This document describes an experiment that tests the physical and chemical properties of different classes of hydrocarbons including alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and aromatics. It outlines the different functional groups that define each class and describes several common chemical tests and reactions that can be used to distinguish between them, including reactions with potassium permanganate and other reagents. The goal is to examine how the presence of different functional groups leads to varying properties and reactivities.
This document describes an experiment that tests the physical and chemical properties of different classes of hydrocarbons including alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and aromatics. It outlines the different functional groups that define each class and describes several common chemical tests and reactions that can be used to distinguish between them, including reactions with potassium permanganate and other reagents. The goal is to examine how the presence of different functional groups leads to varying properties and reactivities.
Original Description:
Experimental and information about alkenes alkane and alkynes
This document describes an experiment that tests the physical and chemical properties of different classes of hydrocarbons including alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and aromatics. It outlines the different functional groups that define each class and describes several common chemical tests and reactions that can be used to distinguish between them, including reactions with potassium permanganate and other reagents. The goal is to examine how the presence of different functional groups leads to varying properties and reactivities.
This document describes an experiment that tests the physical and chemical properties of different classes of hydrocarbons including alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and aromatics. It outlines the different functional groups that define each class and describes several common chemical tests and reactions that can be used to distinguish between them, including reactions with potassium permanganate and other reagents. The goal is to examine how the presence of different functional groups leads to varying properties and reactivities.
BACKGROUND Hydrocarbons are organic compounds composed entirely of carbon and hydrogen atoms. They are obtained primarily from natural sources such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Hydrocarbons differ primarily in the functional group. This experiment will examine how the different functional groups in Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes, and Aromatic hydrocarbons lead to different physical and chemical properties. A. Classes of hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons can be divided into several different classes depending on the functional group present. The following four classes of compounds will be explored. Alkanes Are composed of hydrocarbons having only single bonds between carbon (C– C) atoms. They are often referred to as saturated hydrocarbons because the molecule contains the maximum number of hydrogen atoms attached to each carbon. They have a generic formula given by C n H2n+2. Alkanes generally react via a substitution mechanism where two molecules exchange atoms, as illustrated below where X is any Halogen.
Alkenes Are composed of hydrocarbons containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond. They are unsaturated in that they have two less hydrogens then the corresponding Alkane. They have a generic formula given by C n H2n . The carbon-carbon double bond is a point of high reactivity, and most chemical reactions of Alkenes occur by the addition mechanism where the carbon-carbon double bond is broken and the reacting molecules are added to the Alkene. An example is shown below: Alkynes Are composed of hydrocarbons containing at least one carbon-carbon triple bond. They are considered unsaturated and have a generic formula given by C n H2n-2. The carbon-carbon triple bond is a point of high reactivity and Alkynes tend to react in similar manner to Alkenes. Aromatics Are composed of hydrocarbons based on the benzene ring (C6 H6 ) Benzene is composed of a 6- member ring containing alternating carbon-carbon double bonds. From its formula benzene appears to be a highly unsaturated molecule, however, the benzene ring itself is unusually stable and it chemically reacts more like a saturated hydrocarbon in many respects and generally by substitution reactions.
B. Physical Properties When a compound burns in the presence of oxygen the reaction is called a combustion. Like most organic substances, hydrocarbons are combustible. The general reaction is given below.
Complete combustion occurs when there is enough oxygen to fully convert all the carbon atoms in the organic compound to carbon dioxide and the hydrogen atoms to water. Incomplete combustion occurs when there is insufficient oxygen to react with carbon, resulting in some carbon atoms not reacting and forming a black residue. In addition, we will explore the solubility of hydrocarbons in water and with respect to each other.
C. Chemical Properties We will be examining how various hydrocarbons react with several standard reagents. Potassium Permanganate Each hydrocarbon will also be reacted with potassium permanganate, a strong oxidizing agent. This test is commonly known as the Baeyer test for unsaturation. The carbon-carbon double and triple bonds are oxidized to form alcohols or diols. Evidence that the reaction has occurred is the rapid disappearance (within a few seconds) of the purple permanganate color. The resulting reaction products will generally be colored, typically a brown solid, but varies with reaction conditions. D. Other Functional groups Alkyl Halides or Haloalkanes Haloalkanes, also known as alkyl halides, are a class of chemical compounds that consist of an alkane with one or more hydrogen atoms replaced by a halogen atom (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine). Alkyl halides are classified according to how the halogen atom is positioned on the carbon atom chain. Primary, secondary, and tertiary alkyl halides are the three types of alkyl halides. Alkyl halide categories are widely used to assist determine patterns and trends in the chemical reactivity of alkyl halides. Because halogens have a neutral bonding pattern of one bond and three lone pairs, carbon and halogen always share a single bond. The bonding configuration of the carbon atom bound to the halogen determines the categorization of alkyl halides, as illustrated in the picture below.
In a primary (1°) haloalkane, the carbon bonded to the halogen atom is only attached to one other alkyl group. In a secondary (2°) haloalkane, the carbon bonded with the halogen atom is joined directly to two other alkyl groups that can be the same or different. In a tertiary (3°) halogenoalkane, the carbon atom holding the halogen is attached directly to three alkyl groups, which may be any combination of same or different.
Alcohols and Phenols
Alcohols are chemical compounds with hydroxyl (-OH) groups. Phenols are compounds with a -OH group directly linked to a benzene ring. Primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols are available. The alcohol carbon is classified according to whether it is connected to one, two, or three alkyl groups. This distinction is significant because various kinds of alcohol behave differently. Aldehydes and Ketones Aldehydes and ketones are two types of organic molecules which both possess the carbonyl group. The position of the carbonyl group inside the molecule distinguishes aldehydes from ketones. An aldehyde is an organic molecule in which the carbonyl group is linked to the last carbon atom in a carbon chain. A ketone is an organic molecule that has a carbonyl group linked to a carbon atom in the carbon chain. The general formulae are presented below for each.
For aldehydes, the R group may be a hydrogen atom or any length carbon chain. For ketones, R and R′ must be carbon chains, of either the same or different lengths.
Carboxylic Acids Carboxylic acids are type of organic molecules in which a carbon (C) atom is double bonded to an oxygen (O) atom and a hydroxyl group (OH) by a single bond. A fourth bond connects a carbon atom to a hydrogen (H) atom or another univalent combining group. The carboxyl (COOH) group gets its name from the carbonyl (C=O) and hydroxyl groups. The chief chemical characteristic of the carboxylic acids is their acidity. They are generally more acidic than other organic compounds containing hydroxyl groups but are generally weaker than the familiar mineral acids (e.g., hydrochloric acid, HCl, sulfuric acid, H2SO4, etc.).
Ether Ethers are a type of organic molecule that has an ether group and an oxygen atom that is connected to two alkyl or aryl groups. Ether is derived from the Latin word aether, which meaning "to ignite." Ethers are often combustible at ambient temperature and high pressure. Ether has the generic formula R-O-R, R-O-R', R-O-Ar, or Ar-O-Ar, where R represents an alkyl group and Ar represents an aryl group.
Ester An ester is a chemical compound derived from an acid (organic or inorganic) in which at least one –OH hydroxyl group is replaced by an –O– alkyl (alkoxy) group. To put it in simple terms, esters are a group of chemical compounds which are formed by bonding of an alcohol group with a group of organic acids, by losing water molecules.
Amine and Amides
Amines are carbon-nitrogen linkages containing compounds. In an amine, the nitrogen atom possesses a single pair of electrons and three links to other elements, either carbon or hydrogen. Nitrogen atoms replace carbon atoms in aromatic hydrocarbons in certain amines. Much of the chemistry of an amine is influenced by the basicity of its nitrogen atom. Natural and manmade colors, polymers, vitamins, and pharmaceuticals such as penicillin and codeine all include amine functional groups. They are also present in several vital chemicals, including amino acids, hormones, neurotransmitters, and DNA.
Amides are compounds with nitrogen atoms linked to a carbon atom in a carbonyl group. Amides are formed when carboxylic acids combine with amines or ammonia in a reaction known as amidation. A water molecule is removed from the process, and the amide is created from the residual carboxylic acid and amine fragments. The reaction of amines with carboxylic acids to create amides is essential in biology. This process allows amino acids (molecules with both amine and carboxylic acid substituents) to join together in a polymer to produce proteins. DATA AND INTERPRETATION A. TEST FOR UNSATURATION Reaction with Potassium Permanganate (Baeyer test for unsaturation) 1.) In a clean test tube place 1 mL of the solution to be tested. 2.) To the solution add 5 drops of the potassium permanganate solution. 3.) Swirl the tubes gently to mix them. 4.) Note any results after 1 minute. Record any color changes. 5.) Dispose of the contents of the test tubes in the waste bottle labelled "E21 Waste".
Sample Reaction with KMnO4
Data Interpretation / Conclusion
_____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ Acetylene 1.) Fill a 1000 mL beaker 75% full of tap water. 2.) Fill 4 large test tubes (25 x 200 mm) with water as follows: Tube (1) completely full, Tube (2) 75% full, Tube (3) 50% full, and Tube (4) 25% full. 3.) Obtain 4 corks to seal each test tube with. 4.) Obtain a small lump of calcium carbide from the reagent bottle. Drop it in the beaker of water as shown in the Figure below. 5. Placing your thumb over the test tube of water, invert the test tube into the beaker. 6. Hold the test tube over the bubbling acetylene gas to collect the gas. 7. When the test tube is full of gas, remove it from the water and quickly stopper it. 8. Repeat the above procedure until all 4 test tubes are filled. 9. Test the contents of the tube for combustibility. 10. Wrap each test tube in paper towels. 11. Bring the mouth of the test tube to an alcohol lamp, as you remove the stopper. 12. After the acetylene ignites, tilt the mouth of the tube up and down several times. 13. Record your observations. 14. Dispose of the solution in the beaker in the sink. Sample Observation
Test Tube 1
Test Tube 2
Test Tube 3
Test Tube 4
What is required to be present for combustion to occur? Explain.
______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ What is being varied between each test tube/trial? Explain. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________
Why did the tubes behave differently even though the chemicals reacted were the same? Explain. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________
Write a complete (balanced and including states) chemical equation for the complete combustion of acetylene (ethyne).
Benedict’s Test 1.) In a test tube, add 1 ml of the sample 2.) Add 2 ml of benedict’s reagent to the sample 3.) Heat the solution in a boiling water bath for five minutes. 4.) Record any discoloration of the mixture or formation of brick red precipitate.
2.) Subsequently, add 2 ml of Seliwanoff’s reagent (a solution of resorcinol and HCl). 3.) Heat the test tubes in a warm water bath for 2 minutes. Record any observations.
Sample Observation
Conclusion: _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ What is the composition of a reducing sugar? _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________
How can you convert a non-reducing sugar into a reducing sugar?
Sodium Bicarbonate Test In this test, sodium bicarbonate is added to a sample containing carboxylic acid. The sodium bicarbonate reacts with the carboxylic acid producing sodium acetate, water, and carbon dioxide gas. Carbon dioxide is detected as gas bubbles. When carboxylic acid reacts with sodium bicarbonate, carbon dioxide is released causing brisk effervescence, and sodium acetate is formed.
1.) In a test tube mix the given compound with 1 mL ethyl alcohol and 2 drops of concentrated sulfuric acid. 4.) Heat the mixture in a dry test tube in a water bath. 5.) Allow the test tubes to cool. 6.) Add to each test tube 2 mL of water followed by a pinch of solid sodium bicarbonate. 7.) Shake the solution well. If brisk effervescence is observed, this indicates the presence of a carboxylic acid.
(ACS Symposium Volume 788) Fereidoon Shahidi and John W. Finley (Eds.) - Omega-3 Fatty Acids. Chemistry, Nutrition, and Health Effects-American Chemical Society (2001)
(ACS Symposium Volume 788) Fereidoon Shahidi and John W. Finley (Eds.) - Omega-3 Fatty Acids. Chemistry, Nutrition, and Health Effects-American Chemical Society (2001)
