So to have the sound knowledge of stereochemistry we should have good command over their

basic concepts.

1.2. OBJECTIVES:

Classification of stereoisomers
Recognize a stereogenic (chiral) center in a molecular structure
Various representation of three dimentional molecules
To be able to predict, identify and distinguish between enantiomers and diastereomers.
Various nomenclature of stereoisomers to define them properly

1.3. STEREOCHEMISTRY: DEFINITION

The branch of chemistry which deals with three dimensional structure of molecule and their
effect on physical and chemical properties is known as stereochemistry. To represent
molecule as three dimensional object we need at least one carbon sp3- hybridized.
Example:
1.4. TERMINOLOGY USED IN STEREOCHEMISTRY

A. ISOMERS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION

You are already familiar with the concept of isomers: different compounds which
have the same molecular formula. Here we will learn to make distinction between various
kinds of isomers, especially the stereoisomers.

B. OPTICAL ACTIVITY

We know that ordinary lights are composed of rays of different wavelengths vibrating
in all directions perpendicular to the path of its propagation. These vibrations can be made to
occur in a single plane by passing ordinary light through the polarizing Nicol prism. Such
light whose vibrations occur in only one plane is called plane polarized light
Compounds which rotate the plane of polarized light are called optically active compounds
and this property is known as optical activity. Rotation of plane of polarized light can be of
two types.
Dextrorotatory : If the compound rotates the plane of polarization to the right(clockwise) it
is said to be dextrorotatory (Latin: dexter-
Laevorotatory : If the compound rotates the plane of polarization to the left(anticlockwise)
it is said to be laevorotatory (Latin: laevus-left) and is denoted by (-
The change in the angle of plane of polarization is known as optical rotation. The
optical rotation is detected and measured by an instrument called polarimeter. The
measu
t

t = temperature of measurement

l= length of sample tube in decimeter

c=concentration of the sample in g/mL of solution

C. CHIRALITY
The term Chiral- The word chiral (Greek word Chier,meaning hand) is used for those
objects which have right-handed and left-handed forms, i.e., molecules which have

is not superimposable upon its mirror image is chiral.

The term Achiral-
Object and molecules which are superimposable on their mirror images is achiral.
Achiral molecule has internal plane of symmetry, a hypothetical plane which bisects an object
or molecule into mirror-reflactive halves. An object or molecule with an internal plane of
symmetry is achiral.

The term Asymmetric center and chiral center- Three terms are used to designate, a
carbon atom bonded tetrahedrally to four different substituents in a chiral molecule:
Asymmetric atom, chiral center or stereocenter.
chiral centre

Let us understand chiral and achiral center taking few more examples.
 The term stereogenic center or stereocenter-
A stereogenic center is defined as an atom on which an interchange of any two atoms or
groups result in a new stereoisomer, When the new stereoisomers is an enantiomer ,the
stereocenter is called chiral center. All stereocenters are not tetrahedral.
Example 1

COOH COOH

Interchange between two groups

H OH HO H
(eg. H and OH)

CH3 CH3

Steriocentre New Sterioisomer

I II

First and second are enantiomers (non superimposible mirror images), Hence the steriocentre is a chiral centre
Example-2

III and IV are not enantiomers . they are diasteriomers hence in this case sterio centres are
not chiral centres. Also these are not tetrahedral.
Thus, all chiral centres are sterio centres but all steriocentres are not chiral centres. If a
molecule contains only one chiral centres it must be chiral. Molecule containing two or more
chiral centres may or may not be chiral. For example: meso tartaric acid has two chiral
centres but it is achiral.

D. STEREOISOMERS- Isomers having the same molecular formula but different

spatial arrangement of their atoms are known as stereoisomer. They are of following types:

Enantiomers: Stereoisomers which are non superimposable mirror images of each other are
called enantiomers. Chirality is necessary and sufficient condition for existence of
enantiomers. These always exist as discrete pairs.
Eg.
Diastereomers: Stereoisomers that are not mirror images of each other are called
diastereomers.
Example.

Geomatrical Isomers:
Geometrical isomers occurs as a result of restricted rotation about a carbon-carbon bond. This
is also called cis-trans isomerism.
This isomerism exhibited by variety of compounds such as compound containing double
bond C=C, C=N, N=N, compound containing cyclic structure or compound containing
restricted rotation due to steric hindrance.
 Conformational isomers: Conformational isomers are the isomers that can be converted
into one another by rotation around a single bond.
Example: eclipsed, gauche and anti butane are all conformational isomers of one
another.(eclipsed means that identical groups are all directly in line with one another, gauche
means that identical groups are 60 degree from one another and anti means that identical
groups are 180 degree from one another.)

These molecules can be interconverted by rotating around the central carbon-carbon single
bond.

1.5. REPRESENTATION OF THREE DIMENSIONAL MOLECULES

1.5.1 FLYING-WEDGE OR WEDGE-DASH PROJECTION

The Flying-Wedge Projection is the most widely used three dimensional
representation of a molecule on a two dimensional surface (paper). This kind of
representation is usually done for molecule containing chiral centre. In this type of
representation three types of lines are used.
 A solid wedge or thick line ( ) - it represents bond projection towards the observer
or above the plane of paper.
A continuous line or ordinary line ( ) - it represents bond in the plane of paper.
A dashed wedge or broken line ( ) - it represents bond projection away from the
observer or below the plane of paper. Example:- CH4 (methane)

-D structural
of 3-D structure of methane formula of methane

1.5.2 FISCHER PROJECTION

Fischer projection provide an easy way to draw three dimensional molecule on two
dimensional paper and all the bonds are drawn as solid lines around asymmetric carbon atom.

The Fischer rules for showing the arrangement around asymmetric carbon.
The carbon chain of the compound is projected vertically, with the most oxidized carbon at
the top or place the carbon number one at the top (as defined by nomenclature rule).
The chiral carbon atom lies in the plane of the paper and usually omitted. The intersection of
cross lines represents asymmetric carbon.
The horizontal bonds attached to the chiral carbon are considered to be above the plane of
paper or point towards the observer.
The vertical bonds attached to the chiral carbon are considered to be below the plane of paper
or point away from the observer.
 Example: glyceraldehyde

1.5.3 SAWHORSE FORMULA

The sawhorse formula indicates the arrangement of all the atoms or groups on two
adjacent carbon atoms. The bonds between the two carbon atoms are drawn diagonally and of
relatively greater length for the sake of clarity. The lower left hand carbon is taken as the
front carbon or towards the observer and the upper right hand carbon as the back carbon or
away from the observer. e.g. ethane

Anti conformation eclipsed conformation

All parallel bonds in sawhorse formula are eclipsed and all anti parallel bonds are opposite or
scattered. Gauche representation is that in which bulky groups are nearer to each other at 600
angles.

1.5.4 NEWMAN PROJECTION

Newman devised a very simple method of projecting three dimensional formulas on
two dimensional paper which are known as Newman projection.
In these formulae the molecule is viewed from the front or along the axis of a carbon-carbon
bond.
The carbon nearer to the eye is represented by a point and the carbon atom towards the rear
by circle.
The three atoms or groups on the carbon atoms are shown as being bonded to dot or circle by
an angle of 1200 to each other.
In Newman formula all parallel bonds are eclipsed or all anti parallel or opposite bonds are
staggered.

1.6 ELEMENTS OF SYMMETRY

Elements of symmetry offer a simple device to decide whether a molecule is chiral or

achiral, i.e., whether it is superimposable on its mirror image or not. When a molecule has no
plane of symmetry, no centre of symmetry and no alternating axis of symmetry, it is non
superimposable on its mirror image and is chiral (optically active).

1.6.1 PLANE OF SYMMETRY

The plane which divides a molecule in to two equal halves which are related as object and
mirror image is known as plane of symmetry. For example
The molecules having plane of symmetry are achiral (optically inactive).

1.6.2 CENTER OF SYMMETRY

A center of symmetry in a molecule is said to exist if a line is drawn from any atom or group
to this point and when extended to an equal distance beyond this point, meets the identical
atom or group.
All lines are passing through this point, hence it is the center point of the molecule.
A centre of symmetry is usually present only in an even number ring. For example, the
molecule of trans -2,4-dimethyl-cyclobutane trans-1,3- dicarboxaylic acid has a center of
symmetry.
(All lines are passing through this point, hence it is the center point of the molecule)

Another interesting example is dimethyl ketopiperizine. This has two isomers, cis and trans.
The cis form has no plane of symmetry or centre of symmetry. The trans form on other hand,
has a centre of symmetry.
 CO-CO and NH-NH are symmetrical but
CH3 and H are not mirror images i.e.,
not symmetrical with respect to centre point.

NH-NH, CO-CO, CH3 - CH3 and H-H

they are symmetrical with respect to centre
of the molecule.

(Centre point)
1.6.3 ALTERNATING AXIS OF SYMMETRY
A molecule possesses an alternating axis of symmetry if, when rotated through an angle
3600/n about this axis and then followed by reflection in a plane perpendicular to the axis, the
molecule is indistinguishable from the original molecule. Alternating axis of symmetry is
rare and can be present in cyclic as well as open chain compounds.
1.7 NOMENCLATURE OF OPTICAL ISOMERS

Following three nomenclatures are used for optically active compounds:

1.7.1 D, L SYSTEM OF NOMENCLATURE

This nomenclature is mainly used in sugar chemistry or optically active polyhydric

carbonyl compounds. This is a relative nomenclature because all the configurations described
with respect to glyceraldehydes.
All sugars whose Fischer projection formula shows the OH group on the right hand
side of the chiral atom belong to the D-series.

D-series.

Similarly, if OH is on the left hand side, then the sugar belongs to the L-series.

L-series

Examples:
CHO

H C OH

CH2OH

D(+) glyceraldehyde L(-) glyceraldehydes

 It must be noted that there is no relation between sign of rotation and (+, - or d,l ) and
configuration (D and L) of enentiomer.
Any compound that can be prepared from, or converted in to D(+) glyceraldehydes will
belong to D-series and similarly any compound that can be prepared from, or converted in to
L(-) glyceraldehydes will belongs to the L-series.

1.7.2 ERYTHRO AND THREO SYSTEM OF NOMENCLATURE

This nomenclature is mainly used only in those compounds which have only two chiral
carbons and the following structures:

-Cab-Cab- -Cab-Cbc-

i.e. out of six substituent on two asymmetric carbons, at least one should be same in both the
carbons.

When two like groups in fisher projection formula are drawn on the same side of
vertical line, the isomer is called erythro form; if these are placed on the opposite sides the
isomer is said to be threo form.

erythro form threo form

Following are some examples of threo and erythro form.

erythro form threo form

 erythro form threo form

1.7.3 R.S. NOMENCLATURE

The order of rearrangement of four groups around a chiral carbon is called the
absolute configuration around that atom. System which indicates absolute configuration was
given by three chemists R.S. Cahn, C.K. Ingold and V. Prelog. This system is known as (R)
and (S) system or the Cahn-Ingold Prelog system. The letter (R) comes from the Latin rectus
(means right) while (S) comes from the Latin sinister (means left). Any Chiral carbon atoms
have either an (R) configuration or a (S) configuration. Therefore one enantiomer is (R) and
the other is (S). A recemic mixture may be designated as (RS), meaning a mixture of the two.

The R, S nomenclature involves two steps:

Step I: The four ligands (atom or groups) attached to the chiral centre are assigned a
sequence of priority according to sequence rules.

Rule 1: If all the four atoms directly attached to the chiral carbon are different, priority
depends on their atomic number. The atom having highest atomic number gets the highest
priority, i.e., (1).The atom with lowest atomic number is given lowest priority, i.e. (2), the
group with next higher atomic number is given the next higher priority (3) and so on.
For example:
Rule 2: if two or more than two isotopes of the same element are present, the isotope of
higher mass receives the higher priority.

Rule 3: if two or more of the atoms directly bonded to the chiral carbon are identical, the
atomic number of the next atom is used for priority assignment. If these atoms also have
identical atoms attached to them, priority is determined at the first point of difference along
the chain. The atom that has attached to it an atom of higher priority gets the higher priority.

In the above example, the atoms connected directly to the chiral carbon are iodine and three
carbons.
Iodine has the highest priority.
Connectivity of other three carbons are 2H and Br, 2H and C and 2H and C.
Bromine has the highest atomic number amongst C, H, Br and thus CH2Br has highest
priority among these three groups (i.e. priority number 2).
The remaining two carbon are still identical (C and 2H) connected to the second carbon of
these groups are 2H and I and 2H and C. Iodine has highest priority.
Amongst these atoms, so that-CH2-CH2-I is next in priority list and CH2-CH2-CH3 has the
last priority.

Rule 4: If a double or a triple bond is linked to chiral centre, the involved electrons are
duplicated or triplicated respectively.
By this rule, we obtain the following priority sequence:

STEP-II: The molecule is then visualised so that the group of lowest priority (4) is directed
away from the observer (at this position the lowest priority is at the bottom of the plane). The
remaining three groups are in a plane facing the observer. If the eye travels clockwise as we
look from the group of highest priority to the group of second and third priority (i.e. 1 2
3 with respect to 4) the configuration is designated R. If arrangement of groups is in
anticlockwise direction, the configuration is designated as S.

For example:

Let us apply the whole sequence to bromochlorofluoromethane.

In this Fischer projection, the least priority number is not at the bottom of the plane.
In such cases, the Fisher projection formula of the compound is converted in to another
equivalent projection formula in such a manner that atom the lowest priority is placed
vertically downward. This may be drawn by two interchanges between four priority numbers.
The first interchange involves the two priority numbers, one is the least priority number and
the other is the priority number which is present at the bottom of the plane. In the above case,
first interchanges will takes place between 2 and 4.

A second inter change creates the original molecule (i.e. A).

Example:-
Note:-
An odd number of interchange of positions of groups on chiral carbon gives different
compound.
An even number of interchange of positions of groups on chiral carbon gives same
compound.
An alternative, simple and most widely accepted procedure used now (Epling,1982) to
assign R,S configuration in the case of Fischer projections is as followes:
Case-I: R and S nomenclature from Fischer projection formula (Golden rule): If
in a Fischer projection, the group of lowest priority (4) is on a vertical line, then the
assignment of configuration is R for a clockwise sequence of 1 to 2to 3 and S for
anticlockwise sequence.
For example:

However, if the group of lowest priority is on horizontal line, then the assignment of
configuration is S for a clockwise sequence of 1 to 2 to 3, and R for the anticlockwise
sequence.

When molecule contain two or more chiral centres, each chiral centre is assigned an R or S
configuration according to the sequence and conversion rules. Thus (+) tartaric acid is (2R,
3R) (+) tartaric acid.
Case-II: R, S- nomenclature from flying-wedge formula.
If the group of the lowest priority is away from the observer (i.e., bonded by dashed line)
and the priority sequence (1 2 3) is clockwise, then the configuration is assigned as R. If
the priority sequence is anticlockwise then the configuration is S.
If the group of lowest priority is not bonded by dashed line then interchange a pair of groups
so that the group with the lowest priority is bonded by dashed line. Now see the sequence (1
2 3), if it is clockwise then the configuration is assigned as S and if anticlockwise R. This
is because you have interchanged a pair of groups and now you are determining the
configuration of enantiomer of original molecule.

1.8 SUMMARY
In this unit we have discussed the various basic terms used in stereochemistry and
necessary conditions which are important for any molecule to show stereoisomerism. Further
we studied various kinds of three dimensional representations and their nomenclature and
brief description of element of symmetry.

1.9 GLOSSARY
Asymmetric carbon is a carbon atom that is bonded to four different groups. It is also called
chiral carbon.
Diastereomers are optical isomers that are not mirror images.
Enantiomers are optical isomers that are mirror images.
Meso Compound is a compound that has more than one asymmetric carbon and that is
superimposable on its mirror image. Meso compounds are optically inactive.
Optically active molecule is a molecule that cannot be superimposed on its mirror image. It
is also called chiral molecule.
1.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Define the term
2.
3.
4.
5. .

1.11 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kalsi, P.S. (2007), Stereochemistry Conformation and Mechanism, New Age International(P)
Limited, Publishers, New Delhi.
Singh, J. and Yadav, L.D.S. (2013) Organic Chemistry Vol-I, A Pragati Prakashan, Meerut.
Nasipuri, D. (2012) Stereochemistry of organic Compounds, New Academic Science, UK.
Bahl, A. and Bahl, B.S. (2011) A Text Book of Organic Chemistry, S. Chand Publisher, New
Delhi.

1.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

Christian Wolf (2007), Dynamic Stereochemistry of Chiral Compounds, Royal Society of
Chemistry.
Eliel E.L.,Samuel H. W., Stereochemistry of Organic Compounds. Wiley.

1.13 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. How many chiral atoms does the following molecule have?

2. What is the steriochemical relationship between the following two molecules?