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An inward “bowing” of line images is called pincushion distortion; an outward bowing is called
barrel distortion ( Fig. 14-9 ). Nonlinearities result when the X- and Y-position signals do not change
linearly with displacement distance of a radiation source across the face of the detector. From these
results, it was clear that the gamma camera had flood uniformity that was within an acceptable
range. He used a pinhole aperture in a sheet of lead to project a ?-ray image of the radionuclide
distribution onto a radiation detector composed of a NaI(Tl) screen and a sheet of x-ray film. They
are designed in different sizes and shapes and contain one or many holes to view the area of
interest. Hellenic Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 14, 146-148. These gated images can provide
important information on cardiac function. 2 Detector System and Electronics The gamma camera
employs a single, large-area, rectangular NaI(Tl) detector crystal, usually 6- to 12.5-mm thick with
sizes of up to 60 ? 40 cm. USG,CT AND MR IMAGING OF HEPATIC MASS LESIONS.
pediatrics. epilepsy and seizures in children 8.ppt pediatrics. epilepsy and seizures in children 8.ppt
Circulatory shock Cardiogenic Shock Hypovolemic Shock Sepsis, Septic Shock an. Times required
to record 1.2 ? 10 6 counts are indicated. Bremsstrahlung (see Fig. 6-1 ) generated by electron
emissions is more penetrating, but the intensity of this radiation generally is very weak. One of the
things that affect image uniformity is the PMT (photo-multiplier tube) and detector’s performance.
Seminario biologia molecular-Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana. Therefore a calibration for spatial
nonlinearity is required (see Chapter 14, Section B). Unfortunately, this detection system (especially
the film component) was so inefficient that hour-long exposures and therapeutic levels of
administered radioactivity were needed to obtain satisfactory images. Because images often are
formed in 64- ? 64-pixel or 128- ? 128-pixel arrays, the counting requirements are some 10 3 to 10 4
times higher than for a simple counting detector. Round PM tubes are arranged in a hexagonal
pattern to maximize the area of the NaI(Tl) crystal that is covered. This can be achieved by moving
either the bed or the gamma camera while adjusting the event positioning computation to account for
this movement. Consider two ?-ray interactions that occur close together in time and create
overlapping pulses. An image is formed from a histogram of the number of events at each possible
X-Y location. This causes noticeably greater blurring at lower ?-ray energies. The photomultiplier tube
converts the light into electrical signals. The apparent dead time also is longer when scattered
radiation is present, because this also adds to the counting rate outside the photopeak window ( Fig.
14-5 ). Therefore, when specifying gamma camera dead time, it is important to note the conditions of
measurement. The best reported intrinsic resolution for a large field-of-view gamma camera is just
below 3 mm FWHM at 140 keV ( 99m Tc). In practice, however, the response is more complex, with
a plateau directly beneath the PM tube (because the PM tube is not a “point” detector) and long, flat
tails caused by reflections of light from the back and side surfaces of the NaI(Tl) crystal. Because
pulse pile-up can occur between any two events in the pulse-height spectrum, system counting losses
are determined by total-spectrum counting rates. The major components are a collimator, a large-area
NaI(Tl) scintillation crystal, a light guide, and an array of PM tubes. One of the things that affect
image uniformity is the PMT (photo-multiplier tube) and detector’s performance. We initially
followed the manufacture’s instruction for the quality control test. The gamma rays have to pass
through the collimators which ensure that it travels at a specified angle with respect to the detector
crystal. Thus it may be concluded that the gamma camera working in INMAS at Khulna in
Bangladesh is performed well. The prepared point source in the vial was inserted, with the capped
end of the vial, into the source holder.
Usually, a large flat crystal of sodium iodide with thallium doping in a light-sealed housing is use.
Measurement of Radiation (Thimble Ionization Chamber, Free air Ionization Cha. For the 30 percent
of women with dense breast tissue, traditional X-ray mammography doesn’t work well because, in
an X-ray image, dense tissue appears opaque and white, just like a tumor. Images are displayed on a
computer monitor, where image brightness and contrast may be manipulated and different color
tables may be employed. Finally, the pulse is positioned by an X -, Y -positioning circuit on the
recording device or stored in the computer, corresponding to the location of ? -ray interaction in the
detector (see later). Standard tests of gamma camera performance also are summarized. SR Globals
Profile - Building Vision, Exceeding Expectations. Gamma Camera Gamma Camera Muhammad
Musaddiq Nuclear medicine scan.ppt Nuclear medicine scan.ppt ??????? ??? Nuclear Medicine
Instrumentation and quality control presentation Nuclear Medicine Instrumentation and quality
control presentation Mumba Chilimboyi fluoroscopy imaging fluoroscopy imaging Estam Udith
Gamma Camera Gamma Camera Ovais Ur Rehman Gamma camera components Gamma camera
components Syed Hammad. This instrument, the Anger scintillation camera, 1 or gamma camera, has
been substantially refined and improved since that time. This results in poor resolution of the image
of the area of interest. The principal disadvantage of the rectilinear scanner was its long imaging time
(typically many minutes) because the image was formed by sequential measurements at many
individual points within the imaged area. The collimator most commonly consists of a lead plate
containing a large number of holes. Circulatory shock Cardiogenic Shock Hypovolemic Shock
Sepsis, Septic Shock an. This is accomplished by an X -, Y -positioning circuit in conjunction with
the PM tubes and a summing circuit. Fig. 9.4 illustrates the principles of X, Y positioning of pulses
arising from ? -ray interactions in the detector employing seven PM tubes. The X-Y locations for
each gamma ray that interacts in the NaI(Tl) crystal are computed from the digitized signals.
According to Equation 6-11, a low-energy threshold of 130 keV should reject 140-keV. Most
modern gamma cameras are completely digital, in the sense that the output of each PM tube is
directly digitized by an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The applications of scintigraphy include
early drug development and nuclear medical imaging to view and analyze images of the human body
or the distribution of medically injected, inhaled, or ingested radionuclides emitting gamma rays.
This increases the number of valid events recorded and improves the statistical quality of the image.
This is illustrated in one dimension in Figure 13-4. Thicker detectors result in greater spreading of
scintillation light before it reaches the PM tubes. Figure 14-4 shows a typical gamma camera
spectrum for 99m Tc with the pulse-height analyzer (PHA) window set to 130 to 150 keV.
Furthermore, there is a greater likelihood of detecting multiple Compton-scattered events in thicker
detectors, particularly with higher-energy radionuclides. Seminario biologia molecular-Universidad
Pontificia Bolivariana. Signals from the PM tubes are fed to electronic or digital position logic
circuits, which determine the X-Y location of each scintillation event, as it occurs, by using the
weighted average of the PM tube signals (see Section B.2). FIGURE 13-1 Basic principles and
components of a modern gamma camera. At approximately 500 keV, the standard gamma camera
(detectors 0.64-0.95-cm-thick) is less than 20% efficient at converting incident. Second, ? rays
scattered through large angles are rejected more efficiently, because their energy spread within the
pulse-height spectrum is also smaller. GERIATRIC PHARMACOLOGY Geriatric pharmacology is a
specialized field focusing. This would enable the position of an event to be determined by taking a
weighted average or centroid of the PM tube signals using the simple relationships shown in Figure
13-4. Radionuclide imaging laboratories are found in almost every hospital, performing hundreds and
even thousands of imaging procedures per month in larger institutions.
It is also dependent on the stability of the detector. Uniformity values may be used as a guide to
distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable levels of uniformity. It is also one of the indices
used to measure the performance of a gamma camera. For this purpose intrinsic calibration flood
series and verification measurement flood series were done which is shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4
respectively. This would enable the position of an event to be determined by taking a weighted
average or centroid of the PM tube signals using the simple relationships shown in Figure 13-4. Most
general-purpose gamma cameras have crystal thicknesses of approximately 9.5 mm. For lower-energy
? emitters, such as 99m Tc and 201 Tl, however, detection efficiency is adequate even with 6-mm-
thick detector crystals. USG,CT AND MR IMAGING OF HEPATIC MASS LESIONS. pediatrics.
epilepsy and seizures in children 8.ppt pediatrics. epilepsy and seizures in children 8.ppt Circulatory
shock Cardiogenic Shock Hypovolemic Shock Sepsis, Septic Shock an. The video, taken from an
IOP Schools and Colleges lecture, briefly describes the history of the discovery of radioactivity and
how the first particle accelerators could be used to make radioactive material. An image is formed
from a histogram of the number of events at each possible X-Y location. Differential and integral
uniformities for useful field of view (UFOV) and central field of view (CFOV) of Detector-1 and
Detector-2 for intrinsic calibration and verification measurement were observed and the results are
summarized in Table 1 and Table 2 respectively. The main purpose of Gamma Camera is to identify
cancer tissues, proper abnormalities and other internal problems inside a patient’s body. Low Energy
High-Resolution (LEHR) of less than 140 KeV and. The most troublesome effect is known as pulse
pile-up ( Chapter 8, Section B.3). Pulse pile-up has two undesirable effects on gamma camera
performance: counting losses and image distortion. Signals from the PM tubes are fed to electronic
or digital position logic circuits, which determine the X-Y location of each scintillation event, as it
occurs, by using the weighted average of the PM tube signals (see Section B.2). FIGURE 13-1 Basic
principles and components of a modern gamma camera. Therefore a calibration for spatial
nonlinearity is required (see Chapter 14, Section B). Because pinhole and converging collimators
magnify and the diverging collimators minify the image of the object, some distortion occurs in
images obtained with these collimators. On the other hand, it is possible for two Compton-scattered.
Round crystals of 25 to 50 cm in diameter were used in many older systems. The NaI(Tl) crystal is
surrounded by a highly reflective material such as TiO 2 to maximize light output and hermetically
sealed inside a thin aluminum casing to protect it from moisture. In SPECT system, we get a
scintillation camera mounted around the patient’s body and it is connected to a proper computer
system. These collimators provide better spatial resolution than the circular-hole ones. The first is that
an imaging collimator is used to define the direction of the detected ? rays. The amount of light
detected by a particular PM tube is inversely related to the lateral distance between the interaction
site and the center of that PM tube. The collimator most commonly consists of a lead plate
containing a large number of holes. Figure 14-3 shows photopeak detection efficiency versus ?-ray
energy for the gamma camera detector for a range of NaI(Tl) crystal thicknesses. In performing
intrinsic calibration measurement the system acquired an uncorrected 200 million count flood for
both detectors simultaneously and in performing intrinsic verification measurement the system
acquired a 10 million count corrected flood on both detectors simultaneously. Circulatory shock
Cardiogenic Shock Hypovolemic Shock Sepsis, Septic Shock an. The gamma camera also can be
used for dynamic imaging studies, in which changes in the radionuclide distribution can be observed,
as rapidly as several images per second. Ideally, the relationship between signal amplitude and
location with respect to the center of a PM tube would be linear. Gamma rays scattered through
greater angles are rejected more efficiently, and those scattered through smaller angles are rejected
less efficiently. Thinner crystals (0.64 cm) are sufficient for low energy radionuclides such as 201 Tl,
99m Tc and 123 I and used in portable gamma cameras for cardiac studies.
The intrinsic spatial resolution of modern large field-of-view gamma cameras measured with 99m Tc
in this manner is in the range of 2.9- to 4.5-mm FWHM. Because the resolution is considerably
worse than the width of the slits, the contribution of the slits themselves to the measured resolution
is very small ( 10% for measured resolution 2.5 mm). Intrinsic resolution becomes worse with
decreasing ?-ray energy because lower-energy. After developing gamma camera we get multiple
gamma camera which generate a three dimensional image. An example of the change of intrinsic
spatial resolution as a function of ?-ray energy is shown in Figure 14-1. This means that procedures
reflect general practice and standards applicable at the time resources were produced and cannot be
assumed to be acceptable today. These are integral uniformity and differential uniformity. At
approximately 500 keV, the standard gamma camera (detectors 0.64-0.95-cm-thick) is less than 20%
efficient at converting incident. These characteristics are discussed in detail in Chap. 10. Several
collimators are available that are designed for some specific purposes. This increases the number of
valid events recorded and improves the statistical quality of the image. The image was a pattern of
dots imprinted on a sheet of paper by a mechanical printer that followed the scanning motion of the
detector, printing the dots as the. Large numbers of events are required to form an interpretable
image because each pixel must have a sufficient number of counts to achieve an acceptable signal-to-
noise level. Gamma rays scattered through greater angles are rejected more efficiently, and those
scattered through smaller angles are rejected less efficiently. Round PM tubes are arranged in a
hexagonal pattern to maximize the area of the NaI(Tl) crystal that is covered. It is also dependent on
the stability of the detector. More sophisticated digital image processing is discussed in Chapter 20.
The amount of light detected by a particular PM tube is inversely related to the lateral distance
between the interaction site and the center of that PM tube. Figure 2 shows a partial view of Gamma
Camera for this test. Seminario Biologia Molecular Manuela Alvarez Ramirez Seminario Biologia
Molecular Manuela Alvarez Ramirez Seminario Biologia Molecular - Susana Cano V.pdf Seminario
Biologia Molecular - Susana Cano V.pdf Seminario BioMol- Aura Cristina Pena Santos Seminario
BioMol- Aura Cristina Pena Santos Report Back from San Antonio Breast Cancer Symposium
(SABCS) 2023: Spotlight. Nuclear medicine is a branch of medical imaging that. Gamma rays of
these energies are sufficiently penetrating in body tissues to be detected from deep-lying organs, can
be stopped efficiently by dense scintillators, and are shielded adequately with reasonable thicknesses
of lead (see Fig. 6-17 —soft tissue has attenuation properties similar to water). Even at 662 keV,
Anger calculated that for a detector thickness of 6.4 mm, less than 10% of photons are misplaced by
more than 2.5 mm as a result of multiple scattering events. 1 The second, and primary, cause of
limited intrinsic resolution is statistical fluctuation in the distribution of light photons among
photomultiplier (PM) tubes from one scintillation event to the next. The presentation has animated
slides which show gamma imaging of the body using Technitium, including an example graph of
half-life for Tc99. FIGURE 14-1 Intrinsic spatial resolution of a gamma camera as a function of ?-
ray energy for a 6.3-mm-thick NaI(Tl) crystal. ( Compiled with data from Sano RM, Tinkel JB,
LaVallee CA, Freedman GS: Consequences of crystal thickness reduction on gamma camera
resolution and sensitivity. Finally, the pulse is positioned by an X -, Y -positioning circuit on the
recording device or stored in the computer, corresponding to the location of ? -ray interaction in the
detector (see later). According to Operating Instruction Symbia System S Series manual, uniformity.
These are integral uniformity and differential uniformity. The Z pulse is then subjected to pulse-
height analysis and is accepted if it falls within the range of selected energies. The use of the PM
tubes with hexagonal or square cross-sections that can be tiled without gaps on the NaI(Tl) crystal
may in some cases allow elimination of the light guide, assuming there is sufficient spreading of the
scintillation light in the glass entrance window of the PM tube for accurate positioning. Images also
can be synchronized to electrocardiogram signals, permitting images of the heart in different phases
of the cardiac cycle to be formed. SR Globals Profile - Building Vision, Exceeding Expectations.
High-sensitivity collimators are made with smaller thickness than all-purpose collimators, whereas
high-resolution collimators are thickest of all. This is illustrated in one dimension in Figure 13-4. J
Nucl Med 20:977-980, 1979; Chapman D, Newcomer K, Berman D, et al: Half-inch versus quarter-
inch Anger camera technology: Resolution and sensitivity differences at low photo-peak energies.
One of the effects of PMT “drift” is the appearance of hot or cold spots in the flood image. Single
photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET) obeys
this technology. Round crystals of 25 to 50 cm in diameter were used in many older systems. The
NaI(Tl) crystal is surrounded by a highly reflective material such as TiO 2 to maximize light output
and hermetically sealed inside a thin aluminum casing to protect it from moisture. The SPECT
gamma camera is much more complex diagnostic instrument and it is more expensive to purchase and
maintain. This is illustrated in one dimension in Figure 13-4. Clinically important whole-body studies
include bone scans of the skeleton, and the localization of tumors or their metastases in the body.
This increases the number of valid events recorded and improves the statistical quality of the image.
The image was a pattern of dots imprinted on a sheet of paper by a mechanical printer that followed
the scanning motion of the detector, printing the dots as the. Thus the apparent dead time is longer
when a photopeak window is used than when a full-spectrum window is used. Two features that
differ from the conventional NaI(Tl) counting detectors described in Chapter 12 are crucial to image
formation. These collimators provide better spatial resolution than the circular-hole ones. The
applications of scintigraphy include early drug development and nuclear medical imaging to view
and analyze images of the human body or the distribution of medically injected, inhaled, or ingested
radionuclides emitting gamma rays. Another approach for shortening camera dead time is by the use
of analog buffers, or derandomizers. The gamma camera also can be used for dynamic imaging
studies, in which changes in the radionuclide distribution can be observed, as rapidly as several
images per second. Most general-purpose gamma cameras have crystal thicknesses of approximately
9.5 mm. For lower-energy ? emitters, such as 99m Tc and 201 Tl, however, detection efficiency is
adequate even with 6-mm-thick detector crystals. An optical glass window on the back surface of the
casing permits the scintillation light to reach the PM tubes. This results in poor resolution of the
image of the area of interest. The gamma camera has thus become the most widely used nuclear-
imaging instrument for clinical applications. Differential and integral uniformities for useful field of
view (UFOV) and central field of view (CFOV) of Detector-1 and Detector-2 for intrinsic
calibration and verification measurement were observed and the results are summarized in Table 1
and Table 2 respectively. NOTE: We only request your email address so that the person you are
recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it, and that it is not junk mail.
FIGURE 13-2 Schematic cross-section of a NaI(Tl) crystal assembly for a gamma camera. Gamma
rays of these energies are sufficiently penetrating in body tissues to be detected from deep-lying
organs, can be stopped efficiently by dense scintillators, and are shielded adequately with reasonable
thicknesses of lead (see Fig. 6-17 —soft tissue has attenuation properties similar to water). At the
same time, this extrapolated tail is also sent to the second amplifier circuit and subtracted from the
second pulse. More sophisticated digital image processing is discussed in Chapter 20. We initially
followed the manufacture’s instruction for the quality control test. These characteristics are discussed
in detail in Chap. 10. Several collimators are available that are designed for some specific purposes.
Most modern cameras employ between 30 and 100 PM tubes.
Lead, (most common),Tungsten, platinum aperture is located. FIGURE 14-7 Demonstration of pile-
up effects on images of a brain phantom. As a result, the detection efficiency of the gamma camera
detector is somewhat less than would be desirable at higher ?-ray energies. The first page of the PDF
of this article appears above. O’Connor, a professor of radiologic physics at Mayo Clinic in
Rochester, Minnesota. Standard tests of gamma camera performance also are summarized. Finally,
the pulse is positioned by an X -, Y -positioning circuit on the recording device or stored in the
computer, corresponding to the location of ? -ray interaction in the detector (see later). Another
approach for shortening camera dead time is by the use of analog buffers, or derandomizers. This in
a way shows that the uniformity of the images is dependent on the stability of the PMT and
sometimes on the associated analogue electronic components. The worksheet contains questions that
could be used as a summative test on the topic (10 marks). IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 37:702-706, 1990. )
With modern digital gamma cameras, it also is possible to use the spatial distribution of PM tube
signals to further reduce pile-up. The first gamma-ray “camera” capable of recording at all points in
the image at one time was described by Hal Anger in 1953. FIGURE 14-9 Appearance of straight-
line objects with “pincushion” and “barrel” distortions. The SPECT system is more sensitive than an
ordinary gamma camera, so we should take a special technical support. Individual events also are
analyzed for energy, E, by summing the signals from all PM tubes. Events appearing in the band
between the two point-source locations are mispositioned events caused by pulse pile-up. The
capacitance values are assigned in direct proportion to the location of the PM tube relative to the
four signals. Finally these electrical signals are used to determine the position and the energy signals
of the gamma rays. It is also one of the indices used to measure the performance of a gamma camera.
A General Concepts of Radionuclide Imaging The purpose of radionuclide imaging is to obtain a
picture of the distribution of a radioactively labeled substance within the body after it has been
administered (e.g., by intravenous injection) to a patient. One of the effects of PMT “drift” is the
appearance of hot or cold spots in the flood image. In earlier collimators, the holes were made
circular, but current designs have square, hexagonal, or even triangular holes with uniform thickness
of lead around the opening. The integral and differential value was determined automatically by this
SPECT Gamma Camera software. Elements in the periodic table that can be used as radioactive
tracers inside the body are identified. The EMA and Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Agonists: A Wake-
Up Call The EMA and Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Agonists: A Wake-Up Call Seminario Biomol-
Gwyneth Lorena Serna Salazar Seminario Biomol- Gwyneth Lorena Serna Salazar Basic principle of
gamma camera 1. Collimator In gamma cameras, a collimator is attached to the face of the NaI(Tl)
detector to limit the field of view so that ? -radiations from outside the field of view are prevented
from reaching the detector. In most modern cameras, most of the electronics (such as preamplifiers,
pulse-height analyzers, automatic gain control, pulse pile-up rejection circuits and ADCs) are
mounted directly on the individual PM tube bases within the detector housing to minimize signal
distortions that can occur in long cable runs between the detector head and control console. The
uniformity measurements may be intrinsic or extrinsic. An array of radiation detectors was positioned
on a matrix of measuring points around the head. The uniformity measurements may be intrinsic or
extrinsic.
The SPECT system is more sensitive than an ordinary gamma camera, so we should take a special
technical support. NOTE: We only request your email address so that the person you are
recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it, and that it is not junk mail. The
PM tubes are encased in a thin magnetic shield ( Chapter 7, Section C.2) to prevent changes in the
gain caused by changes in the orientation of the gamma camera relative to the earth’s magnetic field.
Uniformity measurement is one of the parts of quality control of Gamma Camera. With a tumor of
this size, the chances are that it’s localized and surgical removal of the tumor can cure the patient.”.
The gamma camera also can be used for dynamic imaging studies, in which changes in the
radionuclide distribution can be observed, as rapidly as several images per second. It scans the
radiation area of the radiotracer and produces an image. Scattered radiation decreases the window
fraction recorded with a photopeak window ( left ), thus causing an apparent increase in dead time
counting losses ( right ). The functions of the light guide are to increase the light collection
efficiency, by channeling scintillation light away from the gaps between the PM tubes, and to
improve the uniformity of light collection as a function of position. The largest amount of light is
received by tube 7, and other tubes receive light in proportion to their distances from the point of
interaction. It is a diagnostic instrument which is used to image the radiation from a radiotracer
inserted into patient’s body. On properly functioning cameras, including the one illustrated, the
nonlinearities themselves (including the pincushion distortions in front of PM tubes) are barely
perceptible and rarely interfere directly with image interpretation; however, they can have significant
effects on image nonuniformities, as discussed in the following section. Due to cancer cells’ high
metabolic activity, these cells accumulate more of the tracer than normal cells and so emit more
gamma rays as it decays. The basic principle of a SPECT system dependent on the rotating camera
concept is that a series of planar images are collected while the camera is rotated through either 180.
The gamma rays have to pass through the collimators which ensure that it travels at a specified angle
with respect to the detector crystal. In SPECT system, we get a scintillation camera mounted around
the patient’s body and it is connected to a proper computer system. Figure 14-3 shows photopeak
detection efficiency versus ?-ray energy for the gamma camera detector for a range of NaI(Tl) crystal
thicknesses. Differential and integral uniformities for useful field of view (UFOV) and central field
of view (CFOV) of Detector-1 and Detector-2 for intrinsic calibration and verification measurement
were observed and the results are summarized in Table 1 and Table 2 respectively. Figure 14-4 shows
a typical gamma camera spectrum for 99m Tc with the pulse-height analyzer (PHA) window set to
130 to 150 keV. The image was a pattern of dots imprinted on a sheet of paper by a mechanical
printer that followed the scanning motion of the detector, printing the dots as the. These collimators
are most commonly used in nuclear medicine procedures and furnish a one-to-one projected image.
Obviously specifications for gamma camera dead time should indicate whether any circuits were
bypassed to achieve the reported value. The first is that an imaging collimator is used to define the
direction of the detected ? rays. This is illustrated in one dimension in Figure 13-4. Report Back
from San Antonio Breast Cancer Symposium (SABCS) 2023: Spotlight. We initially followed the
manufacture’s instruction for the quality control test. Finally, the pulse is positioned by an X -, Y -
positioning circuit on the recording device or stored in the computer, corresponding to the location
of ? -ray interaction in the detector (see later). Collimators are primarily classified by the type of
focusing, although other classifications are also made based on septal thickness and the number of
holes. The uniformity measurements may be intrinsic or extrinsic. The gamma camera is nearly 100%
efficient for energies up to approximately 100 keV for all crystal thicknesses, but then shows a rather
marked decrease in efficiency at higher energies, depending on crystal thickness.