MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY

2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

environment (within the body), and turning your

INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY head toward the sound of squealing brakes is a
response to a change in the external environment
BRANCH OS SCIENCE (outside the body) to prepare the body for a potential
• ANATOMY - is the science of body structures and threat.
the relationships among them. It was first studied by 3. Movement includes motion of the whole body,
dissection (the careful cutting apart of body individual organs, single cells, and even tiny
structures to study their relationships.) structures inside cells.
• PHYSIOLOGY - is the science of body functions— • For example, the coordinated action of leg muscles
how the body parts work. moves your whole body from one place to another
when you walk or run.
LEVEL OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION AND 4. Growth is an increase in body size that results
BODY SYSTEM from an increase in the size of existing cells, an
1. Chemical - This very basic level can be increase in the number of cells, or both. In addition,
compared to the letters of the alphabet and includes a tissue sometimes increases in size because the
atoms, the smallest units of matter that participate in amount of material between cells increases.
chemical reactions, and molecules, two or more • In a growing bone, for example, mineral deposits
atoms joined together. accumulate between bone cells, causing the bone to
2. Cellular Level - Molecules combine to form cells, grow in length and width.
the basic structural and functional units of an 5. Differentiation is the development of a cell from
organism that are composed of chemicals. an unspecialized to a specialized state. Such
3. Tissue level - Tissues are groups of cells and the precursor cells, which can divide and give rise to
materials surrounding them that work together to cells that undergo differentiation, are known as stem
perform a particular function, similar to the way cells.
words are put together to form sentences. • For example, red blood cells and several types of
4. Organ level - different types of tissues are joined white blood cells all arise from the same
together. Similar to the relationship between unspecialized precursor cells in red bone marrow.
sentences and paragraphs, organs are structures 6. Reproduction refers either to (1) the formation of
that are composed of two or more different types of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement,
tissues; they have specific functions and usually or (2) the production of a new individual. The
have recognizable shapes. formation of new cells occurs through cell division.
5. Organ system - System (organ-system) level. A
system (or chapter, in our language analogy) HOMEOSTASIS
consists of related organs (paragraphs) with a • Homeostasis (homeo- = sameness; -stasis =
common function. standing still) is the maintenance of relatively stable
6. Organismal level - An organism, any living conditions in the body’s internal environment. It
individual, can be compared to a book in our occurs because of the ceaseless interplay of the
analogy. All the parts of the human body functioning body’s many regulatory systems.
together constitute the total organism. • Homeostasis is a dynamic condition. In response
to changing conditions, the body’s parameters can
Characteristics of the Living Human Organism shift among points in a narrow range that is
• Basic Life Processes Certain processes distinguish compatible with maintaining life.
organisms, or living things, from nonliving things. • For example, the level of glucose in blood normally
Following are the six most important life processes stays between 70 and 110 milligrams of glucose per
of the human body: 100 milliliters of blood.
1. Metabolism is the sum of all chemical processes
that occur in the body. One phase of metabolism is HOMEOSTASIS AND BODY FLUIDS
catabolism (catabol- = throwing down; -ism = a • The fluid within cells is intracellular fluid (intra- =
condition), the breakdown of complex chemical inside), abbreviated ICF.
substances into simpler components. The other • The fluid outside body cells is extracellular fluid
phase of metabolism is anabolism (anabol- = a (ECF) (extra- = outside). The ECF that fills the
raising up), the building up of complex chemical narrow spaces between cells of tissues is known as
substances from smaller, simpler component. interstitial fluid.
2. Responsiveness is the body’s ability to detect • ECF within blood vessels is termed blood plasma,
and respond to changes. • within lymphatic vessels it is called lymph,
• For example, an increase in body temperature • in and around the brain and spinal cord it is known
during a fever represents a change in the internal as cerebrospinal fluid,
• in joints it is referred to as synovial fluid.
 MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

• the ECF of the eyes is called aqueous humor and a positive feedback system, the response affects the
vitreous body. controlled condition differently than in a negative
feedback system. The control center still provides
CONTROL OF HOMEOSTASIS commands to an effector, but this time the effector
• Homeostasis in the human body is continually produces a physiological response that adds to or
being disturbed. reinforces the initial change in the controlled
• Some disruptions come from the external condition.
environment in the form of physical insults such as
the intense heat of a hot summer day or a lack of Homeostatic Imbalances
enough oxygen for that two-mile run. The many factors in this balance called health
• Homeostatic imbalances may also occur due to include the following:
psychological stresses in our social environment - • The environment and your own behavior.
the demands of work and school, for example. • Your genetic makeup.
• The air you breathe, the food you eat, and even the
Feedback System thoughts you
• Define as a cycle of events in which the status of a think.
body condition is monitored, evaluated, changed, • Disorder is any abnormality of structure or function.
monitored, reevaluated, and so on. • Disease is a more specific term for an illness
• Each monitored variable, such as body characterized by a recognizable set of signs and
temperature, blood pressure, or blood glucose level, symptoms.
is termed a controlled condition (controlled variable).
Any disruption that changes a controlled condition is Basic Anatomical Terminologies
called a stimulus. A. BODY POSITIONS
• ANATOMICAL POSITION- Descriptions of any
Components of Feedback System region or part of the human body assume that it is in
1. Receptor is a body structure that monitors a standard position of reference.
changes in a controlled condition and sends input to
a control center. This pathway is called an afferent • PRONE POSITION the body is lying facedown.
pathway (af- = toward; -ferrent = carried), since the
information flows toward the control center.
• For example, certain nerve endings in the skin
sense temperature and can detect changes, such as
a dramatic drop in temperature.
2. Control center in the body, for example, the
brain, sets the narrow range or set point within which
a controlled condition should be maintained,
evaluates the input it receives from receptors, and
generates output commands when they are needed.
• Output from the control center typically occurs as
nerve impulses, or hormones or other chemical • SUPINE POSITION - body is lying faceup.
signals.
• This pathway is called an efferent pathway (ef- =
away from), since the information flows away from
the control center.
3. Effector is a body structure that receives output
from the control center and produces a response or
eff ect that changes the controlled condition.

Negative VS Positive Feedback System

• NEGATIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEMS A negative
feedback system reverses a change in a controlled B. Regional Names
condition. Consider the regulation of blood pressure. • The HEAD consists of the skull and face. The skull
Blood pressure (BP) is the force exerted by blood as encloses and protects the brain; the face is the front
it presses against the walls of blood vessels. When portion of the head that includes the eyes, nose,
the heart beats faster or harder, BP increases. mouth, forehead, cheeks, and chin.
• POSITIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEMS a positive • The NECK supports the head and attaches it to the
feedback system tends to strengthen or reinforce a trunk.
change in one of the body’s controlled conditions. In
 MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

• The TRUNK consists of the chest, abdomen, and Body Cavities

pelvis. • Body cavities are spaces that enclose internal
• The UPPER LIMBS attaches to the trunk and organs. Bones, muscles, ligaments, and other
consists of the shoulder, armpit, arm (portion of the structures separate the various body cavities from
limb from the shoulder to the elbow), forearm one another.
(portion of the limb from the elbow to the wrist),
wrist, and hand.
• The LOWER LIMBS also attaches to the trunk and
consists of the buttock, thigh (portion of the limb
from the buttock to the knee), leg (portion of the limb
from the knee to the ankle), ankle, and foot.

C. Directional Terms

Abdomenopelvic Regions
• Hypochondriac Regions (Left and Right): the
prefix “hypo” means below or under. The word
“chondriac” means cartilage, which is referring to the
cartilage of the ribs. When we put them together, this
is the abdominal region that is under the ribs.
• Lumbar Regions (Left and Right): The word
Planes and Sections lumbar refers to the vertebrae in your lower back,
PLANES which are the bones nearest to the lumbar region.
1. Sagittal plane (sagitt- = arrow) is a vertical plane That’s where this region gets its name.
that divides the body or an organ into right and left • Iliac Region (Left and Right): The top of the hip
sides. bone has what is
2. Midsagittal plane or a Median plane is when called the iliac crest, and that’s the bone closest to
such a plane passes through the midline of the body the iliac region.
or an organ and divides it into equal right and left • Epigastric Region: The prefix “epi” means above,
sides. or over, and “gastric” means stomach or belly.
3. Parasagittal plane (para- = near)If plane does Therefore, this is the region over and above the
not pass through the midline but instead divides the belly.
body or an organ into unequal right and left sides. • Umbilical Region: This is easy to remember
4. Frontal or coronal plane (corona = crown) because the umbilical region contains your navel,
divides the body or an organ into anterior (front) and which is also called the umbilicus. The navel is the
posterior (back) portions. landmark for the four quadrant point of intersection,
5. Transverse plane divides the body or an organ and it can also help you remember that the umbilical
into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions. region makes up the middle of the nine abdominal
Other names for a transverse plane are a cross- regions.
sectional or horizontal plane. Sagittal, frontal, and • Hypogastric Region: We’ve already learned that
transverse planes are all at right angles to one hypo means “below,” and gastric refers to the
another. stomach or belly. So when we put the two together,
6. Oblique plane by contrast, passes through the we know that the hypogastric region is the region
body or an organ at an oblique angle (any angle below the belly.
other than a 90-degree angle).

SECTION
• Section is a cut of the body or one of its organs
made along one of the planes just described. It is
important to know the plane of the section so you
can understand the anatomical relationship of one
part to another.
 MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

of the body, called a CT scan, is shown on a video

monitor.
• Ultrasound
- High-frequency sound waves produced by a
handheld wand reflect off body tissues and are
detected by the same instrument. The image, which
may be still or moving, is called a sonogram (SON-
oˉ- gram) and is shown on a video monitor.
• Coronary (Cardiac) Computed Tomography
Angiography
- In this form of computer-assisted radiography, an
iodine containing contrast medium is injected into a
vein and a beta blocker is given to decrease heart
rate. Then, numerous x-ray beams trace an arc
around the heart and a scanner detects the x-ray
beams and transmits them to a computer, which
transforms the information into a three dimensional
image of the coronary blood vessels on a monitor.
The image produced is called a CCTA scan and can
be generated in less than 20 seconds.
• Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan)
- A substance that emits positrons (positively
charged particles) is injected into the body, where it
is taken up by tissues.
- The collision of positrons with negatively charged
electrons in body tissues produces gamma rays
(similar to x-rays) that are detected by gamma
cameras positioned around the subject.
- A computer receives signals from the gamma
Aging and Homeostasis cameras and constructs a PET scan image,
• Aging is a normal process characterized by a displayed in color on a video monitor.
progressive decline in the body’s ability to restore - The PET scan shows where the injected substance
homeostasis. is being used in the body. In the PET scan image
• Aging produces observable changes in structure shown here, the black and blue colors indicate
and function and increases vulnerability to stress minimal activity; the red, orange, yellow, and white
and disease. The changes associated with aging are colors indicate areas of increasingly greater activity.
apparent in all body system. • Endoscopy
- Endoscopy involves the visual examination of the
Medical Imaging inside of body organs or cavities using a lighted
• RADIOGRAPHY instrument with lenses called an endoscope. The
- A single barrage of x-rays passes through the body, image is viewed through an eyepiece on the
producing an image of interior structures on x-ray– endoscope or projected onto a monitor.
sensitive film. The resulting two dimensional image • Radionuclide Imaging
is a radiograph. - A radionuclide (radioactive substance) is
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) introduced intravenously into the body and carried
- The body is exposed to a high-energy magnetic by the blood to the tissue to be imaged. Gamma
field, which causes protons (small positive particles rays emitted by the radionuclide are detected by a
within atoms, such as hydrogen) in body fluids and gamma camera outside the subject, and the data
tissues to arrange themselves in relation to the field. are fed into a computer.
Then a pulse of radio waves “reads” these ion - The computer constructs a radionuclide image and
patterns, and a color-coded image is assembled on displays it in color on a video monitor.
a video monitor. The result is a two- or three - Areas of intense color take up a lot of the
dimensional blueprint of cellular chemistry. radionuclide and represent high tissue activity; areas
• Computed Tomography Scan (CT-Scan) of less intense color take up smaller amounts of the
- In this form of computer-assisted radiography, an x radionuclide and represent low tissue activity.
ray beam traces an arc at multiple angles around a
section of the body. The resulting transverse section
 MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

rather than “lower arm.” Similarly, “femur” or “thigh”

LESSON 3: BODY TERMINOLOGY is correct, and “leg” or “crus” is reserved for the
portion of the lower limb between the knee and the
ANATOMICAL POSITION ankle. You will be able to describe the body’s regions
Anatomists and healthcare providers use using the terms from the anatomical position.
terminology for the purpose of precision and to
reduce medical errors. For example, is a scar “above Directional Terms
the wrist” located on the forearm two or three inches Directional terms are essential for describing
away from the hand? Or is it at the base of the the relative locations of different body structures. For
hand? Is it on the palm side or the back side? By instance, an anatomist might describe one band of
using precise anatomical terminology, we eliminate tissue as “inferior to” another or a physician might
ambiguity. Anatomical terms derive from ancient describe a tumor as “superficial to” a deeper body
Greek and Latin words. structure. Commit these terms to memory to avoid
To further increase precision, anatomists confusion when you are studying or describing the
standardize the way in which they view the body. locations of particular body parts.
Just as maps are normally oriented with the north at Anterior (or ventral) describes the front or direction
the top, the standard body “map,” also known as the toward the front of the body.
anatomical position, is that of the body standing e.g. The toes are anterior to the foot.
upright with the feet at shoulder width and parallel, Posterior (or dorsal) describes the back or
toes forward. The upper limbs are held out to each direction toward the back of the body.
side, and the palms of the hands face forward. e.g. The popliteus is posterior to the patella.
Using this standard position reduces Superior (or cranial) describes a position above or
confusion. It does not matter how the body being higher than another part of the body proper.
described is oriented, the terms are used as if it is in
e.g. The orbits are superior to the oris.
an anatomical position. For example, a scar in the Inferior (or caudal) describes a position below or
“anterior (front) carpal (wrist) region” would be lower than another part of the body proper; near or
present on the palm side of the wrist. The term toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or the lowest
“anterior” would be used even if the hand were palm part of the spinal column).
down on a table. e.g. The pelvis is inferior to the abdomen.
Lateral describes the side or direction toward the
side of the body.
e.g. The thumb (pollex) is lateral to the digits.
Medial describes the middle or direction toward the
middle of the body.
e.g. The hallux is the medial toe.
Proximal refers to a position in a limb that is nearer
to the point of attachment or the trunk of the body.
e.g. The brachium is proximal to the antebrachium.
Distal describes a position in a limb that is farther
from the point of attachment or the trunk of the body.
e.g. The crus is distal to the femur.
Superficial describes a position closer to the
surface of the body.
e.g. The skin is superficial to the bones.
Deep describes a position farther from the surface of
the body.
e.g. The brain is deep into the skull.
Intermediate describes a position between two
A body that is lying down is described as structures
either prone or supine. These terms are sometimes e.g. The transverse colon is intermediate to the
used in describing the position of the body during ascending and descending colons
specific physical examinations or surgical Ipsilateral describes a position on the same side of
procedures. the body as another structure.
e.g. The gallbladder and ascending colon are
Regional Terms ipsilateral.
The human body’s numerous regions have Contralateral describes a position on the opposite
specific terms to help increase precision. Notice that side of the body from another structure
the term “brachium” or “arm” is reserved for the
“upper arm” and “antebrachium” or “forearm” is used
 MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

e.g. The ascending and descending colons are Body Cavities and Serous Membranes
contralateral. The body maintains its internal organization
by means of membranes, sheaths, and other
structures that separate compartments. The dorsal
(posterior) cavity and the ventral (anterior) cavity
are the largest body compartments. These cavities
contain and protect delicate internal organs, and the
ventral cavity allows for significant changes in the
size and shape of the organs as they perform their
functions. The lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines,
for example, can expand and contract without
distorting other tissues or disrupting the activity of
nearby organs.

Body Planes
A section is a two-dimensional surface of a
three-dimensional structure that has been cut.
Modern medical imaging devices enable clinicians to Subdivisions of the Posterior (Dorsal) and Anterior
obtain “virtual sections” of living bodies. We call (Ventral) Cavities
these scans. Body sections and scans can be
correctly interpreted, however, only if the viewer The posterior (dorsal) and anterior (ventral) cavities
understands the plane along which the section was are each subdivided into smaller cavities.
made. A plane is an imaginary two-dimensional
surface that passes through the body. There are The posterior (dorsal) cavity has two main
three planes commonly referred to in anatomy and subdivisions:
medicine: • The cranial cavity houses the brain.
• The sagittal plane is the plane that divides the o Protected by the bones of the skulls and
body or an organ vertically into right and left sides. If cerebrospinal fluid.
this vertical plane runs directly down the middle of • The spinal cavity (or vertebral cavity) encloses the
the body, it is called the midsagittal or median plane. spinal cord.
If it divides the body into unequal right and left sides, o Protected by the vertebral column and
it is called a parasagittal plane or, less commonly, a cerebrospinal fluid.
longitudinal section.
o Midline is an imaginary vertical line that The anterior (ventral) cavity has two main
divides the body into equal left and right sides. subdivisions:
o The Parasagittal Plane is the sagittal • The thoracic cavity is the more superior
plane that does not pass through the midline but subdivision of the anterior cavity, and it is enclosed
instead divides the body or an organ into unequal by the rib cage.
right and left o The thoracic cavity contains the lungs and
sides. the heart, which are located in the mediastinum.
• The frontal plane is the plane that divides the o The diaphragm forms the floor of the
body or an organ into an anterior (front) portion and thoracic cavity and separates it from the more
a posterior (rear) portion. The frontal plane is often inferior abdominopelvic cavity.
referred to as a coronal plane (“corona” is Latin for • The abdominopelvic cavity is the largest cavity in
“crown”). the body.
• The transverse plane is the plane that divides the o No membrane physically divides the
body or organ horizontally into upper and lower abdominopelvic cavity.
portions. Transverse planes produce images o The abdominal cavity houses the digestive
referred to as cross- sections. organs, the pelvic cavity, and the reproductive
organs.
 MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

Abdominal Regions and Quadrants Epithelial Membranes

To promote clear communication, for is composed of epithelium attached to a layer of
instance, about the location of a patient’s abdominal connective tissue.
pain or a suspicious mass, healthcare providers • For example, your skin.
typically divide up the cavity into either nine regions
or four quadrants. The mucous membrane is also a composite of
connective and epithelial tissues.
Tissue Membranes • Sometimes called mucosae, these epithelial
is a thin layer or sheet of cells that covers the membranes line the body cavities and hollow
outside of the body (for example, skin), the organs passageways that open to the external environment
(for example, pericardium), internal passageways and include the digestive, respiratory, excretory, and
that lead to the exterior of the body (for example, reproductive tracts.
abdominal mesenteries), and the lining of the • Mucus, produced by the epithelial exocrine glands,
movable joint cavities. There are two basic types of covers the epithelial layer.
tissue membranes: connective tissue and epithelial • The underlying connective tissue, called the
membranes. lamina propria (literally “own layer”), helps support
the fragile epithelial layer.

The skin is an epithelial membrane also called the

cutaneous membrane.
• It is a stratified squamous epithelial membrane
resting on top of connective tissue. The apical
surface of this membrane is exposed to the external
environment and is covered with dead, keratinized
cells that help protect the body from desiccation and
pathogens.

Membranes of the Anterior (Ventral) Body Cavity

A serous membrane (also referred to as serosa) is

an epithelial membrane composed of mesodermally
derived epithelium called the mesothelium that is
supported by connective tissue These membranes
line the coelomic cavities of the body and they cover
the organs located within those cavities. They are
essentially membranous bags, with mesothelial
lining the inside and connective tissue on the
outside.
• Parietal layers: line the walls of the body cavity.
• Visceral layer: covers the organs (the viscera).
• Between the parietal and visceral layers is a very
thin, fluid-filled serous space.

LESSON 4: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Many terms and phrases related to the
integumentary system are abbreviated.
The connective tissue membrane is formed solely
• BCC (basal cell carcinoma)
from connective tissue.
• bx (biopsy)
• These membranes encapsulate organs, such as
• derm (dermatology)
the kidneys, and line our movable
• ID (intradermal)
joints.
• MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus)
A synovial membrane is a type of connective tissue
• SCC (squamous cell carcinoma)
membrane that lines the cavity of a freely movable
• SLE (systemic lupus erythematosus)
joint.
• staph (staphylococcus)
• For example, synovial membranes surround the
• strep (streptococcus)
joints of the shoulder, elbow, and knee.
• subcut (subcutaneous)
• TD (transdermal
 MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE Basal Cell Carcinoma (BCC)

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM -is a form of cancer that affects the mitotically active
The integumentary system is susceptible to a stem cells in the stratum basale of the epidermis. It
variety of diseases, disorders, and injuries. These is the most common of all cancers that occur in the
range from annoying but relatively benign bacterial United States and is frequently found on the head,
or fungal infections that are categorized as neck, arms, and back, which are the most
disorders, to skin cancer and severe burns, which susceptible to long-term sun exposure. Although UV
can be fatal. In this section, you will learn about rays are the main culprit, exposure to other agents,
several of the most common skin conditions. such as radiation and arsenic, can also lead to this
Most cancers are identified by the organ or type of cancer. Wounds on the skin due to open
tissue in which the cancer originates. In general, sores, tattoos, burns, et cetera may be predisposing
cancers result from an accumulation of DNA factors. Basal cell carcinomas start in the stratum
mutations. These mutations can result in cell basale and usually spread along this boundary. At
populations that do not die when they should and some point, they begin to grow toward the surface
uncontrolled cell proliferation that leads to tumors. and become an uneven patch, bump, growth, or
Although many tumors are benign, some scar on the skin surface. Like most cancers, basal
metastasize. Cancers are characterized by their cell carcinomas respond best to treatment when
ability to metastasize. One common form of cancer caught early. Treatment options include surgery,
is skin cancer. freezing (cryosurgery), and topical ointments.

• Sun Damage
Melanin synthesis peaks about 10 days after initial
sun exposure, which is why pale- skinned individuals
tend to suffer sunburns of the epidermis initially.
Dark-skinned individuals can also get sunburns but
are more protected than are pale-skinned
individuals. Too much sun exposure can eventually Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC)
lead to wrinkling due to the destruction of the cellular -is a cancer that affects the keratinocytes of the
structure of the skin, and in severe cases, can cause stratum spinosum and presents as lesions
sufficient DNA damage to result in skin cancer. commonly found on the scalp, ears, and hands It is
When there is an irregular accumulation of the second most common skin cancer. The
melanocytes in the skin, freckles appear. Moles are American Cancer Society reports that two of 10 skin
larger masses of melanocytes, and although most cancers are squamous cell carcinomas, and it is
are benign, they should be monitored for changes more aggressive than basal cell carcinoma. If not
that might indicate the presence of cancer. removed, these carcinomas can metastasize.
Surgery and radiation are used to cure squamous
cell carcinoma.

Melanoma
-is cancer characterized by the uncontrolled growth
of melanocytes, the pigment-producing cells in the
epidermis. Typically, a melanoma develops from a
mole. It is the most fatal of all skin cancers, as it is
highly metastatic and can be difficult to detect before
it has spread to other organs. Melanomas usually
appear as asymmetrical brown and black patches
with uneven borders and a raised. Treatment
typically involves surgical excision and
immunotherapy.
 MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

ABCDE for Early Diagnosis • Liver disease or liver cancer can cause the
Doctors often give their patients the following accumulation of bile and the yellow pigment bilirubin,
ABCDE mnemonic to help with the diagnosis of leading to the skin appearing yellow or jaundiced.
early-stage melanoma. If you observe a mole on
your body displaying these signs, consult a doctor:
• Asymmetry: the two sides are not symmetrical
• Borders: the edges are irregular in shape
• Color: the color is varied shades of brown or black
• Diameter: it is larger than 6 mm (0.24 in)
• Evolving: its shape has changed
Some specialists cite the following additional signs
for the most serious form, nodular melanoma: • Tumors of the pituitary gland can result in the
• Elevated: it is raised on the skin surface secretion of large amounts of melanocyte-
• Firm: it feels hard to the touch stimulating hormone (MSH), which results in a
• Growing: it is getting larger darkening of the skin.

Albinism
-is a genetic disorder that affects (completely or
partially) the coloring of skin, hair, and eyes. This is
primarily due to the inability of melanocytes to
produce melanin. Individuals with albinism tend to
appear white or very pale due to the lack of melanin
in their skin and hair. Recall that melanin helps
protect the skin from the harmful effects of UV
radiation. Individuals with albinism tend to need
more protection from UV radiation, as they are more
prone to sunburns and skin cancer. They also tend
to be more sensitive to light and have vision • Addison’s disease can stimulate the release of
problems due to the lack of pigmentation on the excess amounts of adrenocorticotropic hormone
retinal wall. Treatment of this disorder usually (ACTH), which can give the skin a deep bronze
involves addressing the symptoms, such as limiting color.
UV light exposure to the skin and eyes. In vitiligo,
the melanocytes in certain areas lose their ability to
produce melanin, possibly due to an autoimmune
reaction. This leads to a loss of color in patches.
Neither albinism nor vitiligo directly affects the
lifespan of an individual.
Figure 5.14 Vitiligo.
Individuals with vitiligo
experience
depigmentation that results • A sudden drop in oxygenation can affect skin color,
in lighter colored patches causing the skin to initially turn ashen (white).
of skin. The condition is • After a prolonged reduction in oxygen levels, dark
especially noticeable on red deoxyhemoglobin becomes dominant in the
darker skin. (credit: Klaus D. blood, making the skin appear blue, a condition
Peter). From Betts et al., referred to as cyanosis. This happens when the
2013. Licensed under CC BY oxygen supply is restricted, as when someone is
4.0. [Image description.] experiencing difficulty in breathing because of
asthma or a heart attack. However, in these cases,
the effect on skin color has nothing to do with the
skin’s pigmentation.

CHANGES IN SKIN COLORATION

Other changes in the appearance of skin coloration
can be indicative of diseases associated with other
body systems.
 MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

SKIN DISORDERS • Tinea corporis – body parts such as arms and legs
Two common skin disorders are eczema and acne. (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.-a)
Eczema is an inflammatory condition and occurs in
individuals of all ages. Acne involves the clogging of Psoriasis
pores, which can lead to infection and inflammation -is a chronic autoimmune disorder that results in
and is often seen in adolescents. Other disorders patches of thick red skin with the appearance of
include seborrheic dermatitis (on the scalp), silvery scales. These patches can be found on
psoriasis, fungal infections, cold sores, impetigo, elbows, knees, scalp, low back, face, feet,
scabies, hives, and warts. fingernails, toenails, and even the mouth. Psoriasis
Eczema can be confused with other skin diseases, so a
-is an allergic reaction that manifests as dry, itchy dermatologist is the best physician to diagnose
patches of skin that resemble rashes. It may be psoriasis. Treatments may include creams,
accompanied by swelling of the skin, flaking, and in ointments, ultraviolet light therapy, and medication
severe cases, bleeding. Symptoms are usually (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.-b).
managed with moisturizers, corticosteroid creams,
and immunosuppressants.

Injuries
Because the skin is the part of our bodies that meets
the world most directly, it is especially vulnerable to
Acne
injury. Injuries include burns, wounds, scars, and
-is a skin disturbance that typically occurs on areas
calluses. They can be caused by sharp objects,
of the skin that are rich in sebaceous glands (face
heat, or excessive pressure or friction to the skin.
and back). It is most common along with the onset of
Skin injuries set off a healing process that occurs in
puberty due to associated hormonal changes, but
several overlapping stages.
can also occur in infants and continue into
• The first step to repairing damaged skin is
adulthood. Hormones, such as androgens, stimulate
the formation of a blood clot that helps stop the
the release of sebum. Overproduction and
flow of blood and scabs over time. Many different
accumulation of sebum along with keratin can block
types of cells are involved in wound repair,
hair follicles. This plug is initially white. The sebum,
especially if the surface area that needs repair is
when oxidized by exposure to air, turns black. Acne
extensive.
results from infection by acne-causing bacteria
• Before the basal stem cells of the stratum
(Propionibacterium and Staphylococcus), which can
basale can recreate the epidermis, fibroblasts
lead to redness and potential scarring due to the
mobilize and divide rapidly to repair the damaged
natural wound healing process.
tissue by collagen deposition, forming granulation
tissue.
• Blood capillaries follow the fibroblasts and
help increase blood circulation and oxygen
supply to the area.
• Immune cells, such as macrophages, roam
Ringworm the area and engulf any foreign matter to reduce
Tinea or dermatophytosis is often referred to as the chance of infection.
ringworm. Ringworm presents as a circular rash that
is itchy and red and can be found on various parts of Burns
the body. It is referred to by the location that it is -results when the skin is damaged by intense heat,
found: radiation, electricity, or chemicals. The damage
• Tinea pedis – feet (commonly referred to as results in the death of skin cells, which can lead to a
athlete’s feet) massive loss of fluid. Dehydration, electrolyte
• Tinea capitis – scalp imbalance, and renal and circulatory failure follow,
• Tinea barbae – beard which can be fatal. Burn patients are treated with
• Tinea manuum – hands intravenous fluids to offset dehydration, as well as
• Tinea unguium – toenails and fingernails (also intravenous nutrients that enable the body to repair
called onychomycosis) tissues and replace lost proteins. Another serious
 MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

threat to the lives of burn patients is infection. Scars and Keloids

Burned skin is extremely susceptible to bacteria and Most cuts or wounds, with the exception of
other pathogens due to the loss of protection by ones that only scratch the epidermis, lead to scar
intact layers of skin formation. Scarring occurs in cases in which there is
Burn Classification repair of skin damage, but the skin fails to
Burns are sometimes measured in terms of the size regenerate the original skin structure. Fibroblasts
of the total surface area affected. This is referred to generate scar tissue in the form of collagen, and the
as the rule of nines, which associates specific bulk of repair is due to the basket-weave pattern
anatomical areas with a percentage that is a factor generated by collagen fibers and does not result in
of nine. regeneration of the typical cellular structure of skin.
Figure 5.17 Calculating the Size of a Instead, the tissue is fibrous in nature and does not
Burn. The size of a burn will guide allow for the regeneration of accessory structures,
decisions made about the need for such as hair follicles, sweat glands, or sebaceous
specialized treatment. Specific parts glands.
of the body are associated with a Sometimes, there is an overproduction of
percentage of body area. From Betts scar tissue, because the process of collagen
et al., 2013. Licensed under CC BY formation does not stop when the wound is healed;
4.0. [Image description.] this results in a keloid. In contrast, scars that result
from acne and chickenpox have a sunken
appearance and are called atrophic scars. Scarring
of skin after wound healing is a natural process and
does not need to be treated further. Application of
mineral oil and lotions may reduce the formation of
scar tissue. However, modern cosmetic procedures,
Burns are also classified by the degree of their such as dermabrasion, laser treatments, and filler
severity: injections have been invented as remedies for
• A first-degree burn is a superficial burn that affects severe scarring. All of these procedures try to
only the epidermis. Although the skin may be painful reorganize the structure of the epidermis and
and swollen, these burns typically heal on their own underlying collagen tissue to make it look more
within a few days. Mild sunburn fits into the category natural.
of a first-degree burn.
• A second-degree burn goes deeper and affects Bedsores and Stretch Marks
both the epidermis and a portion of the dermis. Skin and its underlying tissue can be affected
These burns result in swelling and a painful by excessive pressure. One example of this is called
blistering of the skin. It is important to keep the burn a bedsore. Bedsores, also called decubitus ulcers,
site clean and sterile to prevent infection. If this is are caused by constant, long-term, unrelieved
done, the burn will heal within several weeks. pressure on certain body parts that are bony,
• A third-degree burn fully extends into the reducing blood flow to the area and leading to
epidermis and dermis, destroying the tissue and necrosis. Bedsores are most common in elderly
affecting the nerve endings and sensory function. patients who have debilitating conditions that cause
These are serious burns that may appear white, red, them to be immobile. Most hospitals and long-term
or black; they require medical attention and will heal care facilities have the practice of turning the
slowly without it. patients every few hours to prevent the incidence of
• A fourth-degree burn is even more severe, bedsores. If left untreated, bedsores can be fatal if
affecting the underlying muscle and bone. they become infected. The skin can also be affected
Oddly, third and fourth-degree burns are by pressure associated with rapid growth.
usually not as painful because the nerve endings
themselves are damaged. Full-thickness burns
cannot be repaired by the body, because the local
tissues used for repair are damaged and require
debridement, or amputation in severe cases,
followed by grafting of the skin from an unaffected
part of the body, or from skin grown in tissue culture
for grafting purposes. Skin grafts are required when
the damage from trauma or infection cannot be
closed with sutures or staples. A stretch mark results when the dermis is stretched
beyond its limits of elasticity, as the skin stretches to
accommodate the excess pressure. Stretch marks
 MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

usually accompany rapid weight gain during puberty the brain, spinal cord, heart, lungs, and pelvic
and pregnancy. They initially have a reddish hue but organs. The bones of the skeleton serve as the
lighten over time. Other than for cosmetic reasons, primary storage site for important minerals such as
treatment of stretch marks is not required. They calcium and phosphate. The bone marrow found
occur most commonly over the hips and abdomen. within bones stores fat and houses the blood-cell-
producing tissue of the body.

The skeleton is subdivided into two major divisions:

the axial and appendicular.

Axial Skeleton
-forms the vertical, central axis of the body and
includes all bones of the head, neck, chest, and
Calluses back. It serves to protect the brain, spinal cord,
When you wear shoes that do not fit well and are a heart, and lungs. It also serves as the attachment
constant source of abrasion on your toes, you tend site for muscles that move the head, neck, and back,
to form a callus at the point of contact. This occurs and for muscles that act across the shoulder and hip
because the basal stem cells in the stratum basale joints to move their corresponding limbs.
are triggered to divide more often to increase the -The axial skeleton of the adult consists of 80 bones,
thickness of the skin at the point of abrasion to including the skull, the vertebral column, and the
protect the rest of the body from further damage. thoracic cage.
This is an example of a minor or local injury, and the -The skull is formed by 22 bones. Also associated
skin manages to react and treat the problem with the head are an additional seven bones,
independently of the rest of the body. Calluses can including the hyoid bone and the ear
also form on your fingers if they are subject to ossicles (three small bones found in each middle
constant mechanical stress, such as long periods of ear).
writing, playing string instruments, or video games. A -The vertebral column consists of 24 bones, each
corn is a specialized form of callus. Corns form from called a vertebra, plus the sacrum and coccyx. -
abrasions on the skin that result from an elliptical The thoracic cage includes the 12 pairs of ribs and
type motion. the sternum, the flattened bone of the anterior
chest.

LESSON 5: JOINTS & MOVEMENT

Anatomy (Structures) of the Skeletal System

The skeletal system includes all of the bones,
cartilage, and ligaments of the body that support and
give shape to the body and body structures. The
skeleton consists of the bones of the body. For
adults, there are 206 bones in the skeleton. Younger
individuals have higher numbers of bones because
some bones fuse together during childhood and
adolescence to form an adult bone. The primary
functions of the skeleton are to provide a rigid,
internal structure that can support the weight of the
body against the force of gravity, and to provide a
structure upon which muscles can act to produce
movements of the body.

In addition to providing for support and movements

of the body, the skeleton has protective and storage
functions. It protects the internal organs, including
 MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

The cranium or skull supports the face and protects Types of Vertebrae
the brain. It is subdivided into the bones of the skull • Cervical – C1 to C7, the first 7 vertebrae in the
and the bones of the face. neck region
• Thoracic – T1 to T12, the next 12 vertebrae that
Bones of the Skull form the outward curvature of the
• Frontal – forms the forehead spine
• Parietal – the upper lateral sides of the cranium • Lumbar – L1 to L5, the next 5 vertebrae that form
• Occipital – the posterior skull and base of the the inner curvature of the spine
cranial cavity • Sacrum – the triangular-shaped bone at the base
• Temporal – the lower lateral sides of the cranium of the spine
• Sphenoid -the ‘keystone’ bone that forms part of • Coccyx – the tailbone
the base of the skull and eye sockets
• Ethmoid – forms part of the nose and orbit and Bones of the Thoracic Cavity
base of the cranium The thoracic cage (rib cage) forms the thorax (chest)
• Auditory ossicles – the small bones of the middle portion of the body. It consists of the 12 pairs of ribs
ear with their costal cartilages and the sternum. The ribs
• External auditory meatus – the external opening of are anchored posteriorly to the 12 thoracic vertebrae
the ear and temporal bone (T1–T12). The thoracic cage protects the heart and
lungs.
Bones of the Face
• Zygomatic – the cheekbone
• Maxillary – the upper jaw and hard palate
• Palatine – the lateral walls of the nose
• Lacrimal – the walls of the orbit
• Inferior conchae – the lower lateral wall of the
nasal cavity
• Vomer – the bone that separates the left and right
nasal cavity
• Mandible – the lower jaw bone (the only movable
bone of the skull)
• Hyoid – the bone located between the mandible
and larynx, not connected to other bones

Did you know?

The axial skeleton has 80 bones and includes bones Ribs
of the skull (and face), vertebral column, and There are 12 sets of ribs and can be divided as
thoracic cage. such:
• 7 true ribs – they are attached to the front of the
Bones of the Vertebral Column sternum
The vertebral column is also known as the spinal • 3 false ribs – they are attached to the cartilage
column or spine It consists of a sequence of that joins the sternum
vertebrae (singular = vertebra), each of which is • 2 floating ribs – they are not attached to the front
separated and united by an intervertebral disc. of the sternum
Together, the vertebrae and intervertebral discs form
the vertebral column. It is a flexible column that Sternum
supports the head, neck, and body and allows for - also known as the breast bone, is divided into 3
their movements. It also protects the spinal cord, parts:
which passes down the back through openings in • manubrium – the upper portion of the breast bone
the vertebrae. • body – the middle portion of the breast bone
• xiphoid process – the lower portion of the breast
bone and is made up of cartilage

The Appendicular Skeleton

- includes all bones of the upper and lower limbs,
plus the bones that attach each limb to the axial
skeleton. There are 126 bones in the appendicular
skeleton of an adult.
 MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

Bones of the Pectoral Girdle • Pelvic girdle – the hip or coxal bone; it is formed
• Scapula – the shoulder blades by the fusion of three bones during adolescence
• Clavicle – the collarbone, which connects the • Illium – the largest part of the hip bone
sternum to the scapula • Ischium – the lower portion of pelvic girdle
• Acromion – the extension that forms the bony • Pubis – the anterior portion of pelvic girdle
point of the shoulder • Pelvis – consists of four bones: the left and right
hip bones as well as the sacrum and coccyx
Bones of the Upper Limbs • Acetabulum – the large socket in the pelvic bones
The bones of the upper limbs include the bones of that holds the head of the femur
the arms, wrists, and hands.
The shape of the pelvic girdle is different for males
Bones of the Arm than females. In the male, it is a funnel shape. In the
• Humerus – the bone in the upper arm female, it is shaped like a basin to accommodate the
• Radius – the bone that runs thumb-side of the fetus during pregnancy.
forearm
• Ulna – the bone that runs on the side of the little Bones of the Lower Limbs
finger of the forearm The bones of the lower limb include bones of the leg
and the feet.

Bones of the Leg

• Femur – the thigh bone and is also referred to as
the upper leg bone; it is the longest and strongest
bone in the human body
• Patella – the kneecap
• Tibia – the shin bone; it is a medial bone and the
main weight-bearing bone of the lower leg
• Fibula – the smaller of the lower leg bone

Bones of the Wrist and Hand

• Carpals – the wrist bones
• Metacarpals – the bones in the palm
• Phalanges – the finger and toe bones
Each phalanx has three bones: the distal, medial,
and proximal. The exception is the thumb and big
toe which has two bones: the distal and proximal
There are 30 bones in each upper limb.

Bones of the Ankles and Feet

• Tarsals – the ankle bones (7 total)
• Malleolus – the bony protrusions of the ankle
bones
• Talus – the superior ankle bones
• Calcaneus – the heel bones
• Metatarsals – the foot bones
Bones of the Pelvic Region • Phalanges – the bones of the toes
The bones of the pelvic region protect the
reproductive, urinary, and excretory organs.
 MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

• Synovial membrane – the lining or covering of

synovial joints
• Synovial fluid – the lubricating fluid found
between synovial joints
• Ligaments – the tough, elastic connective tissue
that connects bone to bone
• Tendons – the fibrous connective tissue that
attaches muscle to bone
• Bursa – the closed, fluid-filled sacs that work as a
cushion
• Meniscus – C-shaped cartilage that acts as shock
absorbers between bones

Physiology (Function) of the Skeletal System Body Movements

The bones of the skeletal system are Synovial joints are movable joints and provide most
comprised of an inner spongy tissue referred to as of the body movements. Body movement occurs
bone marrow. There are two types of bone marrow: when the bones, joints, and muscles work together.
red and yellow.
The red bone marrow produces the red
blood cells, and it does so by a process called
hematopoiesis.
The yellow bone marrow contains adipose
tissues which can be a source of energy.
The bones of the skeletal system also store
minerals such as calcium and phosphate. These
minerals are important for the physiological
processes in the body and are released into the
bloodstream when levels are low in the body.

Joints
Most bones connect to at least one other
bone in the body. The area where bones meet bones
or where bones meet cartilage are called
articulations. Joints can be classified based on their
ability to move. At movable joints, the articulating
surfaces of the adjacent bones can move smoothly
against each other. However, other joints may be
connected by connective tissue or cartilage. These
joints are designed for stability and provide for little Flexion and extension are movements that take
or no movement. Importantly, joint stability and place within the sagittal plane and involve anterior or
movement are related to each other. This means posterior movements of the body or limbs. For the
that stable joints allow for little or no mobility vertebral column, flexion (anterior flexion) is an
between the adjacent bones. Conversely, joints that anterior (forward) bending of the neck or body, while
provide the most movement between bones are the extension involves a posterior-directed motion, such
least stable. as straightening from a flexed position or bending
backward.
Based on the function of joints, there are 3 types of
joints: Lateral flexion is the bending of the neck or
• Synarthrosis joints allow no movement. body toward the right or left side. These movements
o For example, joints of the skull of the vertebral column involve both the joints as
• Amphiarthrosis joints allow some movement. well as the associated intervertebral disc.
o For example, joints of the pubic symphysis
• Diarthrosis joints allow for free movement. In the limbs, flexion decreases the angle between
o For example, joints of the knee the bones (bending of the joint), while extension
increases the angle and straightens the joint.
Structures associated with joints are:
• Cartilage – the elastic connective tissue that is Abduction and adduction motions occur within the
found at the ends of bones, nose tip, et cetera coronal plane and involve medial- lateral motions of
 MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

the limbs, fingers, toes, or thumb. For example, (upward) toward the anterior leg is dorsiflexion, while
abduction is raising the arm at the shoulder joint, lifting the heel of the foot from the ground or pointing
moving it laterally away from the body, while the toes downward is plantar flexion. These are the
adduction brings the arm down to the side of the only movements available at the ankle joint.
body.
Inversion and Eversion
Circumduction is the movement of a body region in -complex movements that involve the multiple plane
a circular manner, in which one end of the body joints among the tarsal bones of the posterior foot
region being moved stays relatively stationary while (intertarsal joints) and thus are not motions that take
the other end describes a circle. It involves the place at the ankle joint.
sequential combination of flexion, adduction, Inversion is the turning of the foot to angle the
extension, and abduction at a joint. bottom of the foot toward the midline, while eversion
turns the bottom of the foot away from the
Rotation can occur within the vertebral column, at a midline.
pivot joint, or at a ball-and-socket joint. Rotation of The foot has a greater range of inversion than
the neck or body is the twisting movement produced eversion motion. These are important motions that
by the summation of the small rotational movements help to stabilize the foot when walking or running on
available between adjacent vertebrae. At a pivot an uneven surface and aid in the quick side-to-side
joint, one bone rotates in relation to another bone. changes in direction used during active sports such
Rotation can also occur at the ball-and- as basketball, racquetball, or soccer.
socket joints of the shoulder and hip. Here, the
humerus and femur rotate around their long axis, Protraction and Retraction
which moves the anterior surface of the arm or thigh -anterior-posterior movements of the scapula or
either toward or away from the midline of the mandible.
Body. Protraction of the scapula occurs when the
shoulder is moved forward, as when pushing against
something or throwing a ball.
Retraction is the opposite motion, with the scapula
being pulled posteriorly and medially, toward the
vertebral column. For the mandible, protraction
occurs when the lower jaw is pushed forward, to
stick out the chin, while retraction pulls the lower jaw
backward.

Depression and Elevation

-downward and upward movements of the scapula
or mandible. The upward movement of the scapula
and shoulder is elevation, while a downward
movement is depression. These movements are
used to shrug your shoulders. Similarly, elevation of
the mandible is the upward movement of the lower
Supination and Pronation jaw used to close the mouth or bite on something,
-movements of the forearm. In the anatomical and depression is the downward movement that
position, the upper limb is held next to the body with produces the opening of the mouth.
the palm facing forward. This is the supinated
position of the forearm. In this position, the radius DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE SKELETAL
and ulna are parallel to each other. When the palm SYSTEM
faces backward, the forearm is in the pronated
position, and the radius and ulna form an X-shape. Osteoporosis
The National Institute of Health’s Osteoporosis and
Pronation is the movement that allows the palm to Related Bone Diseases National Resource Center
face backward while in supination the palm faces describes osteoporosis as bone loss that causes
forward. It helps to remember that supination is the bones to become weak and thin over time. This
motion you use when scooping up soup with a weakness can lead to fractures from simple
spoon. movements and occur often in the wrist, shoulder,
spine, and hip (National Institute of Arthritis and
Dorsiflexion and Plantar Flexion Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, n.d.-b).
-at the ankle joint, which is a hinge joint. Lifting the
front of the foot, so that the top of the foot moves
 MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

Arthritis causes fibromyalgia. A doctor may need to order

-often presents as edema, arthralgia, and ankylosis tests to rule out other conditions before making a
(National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal diagnosis of fibromyalgia (National Institute of
and Skin Diseases, n.d.-a). Common types of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases,
arthritis are osteoarthritis (OA), rheumatoid arthritis n.d.-c).
(RA), Gout and lupus.
Osteomyelitis
Osteoarthritis -is a bone infection caused when staphylococcus
-is the most common form of arthritis and according bacteria travel through the bloodstream from an
to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention infection in one part of the body to the bone.
(CDC), affects over 32.5 million adults in the United Staphylococcus bacteria are found on the skin, and
States. The breakdown of cartilage and bone occurs they can transfer to the bone through a wound
over time when joints are exposed to heavy and/or surgical contamination. The risk increases as
workloads either through occupation, obesity, and/or people age or if their immune system is
prior injury to a joint. Common signs and symptoms compromised (Momodu & Savaliya, 2021).
are pain, stiffness, and aching that worsens over
time. While there is no cure, symptoms can be DISORDERS OF THE CURVATURE OF THE
managed through exercise, medications, and in SPINE
severe cases, joint replacements (Centers for Developmental anomalies, pathological changes, or
Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.-a). obesity can enhance the normal vertebral column
curves, resulting in the development of abnormal or
Rheumatoid Arthritis excessive curvatures. Disorders associated with the
The CDC describes rheumatoid arthritis (RA) as an curvature of the spine include:
autoimmune and inflammatory disease. Autoimmune • Kyphosis: Also referred to as humpback, it is an
diseases are disorders in which the immune system excessive posterior curvature of the thoracic region.
overreacts and begins to attack itself. In the case of This can develop when osteoporosis causes
RA, inflammation of the joint tissues of the hands, weakening and erosion of the anterior portions of the
wrists, and knees is painful and debilitating. upper thoracic vertebrae, resulting in their gradual
Treatments may include immunosuppressive drugs collapse.
and anti-inflammatory drugs (Betts et al., 2013). RA • Lordosis: Also referred to as swayback, it is an
can also affect other tissues throughout the body excessive anterior curvature of the lumbar region
and cause problems in organs such as the lungs, and is most commonly associated with obesity or
heart, and eyes. RA can affect children; in this case, late pregnancy. The accumulation of body weight in
it is referred to as juvenile rheumatoid arthritis the abdominal region results in an anterior shift in
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.-b). the line of gravity that carries the weight of the body.
This causes an anterior tilt of the pelvis and a
Gout pronounced enhancement of the lumbar curve.
-is an inflammatory arthritis caused by the buildup of • Scoliosis: An abnormal, lateral curvature,
uric acid crystals in a joint. Gout has periods of flares accompanied by twisting of the vertebral column.
and remission and is commonly treated through Scoliosis is the most common vertebral abnormality
lifestyle changes and medication. While any joint among girls. The cause is usually unknown, but it
can be affected, it is common in the lower may result from weakness of the back muscles,
extremities and most often in the big toe (Centers for defects such as differential growth rates in the right
Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.-c). and left sides of the vertebral column, or differences
in the length of the lower limbs. When present,
Myasthenia Gravis scoliosis tends to get worse during adolescent
The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and growth spurts. Although most individuals do not
Strokes describes myasthenia gravis as a “chronic require treatment, a back brace may be
autoimmune neuromuscular disease that causes recommended for growing children. In extreme
weakness in the skeletal muscles” (Office of cases, surgery may be required.
Communications and Public Liaison, 2020).

Fibromyalgia
-is a challenging disease to diagnose since
symptoms manifest differently and are similar to
other diseases. Signs and symptoms may include
widespread pain, chronic fatigue, gastrointestinal
problems, and headaches. It is not known what
 MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

Fractures Chondrosarcoma primarily affects older adults

-is a broken bone. It will heal whether or not a (National Cancer Institute, n.d.-a)
physician resets it in its anatomical position. If the
bone is not reset correctly, the healing process will MEDICAL SPECIALTIES AND PROCEDURES
keep the bone in its deformed position. Crepitation RELATED TO THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
or crepitus is the creaking or popping sound that is
heard when fractured bones move against each Orthopedic Surgeon
other. Fractures are classified by their complexity, -are medical doctors who have specialized training
location, and other features. Some fractures may be in the prevention, diagnosis, treatment, and surgery
described using more than one term because they of disorders and diseases related to the
may have the features of more than one type (e.g., musculoskeletal systems.
an open transverse fracture).
Rheumatologist
Types of fractures include: -are medical doctors who specialize in the diagnosis
• Closed or simple – bones are broken but do not and treatment of disorders of the joints, muscles,
protrude the skin and bones. They diagnose and treat diseases such
• Open or compound – bones are broken and as arthritis, musculoskeletal disorders, osteoporosis,
pierce through the skin plus autoimmune diseases like ankylosing
• Transverse – bone is broken straight across spondylitis, a chronic spinal inflammatory disease,
• Spiral – the bone has twisted apart and rheumatoid arthritis (Fowler et al., 2013).
• Comminuted – bones are broken and crushed into
pieces Doctor of Chiropractic (DC)/Chiropractor
• Greenstick – bones are partially broken; occurs Chiropractors are required to have a Doctor of
mainly in children Chiropractic (D.C.) degree, which is a 4-year
• Oblique – bones are broken at an angle postgraduate professional degree, and a state
• Coles – bones are broken at the wrist or distal license. Chiropractors focus on spinal adjustments,
radius nutrition, and preventing injury without the use of
• Stress – a small crack in the bone pharmaceuticals or surgical procedures (Bureau of
Labor Statistics, 2021b).

Physical Therapist
-is a licensed professional who develops
individualized treatment plans for their clients. These
plans can include exercises, hands-on therapy, and
equipment, such as canes or wheelchairs.

Diagnostic Procedures
Common diagnostic procedures related specifically
to the skeletal system include x-rays, bone mineral
density testing, and arthroscopy.
• X-rays are common diagnostic tests used to
confirm or rule out fractures and broken bones. The
radiation dose is low so it is considered a safe
diagnostic test (MedlinePlus, 2021).
• Dual x-ray absorptiometry (BMD), also called a
bone mineral density test, is a test to determine
osteoporosis by measuring the amount of bone
mineral in a particular amount of bone (National
Cancer Institute, n.d.-b).
• Arthroscopy is a procedure that involves a small
incision and the insertion into the joint of an
arthroscope, a pencil-thin instrument that allows for
Bone Cancer
visualization of the joint interior. Small surgical
There are three types of primary bone cancers:
instruments are also inserted via additional incisions.
osteosarcoma, Ewing Sarcomas, and
These tools allow a surgeon to remove or repair a
chondrosarcoma. These are considered primary
torn meniscus or to reconstruct a ruptured cruciate
cancers because they originate in the bones.
ligament.
Osteosarcoma and Ewing Sarcomas primarily affect
children, teenagers, and young adults.
 MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

Skeletal System Vocabulary Discitis - Inflammation of the intervertebral disk.

Abduction - Moving the limb or hand laterally away
from the body, or spreading the fingers or toes. Dyskinesia - Abnormal involuntary movements of
the extremities, trunk, or jaw.
Adduction - Movement that brings the limb or hand
toward or across the midline of the body, or brings Edema Swelling due to excessive liquid in the
the fingers or toes together. tissues.

Amphiarthrosis - A slightly mobile joint. Eversion- Foot movement in which the bottom of
the foot is turned laterally, away from the midline.
Ankylosis - Fixation and immobility of a joint.
Extension - Movement in the sagittal plane that
Appendicular skeleton - All bones of the upper and increases the angle of a joint (straightens the joint).
lower limbs, plus the girdle bones that attach each
limb to the axial skeleton. Flexion - Movement in the sagittal plane that
decreases the angle of a joint (bends the joint).
Arthralgia- Joint pain.
Hematopoiesis - The production of blood cells.
Arthritis - Chronic inflammation of the synovial
joints. Hyperkinesia - Excessive movement of muscles of
the body as a whole.
Arthrocentesis - Surgical puncture to aspirate fluid
from a joint. Hypertrophy - The enlargement of muscles.

Arthrodesis- Surgical fixation of a joint. Inversion - Foot movement in which the bottom of
the foot is turned toward the midline.
Arthrography- Process of recording a joint.
Kyphosis - An excessive posterior curvature of the
Arthroplasty - Joint replacement surgery. thoracic region; also called humpback.

Arthroscopy - Process of viewing a joint using an Lordosis- Excessive anterior curvature of the
endoscope. lumbar vertebral column region; also called
swayback.
Articulations- Where two bone surfaces meet.
Lumbar - Pertaining to the lumbar region of the
Autoimmune diseases/disorders - Disorders in spine (L1 to L5).
which the immune system overreacts and begins to
attack itself. Lumbosacral - Pertaining to the region of the back
that includes the lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, and
Axial skeleton - The central, vertical axis of the nearby structures.
body, including the skull, vertebral column, and
thoracic cage. Muscular dystrophy - A general term for the group
of inherited myopathies that are characterized by
Bradykinesia - Condition of slow movement. wasting and weakness of the skeletal muscle.

Bursitis - Inflammation of a bursa near a joint. Osteitis - Inflammation of bone.

Chondromalacia - Degeneration of cartilage. Osteoarthritis - The most common type of arthritis;

associated with aging and “wear and tear” of the
Chronic - A condition that lasts a long time with articular cartilage.
periods of remission and exacerbation.
Osteoblast - The cell responsible for forming new
Craniotomy - An operation in which a piece of the bone.
skull is removed.
Osteochondritis - Inflammation of bone and
Diarthrosis - Freely mobile joints. cartilage.

Diskectomy - Excision of the intervertebral disk. Osteocyte - Bone cell.

 MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

Osteomalacia - A softening of adult bones due to Vertebroplasty - A procedure used to repair a bone
Vitamin D deficiency. in the spine that has a break caused by cancer,
osteoporosis, or trauma.
Osteomyelitis - Inflammation of bone and bone
marrow. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Osteonecrosis - Abnormal condition of bone death Integumentary System

(lack of blood supply) • In “Inside”
• Tegere “To cover”
Osteopenia - Abnormally low bone mass or bone • Dermatology
mineral density. • Derma “Skin”
• Logy “Study of”
Osteopetrosis - Abnormal condition of porous
bones. Skin
• Cutaneous membrane
Osteoporosis - A disease characterized by a • Integument
decrease in bone mass that occurs when the rate of • Covers the external surface of the body
bone resorption exceeds the rate of bone formation. • Largest organ of the body in both surface area and
weight
Osteosarcoma - Malignant tumor of bone. • Composed of:
• Epidermis
Pelvic - Pertaining to the pelvis. • Dermis
• Hypodermis
Pronation - Forearm motion that moves the palm of
the hand from the palm forward to the palm Layers of the Skin
backward position.

Rotation - Movement of a bone around a central

axis or around its long axis.

Sarcopenia - Age-related muscle atrophy.

Scoliosis - Lateral curvature of the spine.

Spondyloarthritis - Inflammation of the joints of the

spine.
PSOARISIS
Spondylosis - A degenerative spinal disease that • Chronic skin disorder in which the
can involve any part of the vertebra, intervertebral keratinocytes divide and move more
disk, and surrounding soft tissue. quickly from stratum basale to stratum
corneum
Supination - Forearm motion that moves the palm • Flaky, silver scales seen in:
of the hand from the palm backward to the palm a. Knees
forward position. b. Elbows
c. Scalps
Synarthrosis - An immobile or nearly immobile joint. TREATMENT
• Topical ointments
Synovectomy - Excision of the synovial membrane. • Ultraviolet phototherapy

Synovial sarcoma - Malignant tumor of the synovial SKIN COLOR AS DIAGNOSTIC CLUE
membrane. 1. Cyanosis
• Cyan “Blue”
Tendinitis - Inflammation of the tendon. • Inadequate amount
of oxygen from the lungs
Tenosynovitis - Inflammation of the synovial • Mucous membranes,
membrane of a tendon. nail beds, and skin appear
bluish
 MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

2. Jaundice CHEMOTHERAPY
• Jaund “Yellow” • Tx of dse, usually cancer, by means of chemical
• Buildup of the yellow pigment, bilirubin in the skin substances or drugs
• Gives a yellowish appearance to the skin and the • Chemotherapeutic agents interrupt the life cycle of
whites of the eyes rapidly dividing cancer cells
• Indicates liver disease • Also affect other rapidly dividing cells in the
body, such as the hair matrix cells of a hair

HAIR REMOVAL
• Electrolysis
• Laser txs
• Depilatory
• Substance that removes hair
• It dissolves the protein in the hair shaft, turning it
into a gelatinous mass that can be wiped away
3. Erythema HIRSUTISM
• Eryth “Red” • Hirsut “shaggy”
• Caused by engorgement of capillaries in the • Excessive body hair or body hair in areas that
dermis with blood usually are not hairy
• d/t skin injury, exposure to heat, infection, • A tumor of the adrenal glands, testes, or ovaries
inflammation, or allergic reactions (↑ androgen)
4. Pallor • Sebaceous Gland
• Paleness of the skin • Sebace “Greasy”
• May occur in conditions such as shock and anemia • Oil glands
• For pt.’s c darker skin, examination of the nail beds
and gums can be done to confirm • Acne
• Inflammation of sebaceous glands
• Usually begins at puberty (stimulated by
androgens)

• Sudoriferous Gland
• Sudor “Sweat”
• Ferous “Bearing”
Types of Sudoriferous Glands
a. Eccrine sweat glands
ACCESSORY STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN • Eccrine “Secreting outwardly”
• Hair • Distributed throughout the skin of most regions of
• Pili the body
• Present on most skin surfaces x the palms, • X: margins of the lips, nail beds of the fingers and
palmar surfaces of the fingers, the soles, and plantar toes, glans penis, glans clitoris, labia minora, or
surfaces of the feet eardrum
Types of Hair b. Apocrine sweat glands
a. Lanugo • Apo “separated from”
• “Wool or down” • Skin of the axilla (armpit), groin, areolae
• Covers the body of the fetus (pigmented areas around the nipples) of the breasts,
b. Terminal hairs and bearded regions of the face in adult males.
• Eye brow, eye lashes, scalp
c. Vellus hairs WOUND HEALING
• Fleece • Fibrosis
• A.K.A. Peach • Process of scar tissue healing
• Hypertrophic scar
ALOPECIA • Scar remains within the boundaries of the
• Partial or complete lack of hair, original wound
• May result from genetic factors, • Keloid scar
aging, endocrine disorders, • Extends beyond the boundaries into normal
chemotherapy, or skin disease surrounding tissues
 MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

SKIN CANCER PRESSURE ULCERS

• Excessive exposure to ultraviolet radiation • Decubitus ulcers
• Early warning signs • Bedsores
Asymmetry • Constant deficiency of blood flow
Border • Bony projection that has been subjected to
Color prolonged pressure against an object such as a bed,
Diameter cast, or splint
Evolving
PRESSURE ULCER STAGING
BURN
• Tissue damage caused by excessive heat,
electricity, radioactivity, or corrosive chemicals that
denature (break down) proteins in the skin (Tortora,
2012)
• Most common cause of burn injury in children 1 to
5 years of age is from scalds from hot liquids
(O’Sullivan, 2014)
• The primary cause of burn injury in adolescents
and adults is accidents with hot liquids (O’Sullivan,
2014)

RULE OF NINES
MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM