘t’ we need to check the value of table value of‘t’
We have decided to test the hypothesis at 5% level of significance. So to find
out table value we have to use following formulation. The table value has to sort out
from the tables given at the end of statistic book.
<
7. ttab = t(n-1), (two tailed test)
where,
n= total number of samples
α= degree of freedom
Calculation of degrees of freedom – (c-1) (r-1) = (2-1) (20-1) = (1) (19) = 19 so
degrees of freedom is 19, hence, in the table titled, ‘Students t Distribution’ at the
end of any statistic reference book, first column denotes the degrees of freedom in
our case the degrees of freedom is 19 so we have to point out 19 figure and we have
decided to test the hypothesis at 5% level of significance. Here one point we have to
remember this is two tailed test hence the value of alpha (α) in our case 5% is to be
divided in 2 so it comes to 0.025. We have to find out figure which intersect 19
degrees of freedom at 0.25 alpha level that figure comes to 2.093 so that table value
of ‘t’ is 2.093. This table value we have to compare it with calculated value i.e. -
0.228
So here calculated‘t’ is -0.228 is less than table value of‘t’ 2.093
i.e. -0.228 < 2.093, so our interpretation is accept the null hypothesis and reject the
alternative hypothesis.
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There is no significant difference between the CET score of MBA-I and MBA-II
year students.
Multiple choice questions
1. Chi-square test is used to find the …………….. between variables.
a. Association
b. Relation
c. Dependency
2. In the formula of chi-square test the letter Ei denotes ………………..
a. Observed frequencies
b. Expected frequencies
c. Column data
d. Row data
3. In hypothesis testing the term alpha (α) refers to ……………
a. Degrees of freedom
b. Level of confidence
c. Level of significance
4. When the value of calculated test statistics is less than table value then null
hypothesis is ……………
a. Accepted
b. Rejected
c. No action is taken
5. The measurement scale preferred to test the hypothesis using‘t’ test is …………
a. Nominal scale
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b. Ordinal scale
c. Interval and ratio scale
4.12 Test following two hypotheses. (The data is provided in the annexure
number 3)
Case problem 1: Test the hypothesis. H03: There is no association between the
income of parents and stay of vicinity i.e. residential location. 5% level of
Significance.
Case Problem 2: Test the hypothesis. There is no significant difference between the
agreement on output of MBA syllabus among MBA-I and MBA-II Year students.
5% level of significance.
Section - IV
4.13 Report Writing:
This chapter section helps to understand report writing. Meaning and purpose of
report, various types to write a report. Most importantly, project report invariably
students need to undertake as a part of partial fulfillment of professional course like
MBA.
Introduction:
In the entire process of research, report writing is one of inseparable part. It is
considered to be the end task of research which is not true. Report is written at
completion of entire research work but its planning is done at beginning. In research
design the scheme of report writing and its layout is determined.
The very word report conveys its meaning and purpose. Report means reporting
it to somebody. In the research parlance report mean, whatever researcher has studied
on the basis of research design is to be reported to expected audience viz.
Experts, students dealing in research as a part of their curriculum, researchers dealing
in the subject in which your research indulge in and the like.
Report writing is science and art. The writing flows through few stages.
Different types of reports have specific defined parts which are needed to be
understood and follow. Writing is an art as well since report is a written
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communication of research to others. The communication expected to be very clear
and should communicate the same results which researcher mean to be.
Presentation of Subject Matter
4.13.1 Nature:
Research report presents results of formal investigation preferably in a written
form. Now-a-days a document carries few pages called report is also presented in
electronic form.
Research report carries major three aspects
1. Research problem under investigation
2. Methodology adopted to address research problem
3. Outcomes or results of investigation.
Research report is self explanatory since it is presented to a layperson. Report is
written in a manner which is clearly followed by a reader in the absence of
researcher.
4.13.2 Various types of reports
Dr. V. P. Michael in his book has classified report on the basis of approach and on
the basis of nature of presentation.
On the basis of approach
1. Journalistic report – report by journalist for publication in the media termed as
journalistic reports
2. Business report and memorandum – report for business communication from
one department head to another, one functional area to another or ever from top
to bottom in the organization.
3. Project reports - report on a project undertaken by an individual or a group of
individuals relating to any functional area or any segment of a functional area.
4. Dissertation – is a detailed report on the subject of study.
5. Enquiry reports – detailed report prepared by a committee or a commission
appointed for specific purpose of conducting a detailed study of any matter of
dispute or of a subject requiring greater insight.
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6. Thesis – a detailed report on the research problem under investigation. This
generally used as documents to be submitted for getting higher research degrees
from a university or an academic institution.
On the basis of nature of presentation
1. Inductive report – the report, which has a beginning, middle and an end. This
report goes from the specifics (facts, figures, and materials of research) to
general conclusions, summary, recommendations etc. eg. Academic research
reports.
2. Deductive report – the pattern of presentation is from general to the specific i.e.
from the more important to the less important. eg. Report writing accepted in
the business world.
3. Step by step report – simply present the material step by step. It is a way of
presenting events or steps in an operation frequently following one another in
point of time. eg. reports on manufacturing operations. Enquiry reports are
generally written step by step.
4. Time sequence report – it is like step by step report but gives greater emphasis
on the time element.
4.13.3 Layout of project report
A report consists of three broad sections one is introductory section second is
body of report and third is supplementary section. Each section envelops different
contents.
A. Introductory section – this contents
1. Title Page: title page contents, title of the research, name of researcher or author,
publication, date, name of research institute etc.
2. Certificate and declaration: Certificate issued by company where project is
undertaken need to be given as a part of procedure. Certificate should be on the
company letter head, signed by authorized person, stamped and should have date
and outward number. Certificate issued by guide and declaration of researcher
also need to be given as a part of procedure.
3. Acknowledgement: researcher, author extends gratitude to people and agencies
helped directly or indirectly to complete research work.
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4. Executive Summery – Executive summery is crux of research report which is
most readable part since, it gives clear idea in brief about research done.
Executive summery arouses interest into the mind of reader about reading a
complete report.
5. Table of contents i.e Index.
B. Main body –
1. Opening section – includes definition of the problem, problem area, rationale of
the study, objective of the study, methodology of the study, sources of data,
hypothesis, scope and limitations of the study etc.
2. Section headings – classification and tabulation of data, analysis and
interpretation, identifying variables and establishing their relationships, detailed
investigation etc.
3. Concluding section – includes mainly findings, conclusions and suggestions.
C. Final section or supplementary section:
1. Appendix – supportive material which is not appropriate to provide in the main
body but the mention of such material has made in main body need to be
appended to quench of curiosity of readers.
2. Technical aspects –maps and data collection instruments like, schedule,
questionnaire etc.
3. Bibliography: list of references used for study undertaken.
Chapterization:
The study revolves around a research or management problem presented in a
systematic manner for readers. Presentation of project report with help of chapters is
Inductive type of report. Invariably project report housed following five chapters i.e.
chapterization also termed as organization of project.
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study, the chapter also titled as, Research
Methodology. The chapter contains research methodology adopted for study.
Chapter 2: Profile of Company (or any organization/ village/ district/ state/ country/
sector/ industry etc.) , this chapter contains briefing of company where project is
undertaken.
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Chapter 3: Theoretical Background (or review of literature), the chapter carries
concepts based for research project.
Chapter 4: Data Presentation and Analysis, this chapter presents collected data and
presented preferably in tabular form with analysis and interpretation.
Chapter 5: Findings and Suggestions, this is the last chapter based on earlier chapter
for its contents.
4.13.4 Writing a Research Report (Contains of chapters):
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Study
This chapter is expected to give technical information about the framework
adopted for the project work. It should be written in specific words i.e. in the words
of research and generally runs to six to seven pages. This chapter should be expected
to be sub divided into the following sub heads. The matter under each of these sub
heads should be technically clear and self explanatory.
a. Research Problem or Management Problem – it is a problem observed in society
or market and in case of case study type of research it is a problem unearth in a
single unit. Research problem or management problem is vague in nature and
touches various perspectives and sub functional area of management. This point
of research problem may end up with number of questions raised in the mind of
students of which answers can be sought scientifically to tackle existing
problem.
b. Statement of research problem – from amongst various questions raised above in
research problem one prominent question or the question of students interested
functional area of management can be taken for study. This is perspective to
approach a problem. Since the research problem is very vague in nature cannot
be taken as it is for study. It needs to be converted into researchable statement
termed as statement of research problem.
c. Objectives of the study or project – here objectives behind undertaking project
should be stated. Objective of study is/are statement for which the study has
been undertaken. The statement should be small, clear and should carry specific
meaning. One objective statement should not inter-link another objective, which
may mislead reader. Statement of objective should start with word ‘To’.
Objective should be co-related with title of project study.
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d. Importance of the project –the reasons why student considers project to be
important or significant are to be stated.
e. Scope of the study –scope or the extent or depth or coverage of study is to be
stated here. The information about following aspects is necessary.
i. Period covered by study – i.e. records used in case of secondary data and
period work in case of primary data.
ii. Units or departments covered in study.
iii. Number of persons contacted, surveyed etc.
Scope of project study should also include geographical scope, conceptual
scope, analytical scope (like fulfillment of objectives set for study) and functional
scope (like offering meaningful suggestions for improving research problem).
d. Data details – the information about following aspects of data is to be given.
i. Type of data – whether data is primary or secondary in nature.
ii. Sources of data –sources of data i.e. previous records etc. should be stated
in specific terms i.e. attendance register, interview of employees etc.
iii. Method and extent of selection of source of data – whether the census,
probability sampling or non probability sampling was adopted or whether
any other criteria were applied for selection of source of data is to be given.
iv. Technique or instrument of data collection – the techniques used i.e.
observation, questionnaire, scheduled, interviews, discussions, group
discussion etc need to be stated.
v. System of presentation and analysis of data – the system followed in
presentation and analysis of data is to be stated here i.e. tabulation,
description etc.
e. Concept and operational definitions – the definitions of the key words of the
criterion, formulas considered to be basic importance for study are to be given.
f. Limitations –difficulties experienced while conducting study are to be stated.
Only such difficulties, which are not in form of excuses, are expected to be
stated. These difficulties may be of following nature.
i. The duration of the study i.e. two months may not be sufficient to give
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justice to your work.
ii. Problem of communication with some labourers due to language barrier.
iii. Non-availability of certain data. But it must be noted that if the difficulties
experienced are of basic nature then they cannot be mentioned as limitation.
If student has no data to present, as data was not made available to him, he
cannot plead it as a limitation. Student must change project itself in such
case.
Chapter 2 Profile of Company
This chapter is expected to give in brief information about the general
background operation of the industrial unit in which the project report was
undertaken. The expected length of this chapter should be about ten pages. Usually,
the information in relation to the following points may be included in this chapter.
a. Name of the industrial unit.
b. Location of the unit (address).
c. Name (s) of the subsidiaries and location details.
d. Brief history of the unit.
e. History of promoters.
f. Present position of the unit. The information about product(s) of the company,
services provided, etc. is to be included under this head.
g. Financial position – this should include information in brief about capital
structure, assets, sale, turnover, profits etc. preferably of last three years and the
researchers comment on the same from financial management point of view.
The information regarding the financial position can be gathered from the
organization’s balance sheet.
h. Manpower – this should include the information about number of departments
and number of employees working under each department. The tabular
presentation of data is expected.
i. Important milestones achieved by the unit, e.g. received ISO 9000 certification,
development new version of product, commencement of exports etc.
j. Future plans of company
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k. Organizational chart to append at the end of this chapter to give bird eye view of
the unit. If the unit doesn’t have organizational chart then prepare it.
It is expected that chapter should give overall picture of unit and industry as
such.
Chapter 3: Theoretical Background
This chapter is expected to give a theoretical basis of the topic of the project
undertaken. Suitable theoretical background should be carefully presented in a
precise and specific manner. The matter from any textbook printed work should not
be copied out as it is. It should be presented by the students in their own words after
careful reading and understanding the contents.
Definitions, quotations and diagrams, figures charts developed by experts may
be borrowed from text -books which should be acknowledged through footnotes. The
footnotes are given at the bottom of the page. The footnote should be presented in the
same fashion, as bibliography and the numbering should be done to the borrowed
text and respective footnotes. Care should be taken that the footnote references
should appear in bibliography. For maintaining decency and sequence in footnote
Microsoft Ms-Word provides insertion function the menu is: references – footnotes –
Insert Footnote. At the end of borrowed text or figure cursor should be placed
and given menu command be executed for facilitation of footnote. The chapter
should not exceed 20% of the total number of pages of the project report.
Chapter 4: Presentation and Analysis of Data
Collected data is systematically presented in this chapter. The data presented in
logical sequence. The data may also include many responses or figures. Collected
data is of two types one is quantitative and another is qualitative. Quantitative data is
presented with the help of tables and qualitative data can be presented in chapter
itself. Qualitative data is presented in descriptive form and used to support the
quantitative data.
Quantitative data presented in table in a systematic way. Table has a specific layout.
Table: 4.1. (Title of the table):
Little description related to title as to what exactly has given in following table.
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Sr.No. Particulars/Description Frequency Percentage
1 2 3 4
Total
Source: (Filed data) Analysis Interpretation
It is also necessary to note that every table must have reference number and title.
Similarly, every row and column of a table must have a reference number and a
subheading. Title of table should be followed by little description of what exactly has
been given in the table. This would help to give general idea to reader on the table
contain. Every table carries source which refers origin of data. In case of data
collected from samples the source is, ‘field data’ and in case of secondary data,
source should be document, book, website from where data has taken for study.
The tables should be explained in their logical sequence. They must also be
numbered in sequence.
Collected data is discussed below the table. Effort has been made to give
meaning to figures in table since figures does not speak on its own. It is duty of
researcher to give meaning to figures. Analysis also includes finding relationship
between two figures to draw meaningful conclusion. Analyzed data is needed to be
interpreted. A conclusion needs to draw at the end of comprehensive data discussion.
Chapter 5 Findings and Suggestions
The purpose of this chapter is to summarize previous chapter 4 in a precise
manner or draw conclusions on the basis of data analyzed in chapter 4 in a precise
manner and suggest measures to improve the situation. This chapter therefore is to be
divided into two subsections as show below.
a. Findings–
Findings are factual results or decisions arrived at on the basis of data analyzed
or explained in chapter 4. It is therefore clear that this chapter cannot have any
conclusions which are not borne out by justified on the basis of data given in chapter
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4. The findings must be given in the form of definite precise and specific statements.
They should be serially numbered. The order of statements of findings should be
according to the sequence of interpretation of data followed in chapter 4.
A further subdivision of findings may be thought of if necessary i.e. General
findings and specific findings. General findings are findings based on the overall
picture of interpretation or explanation of data. Specific findings are based on a
specific part of data interpreted, analyzed, or explained. In such a case, all general
findings must be stated first and then specific findings should be stated each,
subdivision should have a fresh serial number. Order of stating the findings within
this subdivision should be as found in chapter 4.
b. Suggestion -
Suggestions are definite steps or measures recommended for improvement of
the situation. They must be based on findings. Therefore, it is clear that in this part
no suggestions can be stated which are not borne out by, justified by, or based on the
findings. The suggestions should be in the form of definite, precise and specific
statements. They should be serially numbered. They should be concrete plan of
action and should be capable of implementation. If findings are subdivided into
general and specific findings, a similar plan should be followed in giving
suggestions. General suggestions pertaining to or on the basis of general conclusions
and specific suggestions based on specific findings should be given. These must be
separately numbered under each head.
Appendices
It means addition to the original part. Appendices are plural of the word
Appendix. This is not a separate chapter. The document charts, questionnaires,
tables, schedules etc. which are actually referred to in the body of the project report
(this consists of chapters I to VI) are to be included under appendix or appendices.
So, appendices may include.
Questionnaires used for collecting information.
Schedules used for collecting information.
Tables formed for presenting the data.
Documents/forms etc., refereed to in body of project report.
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Diagram, graphs etc. referred to in body of project report.
Each type of appendix must have a common or classified serial number for
facility of quick reference and mention in the body of project report. Every appendix
must have a self-explanatory heading. In case of tables etc. all vertical, horizontal
columns must also have sub headings and column numbers.
It should be specifically noted that no documents, table, chart etc. which is not
refereed to or mentioned specifically should be included in the appendix.
Bibliography:
Bibliography means list of books, journals, published work actually referred to
or used in writing of project report. This is not a separate chapter. Bibliography has
to be written in a specific manner. It must be in following manner.
The name of author (surname followed by initials), title of the book (is to be
underline), year of publication, place of publication, number of the edition, name of
the publisher in full (address), pages referred to.
4.13.5 IN SHORT THE FORM OF PROJECT REPORT IS AS GIVEN
BELOW
Preface
a) Title Page
b) Certificates and declarations
c) Acknowledgements. Synopsis/ executive summery Index
Chapter Description Page Number
Chapter 1: Introduction to Study

a. Research Problem
b. Statement of research problem
c. Objectives of the study
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d. Importance of the project
e. Scope of the study
f. Data – type, sources, method and/or techniques
g. Limitations
h. Chapterization
Chapter 2 : Profile of Company
a. Name of the unit
b. Location or address of the unit
c. Brief history of the unit and present position
d. Financial position
e. Manpower
Chapter 3: Theoretical Background
Chapter 4: Data Presentation and Analysis Chapter 5: Findings and Suggestions
Appendices
Bibliography
The Arrangements of Chapters is the Discretion of Research Guide.
4.13.6 Writing Executive Summary
Executive summery comes first in report but written at the completion of entire
research work. It is crux of study undertaken preferably includes non technical data.
Some important technical issues pertaining to core research problem may be
accommodated.
Executive summery is a page or two in length. Major parts of summery includes
research problem under study, methodology adopted for study, major findings related
to objectives and conclusion.
Summery serves as bird eye view of entire research efforts. Academic research
reports and preferably business reports carry executive summery. Researcher dealing
in academic research does not include summery in report but in case of business
report it begins with executive summery.
The general Skelton of executive summery is as below:
Title of study
1. Introduction
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2. Research problem
3. Statement of research problem
4. Methodology – in one paragraph highlighting important aspects of research
methodology viz. objectives of study, sampling, instrument used, data analysis
tools used etc.
5. Major findings and discussion.
Business reports invariably carries executive summery in report itself but
research report does not carry such summery. The summery in form of synopsis is
submitted independently be student or researcher in five to ten copies.
4.13.7 Language and Formatting in Research Report
4.13.7.1 Language of report
Generally the report is written only on one side of the paper. But now owing to
environmental consciousness printing of report is done on both sides of paper. The
need to written ligile since it is to be read by others. Use small sentences for better
understanding and also need to use the words commonly knows. Wisecracks might
mislead the very meaning of sentence we want to convey.
While writing a report the combination of past tense and present tense needs to
be used. While citing the findings of others and describing the conduct of study the
past tense needs to be used. Present perfect tense is to be used in presenting findings
of the study. We write the report in third gender it means we do not use the words I,
You, We while writing the narration. We use the term ‘researcher’ while writing the
detailing and narrations.
Few important cares has to be taken while writing the report as follows.
1. Do not use any short forms. All words must be written in long form and in full.
2. Contents once written in the report should not be repeated in different places in
the report.
3. The chapters, sections in the chapters, titles, sub titles must be planned and
executed.
4. Every chapter should have number and the title of the chapter should be written
in capital letters.
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5. The beginning of sentence should be in capital letter. In between the sentence
the unnecessary use of capital letter should be avoided.
6. When the sentence is to begin with a number i.e. figure then the write the figure
in words.
These few writing instructions should be followed.
4.13.7.2 Page Layout of Report
It is said that the page layout of report should be such that every page should
look like as a photo frame. Following are few points to consider while doing layout
of a research report.
1. Page size: A4 Executive Bond quality of paper is preferred for final project,
dissertation and thesis printing. Dumy quality paper is preferred for rest printing
than final printing.
2. Margins: on the left 1.5 inches, other sides’s 1 inches. If the number of pages in
the report exceeds 400 then the left margin should increase.
If the report is to be printed at both side of the page then mirror margin is to be
kept.
3. Font: Times New Roman , Font Size: for chapter headings: 16 ft
For titles: 14 ft.
For sub titles: 12ft.
For regular text: 12 ft.
Avoid unnecessary marking of bold letters.
4. Insert guided headers and footers. Generally header is chapter title and footer is
name of institution.
5. Insert page numbers preferably printed at the bottom right corner of the page
In case of mirror margin insert page numbers at the bottom center is preferred.
6. Spacing: spacing of regular text should be 1.5. Spacing of table should be 1,
spacing of mere list of points should also be 1, spacing between table number
and table heading should be 1.
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4.14 Check your progress
4.14 Fill in the blanks.
1. Time sequence report has greater emphasis on ……………. Element.
2. Academic research reports are of ……………… report type.
3. Pattern of presentation of …………… type of report flows from more important
to less important.
4. Executive summery is a ………. Of research report.
5 ………….. is a list of references used for study undertaken.
4.15 Summary:
This chapter is fusion of two important concepts in research one is analysis and
interpretation of data and another is report writing.
We have learned from previous three chapters the different dimensions of
research designs. Now it is time to analyze and interpret the data when data is
collected. The data analysis is done objectively hence the statistical tools to be
selected to analyze the data need due consideration. Measures of central tendency
viz. mean, mode and median helps to find out the central figure in data series
whereas the measured of dispersion viz. range, standard deviation and variance helps
to identify variation in the data set. Every measure of central tendency and measure
of dispersion has formula to calculate.
Correlation and regression are another interesting statistical tools helps to
establish the relationship between variables. Correlation narrates the relationship in
figures ranging from -1 to +1 perfect negative correlation to perfect positive
correlation. Correlation is followed by regression. Regression analysis determines the
relationship between two variables on the basis of dependability or impact of one
variable on another. Hence we have a linear regression model i.e. Y = a+bx+e where
Y is dependent variable.
Hypothesis is skeptical assumption about desired results of research undertaken.
Hypothesis is central cord of any research and the entire research design in revolve
around the hypothesis set for study. The major types of hypothesis we have studied
in earlier chapters. The set hypothesis needs to be tested. The testing follows five
steps one is formulate the hypothesis i.e. practical problem second is calculate the
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statistics using relevant statistical tool third is choose the critical region then fourth
step is decide the size of critical region i.e. 1%, 5% and 10% level of significance
and the last compare the test statistics with standard table value to arrive at
conclusion towards null hypothesis. Whether the statistics support to accept null
hypothesis or reject the null hypothesis. There are various statistical tools available to
test the hypothesis. Every tool has its own conditions of applications which needs to
be carefully studied and select the appropriate tool for testing the hypothesis.
Report is written at the end of research but its planning is done at the beginning
of which mention is made in the research design. Research report is a systematic
process of unfolding entire research using different sections or chapters for lucidity.
Report writing is science as well as art. Science mean it has a specific way to write
the aspects and art mean the way of presentation and language should be clear to
make understand researcher’s views or facts in understandable manner. Report is
written owing to reporting facts to lay persons, which may be read in absence of
researcher hence, while writing a report precaution is to be taken that in absence of
researcher the facts, figures, explanation mentioned in report should clearly be
followed by readers. Research report often comes along with executive summery.
Executive summery is a synoptic presentation of entire research carried by
researcher. The quality report also comes with quality of language uses as well as
quality of layout of report.
1. Analysis of data: Data analysis means searching and showing the relationship
between or among the tabulated data. Analysis shows the pattern of correlation
between the data.
2. Interpretation of Data: Interpretation is drawing inferences from the data.
3. Measure of Central Tendency: Measures of central tendency are a value attempt
to describe the central position of the set of data.
4. Statistical tools of Measures of Central Tendency: mean, median and mode.
5. Measures of Dispersion: Dispersion refers to the spread of the data how one data
point is spread from another data point.
6. Variance: The variance is the square of standard deviation and is denoted by 2.
7. Statistical tools to measure dispersion: Range, Coefficient of range, standard
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deviation, coefficient of standard deviation, Variance.
8. Correlation: Correlation is a statistical tool which studies the relationship
between two variables.
9. Regression: Regression is a statistical measure that attempts to determine the
strength of the relationship between one dependent variable (Y) and a series of
other changing variables (independent variables) (X).
10. Five steps of hypothesis testing: first is formulate the practical problem in terms
of hypothesis, second is calculate statistics, third is choose a critical region
fourth is decide the size of critical region and the last is conclusion i.e. compare
calculated test statistics with table statistics.
,- .-
11. Chi-square test: χ2cal = ∑/-0 .-
12. Degrees of freedom: for one sample it is (n-1) and for two and more samples it
is (C-1)*(R-1).
13. The formula to calculate independent sample‘t’ is, t= (X̅i - X̅ii/S.E.)
14. The formula to calculate standard error is, S.E. = s * √1/n1 + 1/n2
15. Types of Reports: on the basis of approach – journalistic report, business report
and memorandum, project report, dissertation, enquiry reports and thesis.
16. On the basis of nature of presentation – inductive report, deductive report, step
by step report, time sequence report.
17. Layout of Project Report – introductory section includes title page, certificate
and declaration, acknowledgement, executive summery and table of contents.
18. Main body includes, opening section, section headings and concluding section.
19. Final section or supplementary section includes appendix, technical aspects and
bibliography.
20. Chapterization – contains five chapters, introduction to the study, profile of
company, theoretical background, data presentation and analysis and last chapter
is findings and suggestions.
21. Executive summery- crux of entire report.
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4.17 Answers to Check your progress:
Section – I
Ans: Multiple Choice Questions
MCQ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans: c d a a c b a a d a
Ans. Case Example 1:

Mean 47.5 Median 47 Mode 48 & 52
Range 68 Coefficient 0.5996 Standard 15.90 Coefficient 0.3347
of Range Deviation of s.d.
Variance 3.987
Section – II
Multiple Choice Questions:
Question number Answer option
1 a
2 b
3 c
4 d
5 d
Case Problem Answer

1 Correlation between HSC and graduation marks 0.130
2 Correlation between graduation marks and CET Score - 0.246
3 Correlation between CET score and HSC marks 0.028
4 Regression analysis a = 29.8568
x1 = 0.5219
179
Section – III
1 2 3 4 5
MCQ’s a b c a c
Solution Case 1:
Hypothesis: H03: There is no association between the income of parents and stay
of vicinity.
5% level of Significance.
Again the variables income of parents and stay of vicinity have measured on
nominal scale and hence, to check the association between these two variables Chi-
Square test has been used.
Observation Table
Vicinity of Stay * Annual Family Income of Samples Household Cross tabulation.
Annual Family Income of Samples Total
Household
Below 5 to 10 10 to 15 15 to
5 Lakhs Lakhs Lakhs 20
Lakhs
Vicinity Rural Count 17 6 1 0 24
of Stay Expected
17.4 4.2 1.2 1.2 24.0
Count
Urban Count 12 1 1 2 16
Expected
11.6 2.8 0.8 0.8 16.0
Count
Total Count 29 7 2 2 40
Expected
29.0 7.0 2.0 2.0 40.0
Count
180
Calculation:
Sr.N Oi Ei (Oi-Ei) (Oi-Ei)2 (Oi-Ei)2/Ei
o. (Observed (Expected
frequency) frequency)
1 17 17.4 -0.4 0.16 0.0092
2 6 4.2 1.8 3.24 0.7714
3 1 1.2 -0.2 0.04 0.0333
4 0 1.2 -1.2 1.44 1.2
5 12 11.6 0.4 0.16 0.0138
6 1 2.8 -1.8 3.24 1.1571
7 1 0.8 0.2 0.04 0.05
8 2 0.8 1.2 1.44 1.8
Total N=40 (Oi-Ei)2/Ei=
5.0348
from above table we can calculated
,- .-
χ2cal= ∑/-0
.-
=5.0346
2) χ2tab = (R-1) (C-1), α
= (2-1) (4-1), 0.05
= (1) (3), 0.05
= 3, 0.05
χ2tab = 7.815
….….. Value calculated by using chi-square table at 5%
level of significance
Result: χ2cal =5.0348<χ2tab=7.815
Hence, H03 (Null hypothesis) is accepted at 5% level of significance.
Interpretation:
There is no association between the income of parents and stay of vicinity.
181
Solution Case 2:
H0: There is no significant difference between the agreement on output of MBA
syllabus among MBA-I and MBA-II Year students. 5% level of significance.
This hypothesis is same as above where both variables have been measured using
ratio scale data which is considered to be very pure data in statistics. Since the MBA-
I and MBA-II students are different and we have to check the statistical difference
between these two data series, we are applying independent sample‘t’ test.
Solution:
The data given is presented in column 1 and 2. The squares of data have been
worked out in column 3 and 4.
MBA1 MBA2 Square of Column 1 Square of Column 2
(1) (2) (3) (4)
3.29 4 10.82 16.00
4.14 4.29 17.14 18.40
4 4.29 16.00 18.40
4.57 3 20.88 9.00
3.29 4.71 10.82 22.18
3.43 4.43 11.76 19.62
4.57 3.86 20.88 14.90
4 3 16.00 9.00
3.86 3.86 14.90 14.90
3.71 3.71 13.76 13.76
3.71 3.71 13.76 13.76
3.86 3.14 14.90 9.86
3.86 2.57 14.90 6.60
3.43 3.29 11.76 10.82
3 4.57 9.00 20.88
4.71 3.71 22.18 13.76
4.29 3.86 18.40 14.90
3 4.14 9.00 17.14
182
3.71 3.86 13.76 14.90
3.71 4.14 13.76 17.14
Total of all columns
76.14 76.14 294.43 295.96
Calculate means of two series

MBA-I = 76.14/20 = 3.807
MBA-II = 76.14/20 = 3.807 (see here means of both the series are same, if you
remember the formula of independent sample‘t’ test then in numerator we have to
make subtraction of both means, in this case the subtraction is going to be zero (0)
and zero is divided by any value comes to zero hence the value of‘t’ is going to be
zero only. Let’s calculate.
Calculation of standard deviations
MBA-I = (√(294.43/20)-( 76.14/20)2 ) = (√14.72-14.49) = 0.48
MBA-II = (√(295.96/20)-( 76.14/20)2 ) = (√14.80-14.49) = 0.57
Calculation of standard error
Calculation of s
S = √(20*0.482)+(20*0.572)/20+20-2 = √(4.61+6.50)/38 = 0.2923
Calculation of standard error
= 0.2923*√1/20+1/20
= 0.09243
Calculation of‘t’ test
= (3.807-3.807)/ 0.09243
=0
Result:
tcal = 0 < ttab = 2.093
Hence H05 is accepted at 5% level of significance.
Interpretation:
183
There is no significant difference between the agreement on output of MBA
syllabus among MBA-I and MBA-II year students. 5% level of significance.
Section – IV
Answers to check your progress
1. Time
2. Inductive
3. Deductive
4. Crux
5. Bibliography
4.18 Exercise:
1. What is data analysis and interpretation?
2. Define the measures of central tendency with their formula to calculate.
3. Define the measures of dispersion with their formula to calculate.
4. Narrate the concept of correlation with its types.
5. Describe the process of attempting regression problem.
6. Narrate five step methods to test the hypothesis.
7. Describe the process of using independent sample‘t’ test.
8. Define Report. Give the types of report.
9. Explain the layout of report.
10. What is chapterization? What are the contains of chapters?
1. V.P.Michel, Research Methodology in Management, Himalaya Publishing
House, Delhi.
2. Aczel Amil D and Sounderpandian Jayavel, Complete Business Statistics, . The
MacGraw-Hill Companies, 6th edition, 2006, Mumbai.
3. Arora P.N., Arora Sumeet, Arora S., Comprehensive Statistical Methods,
S.Chand, 2007, New Delhi.
184
4. Sachdeva J.K., Business Research Methodology, Himalaya Publishing House,
2nd revised edition 2011, Mumbai.
5. Kothari C.R. & Gaurav Garg, ‘Research Methodology – Methods and
Techniques, New Age International Publishers, 3rd edition, 2014, New Delhi.
4.20 Annexure: 01:
Google form used to collect the data from students.
Sr. Question Options Facilitated
1. Gender Male / Female
2. Class MBA-I /MBA-II
3. Graduation B.Com. /B.Sc. /B.A. /B.E./ BBA-BCA / Any Other
4. Vicinity Rural / Urban
5. Parent Profession Farmer/ Business /Self Professional /Employment
6. Family Income Below 5 lakhs/ 5 to 10 lakhs/10 to 15 lakhs/15 to 20
lakhs
7. Your Future Plan Farmer/ Business/ Self Professional/ Employment
Regarding MBA Syllabus
Rate the statement on five point likert scale
Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Strongly
Disagree Agree nor Agree
Disagree
1 2 3 4 5
Statement Rating
8. The syllabus structure is quite interesting and you like it.
9. The syllabus offered is contemporary and meet industry
requirements.
10. The subjects offered are quite relevant syllabus offered is
contemporary and meet industry requirements.
11. Practicals in the syllabus gives exposure to the real life of
business and management.
12. The open book examination helps in development of decision
making skills.
13. The syllabus seems to be compatible with other universities
and autonomous institutes.
185
14. The electives offered are quite relevant to the industry
demand.
Annexure 02: Coding of Variables:
Following table narrates the coding of variables used in Ms-Excel sheet for feeding
the data.
Note: The difference between above format and following format is of coding.
Above format is not coded but yes following format have coding. This coding helps
data entry into electronic spreadsheet.
Q.No. Description Code Variables.
1 Gender 1 Male
2 Female
2 Class 1 MBA-I
2 MBA-II
3 Graduation 1 B.Com.
2 B.Sc.
3 B.A.
4 B.E.
5 BBA/BCA
6 Any Other
4 Vicinity 1 Rural
2 Urban
Parent
5 Profession 1 Farmer
2 Business
3 Self Professional
4 Employment
6 Family Income 1 Below 5 lakhs
186
2 5 to 10 lakhs
3 10 to 15 lakhs
4 15 to 20 lakhs
Your Future
7 Plan 1 Farmer
2 Business
3 Self Professional
4 Employment
Regarding The syllabus structure is quite interesting and you

8 MBA Syllabus a1 like it.
The syllabus offered is contemporary and meet
a2 industry requirements.
The subjects offered are quite relevant syllabus
offered is contemporary and meet industry
a3 requirements.
Practicals in the syllabus gives exposure to the real
a4 life of business and management.
The open book examination helps in development
a5 of decision making skills.
The syllabus seems to be compatible with other
a6 universities and autonomous institutes.
The electives offered are quite relevant to the
a7 industry demand.
187
Annexure 03: Data Sheet:
MBA-I
Annua
Parents l Your Summat
Gende Clas Gradu Ag Vicini HS Gradu
Sr. profess family CET future a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7 ed
r s ation e ty C ation
ion incom plan Score
e
1 1 1 6 22 1 1 1 64.9 69.6 36 4 4 3 3 4 3 3 3 3.29
2 1 1 2 23 1 1 1 53.9 53.77 35 2 4 5 4 4 5 2 5 4.14
3 2 1 1 20 1 1 1 69.5 53 29.8 4 3 5 5 5 3 3 4 4.00
4 1 1 1 22 1 1 1 66.6 55.55 67 4 5 4 5 5 4 5 4 4.57
5 2 1 2 20 1 1 1 64.2 69.24 20.5 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 4 3.29
94.4
6 1 1 4 25 2 4 3 59 65 5 4 3 3 3 4 5 2 4 3.43
7 1 1 2 22 1 1 1 53 52 40 4 4 4 5 5 5 4 5 4.57
8 1 1 1 21 2 3 1 65.7 61.52 43 2 5 5 5 5 1 3 4 4.00
38.1
9 1 1 1 21 1 2 3 64.7 45.67 1 2 2 5 5 5 3 3 4 3.86
10 2 1 1 22 2 4 1 82 77 36 2 5 3 3 4 5 3 3 3.71
11 2 1 5 25 1 4 1 61.7 68.94 49 3 4 4 4 4 3 3 4 3.71
12 1 1 1 21 2 4 1 70.3 75.08 51 4 4 3 4 4 5 4 3 3.86
13 2 1 2 23 1 1 1 58.8 67.38 39 4 3 4 3 4 5 4 4 3.86
14 2 1 1 20 1 1 1 69 64 39 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 3.43
15 2 1 2 22 1 4 2 60 70 78 4 3 3 3 4 4 2 2 3.00
16 1 1 1 23 2 2 1 54 48 39 2 5 5 5 5 4 5 4 4.71
17 1 1 6 24 1 1 1 50 62 38 2 4 5 4 5 5 3 4 4.29
18 2 1 1 21 2 1 1 70 63 50 4 4 3 3 2 2 2 5 3.00
52.1
19 2 1 2 21 2 4 1 63.2 72.28 1 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 4 3.71
20 2 1 1 21 2 4 4 68.7 66 51 3 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3.71
188
MBA-II
Annua
Paren l Your Sum
Gend Clas Graduat Ag Vicini ts Famil HS Graduat Futur mate
Sr. CET a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7
er s ion e ty Profe y C ion e d
ssion Incom Plan Score
e
1 1 2 1 25 2 4 2 61 64 25 2 3 4 4 4 5 4 4 4.00
2 2 2 5 22 2 2 1 70.3 59.14 35 4 5 4 4 5 4 4 4 4.29
3 1 2 1 22 2 4 1 64.5 58 91 4 4 4 4 5 5 4 4 4.29
4 2 2 5 24 1 4 1 60 60.13 38 4 1 2 2 3 4 5 4 3.00
5 2 2 2 22 1 1 1 55 62 51 4 5 4 4 5 5 5 5 4.71
6 1 2 2 23 1 1 1 51.4 57.56 31 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 4 4.43
7 1 2 2 23 1 1 1 63.5 59 48 4 3 4 4 4 4 5 3 3.86
8 2 2 4 23 1 1 1 58 71 60 4 2 2 5 2 3 3 4 3.00
9 1 2 1 22 2 2 4 80 69 23 2 4 4 3 4 5 3 4 3.86
10 2 2 1 23 1 1 2 75.7 61.61 52 4 4 4 3 4 3 4 4 3.71
11 2 2 4 24 2 4 1 80.5 59 79 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 4 3.71
12 2 2 2 22 1 4 2 60.3 73.36 36 4 4 2 2 4 4 4 2 3.14
13 1 2 2 23 2 2 1 63 71 46 2 2 3 4 3 2 2 2 2.57
14 2 2 2 23 2 2 1 57 58 45 3 3 2 4 4 2 4 4 3.29
15 2 2 2 23 2 4 1 64.5 65.12 52 4 4 4 5 5 4 5 5 4.57
16 1 2 3 24 1 2 2 72 65 40 2 4 4 4 3 3 4 4 3.71
17 1 2 3 23 1 4 1 55 69 55 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3.86
18 1 2 5 24 1 1 1 54.9 51 54 4 4 4 4 5 4 4 4 4.14
19 1 2 5 22 1 1 2 60 61.74 48 2 3 4 4 5 4 3 4 3.86
20 2 2 1 22 1 1 2 83 65 41 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 4.14

189

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H I

SHIVAJI UNIVERSITY, KOLHAPUR

Research Methodology (RM)

(In accordance with National Education Policy 2020)

Prescribed for M. Com. Part-I

Prof. (Dr.) D. T. Shirke Prof. (Dr.) Smt. S. H. Thakar

Prof. (Dr.) P. S. Patil Prin. (Dr.) Smt. M. V. Gulavani

Prof. (Dr.) Prakash Pawar Dr. V. N. Shinde

Prof. (Dr.) S. Vidyashankar Dr. A. N. Jadhav

Dr. Rajendra Kankariya Smt. Suhasini Sardar Patil

Prof. (Dr.) Cima Yeole Dr. (Smt.) Kavita Oza

Dr. Sanjay Ratnaparkhi Dr. Chetan Awati

Prof. (Dr.) S. S. Mahajan Prof. (Dr.) D. K. More

MEMBERS OF B.O.S. IN ACCOUNTANCY 

 Dr. Mrs. Sherya Vinay Patil  Dr. Ashok Ramchandra Shinde

 Dr. J. G. Mulani  Dr. M. N. Haladkar

 Dr. Sarjerao S. Chile  CA - A. A. Gawade

Prof. (Dr.) Shrikrishna S. Mahajan Dr. Sarang S. Bhola

Unit No. Topic Page No.

3. Data Collection and Processing 86

4. Analysis and Interpretation of Data 127

Objectives are directive and indicative of :

1. what has been presented in the unit and

2. what is expected from you

3. what you are expected to know pertaining to the specific unit,

1.2 Presentation of Subject Matter

1.5 Answers to Check your progress

1.7 Reference for further study:

Which: Which data and findings to be consider for building

When: When to conduct the study? Period of conduct of study.

How: Statistical Design. Operational Design. Observational Design.

Source: (Composed by author)

Types of Research Design

Exploratory Research Design

Descriptive Research Design

Diagnostic Research Design

Experimental Research Design

Source: (figure composed by Authors)

2.7 Meaning of Hypothesis:

Hypothesis as a possible explanation of the phenomenon under observation …

Source: (figure compiled by Authors)

2.8 Process of Formulation and testing of Hypothesis:

Five Step Method - Neave (1976)

Formulate the Practical Problem in Terms of Hypothesis

Choose a Critical Region

Decide the Size of Critical Region

Conclusion: Comparision of Statistics with Significance Level

Source: (Figure complied by Authors)

Right tailed test Z = 2.33 Z = 1.645 Z = 1.28

Step 5: Conclusion: Comparison of Statistics with Significance Level:

Source: (compiled by Authors)

Random Sampling Non Random Sampling

Simple Random Sampling Quota Sampling

Stratified Random Sampling Convenience Sampling

Systematic Sampling On the Spot Sampling

Sequential Sampling Purposive Sampling

Multi Stage Sampling Snow Ball Sampling

Source: (figure composed by authors)

. .

[ ∑ & ∑ & ( – ∑ && . ∑ &( ]

[ . . – .. .]

[ ]