Nitrogen

Functions of nitrogen in plants: In N sufficient plants, its concentration varies from 1

to 5 %. Cell cytoplasm and organelles contain N in combination with C, H, O, P and S.
 It’s an essential component of amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids, porphyrins,
flavins, purines and pyrimidine nucleotides, flavin nucleotides, enzymes, coenzymes
and alkaloids.
 N containing chlorophyll fixes atmospheric CO2 through photosynthesis.
 Being a constituent of RNA and DNA, N is responsible for transfer of genetic code.
 Improves the quality of leafy vegetables and fodders.
 Improves the quality by increasing protein content.
Deficiency symptoms: Plants having less than 1 % nitrogen are usually regarded as
deficient in N.
 Due to high mobility of N in plants, its deficiency symptoms first appear on the
older leaves in the form of light green to pale yellow coloration due to proteolysis).
 Stunted growth is the manifestation.
 In grasses, the lower leaves usually fire or turn brown beginning at the leaf tip, and
progressing along the midrib in the form of inverted ‘V’ shape.
 Reduction in flowering and crop yields and lower protein content are associated
with N deficiency.
Corrective measures: Nitrogen in the form of NO3- is more prone for leaching
especially on light textured soils with more permeability. So, split application of nitrogen is
recommended.
Foliar application in the form of urea @ 2 percent concentration is advocated in dry land
areas.

N Source %N

Ammonium sulfate 21.0

Ammonium chloride 25 – 26.0

Ammonium nitrate 33 – 34

Ammonium nitrate sulfate 30.0

Monoammonium phosphate 11.0

1
Diammonium phosphate (DAP) 18 – 21.0

Calcium nitrate 15.0

Urea 45 - 46

Urea ammonium nitrate 28 – 32

Toxicity symptoms Under conditions of large nitrogen availability, succulence of the

plant increases; taller plants and heavier heads cause lodging. A nitrogen rich, luxuriant
crop is more susceptible to insect pest and disease attacks.

2
Phosphorus

Functions of phosphorus in plants:

Phosphorus is the second most abundant mineral in human body making up for
more than 20 % of body minerals. It is largely absorbed by the plant roots as dihydrogen
orthophosphate ion (H2PO4-). In normal P sufficient plants, P content varies from 0.1 to 0.4
per cent by weight.
The following are the functions of phosphorus in plant system
1. Constituent of nucleoproteins, phytins and phospholipids.
2. Essential constituent of number of enzymes -important in energy transfer.
3. Essential for cell division and development.
4. Stimulates root development and growth.
5. Responsible for early establishment of seedlings.
6. Strengthens the straw and decreases lodging.
7. Brings about early maturity.
8. Counteracts the effect of excessive nitrogen.
9. Increases grain to straw ratio.
10. Improves the quality of food grain.
11. Increases rhizobial activity, increases the formation of root nodules thus helping in
more N - fixation.
Deficiency symptoms : In general, plants having less than 0.1 % phosphorus are
designated as P-deficient. Because of its faster mobility in plants, P gets translocated from
older tissues to the meristematic tissue. Therefore, deficiency symptoms of P first appear on
the older leaves.
P deficiency results in

3
  the production of dark green color leaves.
 Severe restriction of root growth.
 thin, erect and spindly plants with sparse and restricted foliage.
 suppressed lateral bud production.
 bluish green foliage, and under continued deficiency the older leaves become
bronzed or develop reddish purple tip or leaf margins.
Toxicity symptoms
Excess of P causes trace element deficiency particularly Fe and Zn.
Correction of deficiencyGenerally, P is applied as a basal application by band placement.
The following are the phosphatic fertilizers.
1. Single Super Phosphate (SSP) contains 16 to 22% P2O5
2. Rock phosphate contains 30-38 % P2O5
3. Triple Super Phosphate contains 46 % P2O5
4. Diammonium phosphate contains 46 % P2O5
5. Monoammonium phosphate contains 52 % P2O5
6. Basic slag contains 10-20 % P2O5

4
5
Potassium
Functions : K is absorbed by the plant as K +. Its concentration in healthy tissue varies
from 1-5 %. Potassium is a unique element that plants can accumulate it in abundant
amounts without exhibiting any toxicity symptoms. This behaviour is referred to as luxury
consumption. Potassium plays a regulatory role in plant metabolism. Potassium is not a
component of any organic compound in plants.
 It regulates the opening and closing of stomata.
 Plays a major role in transport of water and nutrients throughout the plant in xylem.
 It improves drought tolerance.
 Neutralizes organic anions and other compounds and maintains the pH of
cytoplasm in the range of 7-8.
 Activates > 60 enzymes, including starch synthetase, K is responsible for the
activation of nitrate reductase enzyme.
 Enhances crop quality, shelf life of fruits and vegetables.
 Reduces lodging of crops, enhances winter hardiness.
 Imparts disease resistance.
Deficiency symptoms
 Potassium deficiency does not manifest immediately in the form of visible
symptoms. First growth rate decreases and later deficiency symptoms appear.
Deficiency symptoms first develop on the older leaves.

 Chlorosis along the margins followed by scorching and browning of tips of older
leaves which gradually progresses inwards giving burning appearance. Slow and
stunted growth of the plant and crop lodging.
 Shrivelled fruits and seeds.
 Reduced crop yields without the appearance of definite symptoms; the phenomenon
is called hidden hunger.
 Decrease in resistance to certain plant diseases
 Decrease in the quality of fruits and vegetables.
 Potassium deficiency disturbs the overall physiological activity within the plant
system by altering the activities of enzymes like invertase, catalase in crops like
sugarcane.

36
Correction measures
Potassium chloride or muriate of potash constitutes 99% of usage of K fertilizer and
potassium sulphate accounts for 1%. Muriate of potash contains 60% K2O or 50% K and
sulphate of potash contains 50 % K2O or 41.5% K.
Some crops are sensitive to high amounts of potassium chloride. These include
tobacco, grapes, cotton, fruit trees, sugarcane, potatoes, tomatoes, straw berries, onion and
cucumber. Oil palm and coconut on the contrary appear to be chloride loving crops.
Generally, potassic fertilizers are applied as basal dose, but for light textured soils,
split application is advocated. In Andhra Pradesh split application of N and K are
recommended for light soils.
Potassium nitrate containing 44% K2O (37% K) and 13% N is preferred for
spraying on fruit trees and horticultural crops. Spraying of KNO3 during winters (rabi
season) to impart cold hardiness is also in practice by the farmers in Andhra Pradesh.

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38
Calcium
Functions of calcium in plants
Calcium is absorbed by the plant as calcium ions (Ca 2+), the sufficiency range is
between 0.2 – 1.0 %.
1. Essential for the formation of cell wall and calcium pectate in the middle lamella of
the cell wall which regulates the entry of only those nutrients which are not toxic to
plants. In seeds, calcium is present as calcium phytate.
2. In root tip, calcium is very essential for the meristematic activity.
3. Provides a base for neutralisation of organic acids and other toxins (like Al)
produced in plants.
4. It plays a role in mitosis (cell division) and helps to maintain the chromosome
structure.
5. Essential co-factor or an activator of a number of enzymes like hydrolases.
6. It activates phospholipase, argnine kinase, amylase and Adenosine tri phosphatase
(ATPase) enzymes.
7. Favours the assimilation of nitrogen into organic constituents especially proteins.
Deficiency symptoms
Soils seldom become calcium deficient, as long as soil pH is maintained towards
neutral range. Deficiency of calcium is characterised by a reduction in meristematic tissue
1. Though calcium is highly mobile in soil, in the plant system it is the immobile
nutrient and hence the deficiency symptoms manifest at the growing tips of shoots
and youngest leaves.
2. Failure or desiccation of terminal bud development.
3. No unfolding of new leaves in corn, whose tips are colorless and are covered with
sticky gelatinous material which makes them adhere to one another.

39
 4. Chlorosis of young leaves followed by distortion of the growing points of the stem.
5. In fruit trees, the death of growing points followed by die back.
6. In guava, the old leaves are chlorotic with red brown spots.
7. In apple, the discoloration of the fruit meat, the condition generally referred to as
“bitter pit”.
8. In Brassica, severe loss of color in young leaves, terminal bud leaves are hooked,
leaves below become cup shaped. Old leaves collapse due to terminal bud
disintegration.
9. Blossom end rot in tomato is due to Ca deficiency
Correction measures
Calcium as a plant nutrient is more important in calcium deficient acid soils. The
application of carbonate or sulphate salts of calcium @ 2 – 4 q ha -1 in furrows could
increase the yield by 48 %.

Balance sheet of calcium

Through manures Through fertilizer

Crop residues
Soil minerals

Avail. Soil Ca2+ Liming

Crop removal Leaching Erosion

Ca deficiency

Groundnut
Cucurbits

Tobacco

40
Magnesium
Functions
The usual concentration of Mg+2 in crops varies between 0.1 and 0.4 per cent. A
large part of Mg is associated with organic anions like malate. Magnesium
 Mg is the only mineral constituent of chlorophyll located at its centre.
 Chlorophyll formation usually accounts for about 15 to 20 % of total Mg content of
plants as Mg - porphyrin.
 Serves as a structural component of ribosomes. Mg activates the formation of
polypeptide chains to form amino acids. About 70 % of Mg is associated with anions
such as malate and citrate.
 Seeds contain Mg as salt of phytic acids. Mg is required for phosphate transfer from
ATP (Phosphorylation) in carbohydrate metabolism.
 Several enzymes (eg : Ribulose carboxylose) require Mg+2 as Cofactor.
 It promotes uptake and translocation of phosphorus and movement of sugars within
the plants.
Deficiency symptoms : Mg+2 is a mobile element and is readily translocated from
older to younger plant parts in the event of deficiency and hence deficiency
symptoms are manifested in the older leaves. The magnesium deficient plants usually
have less than 0.1% Mg. Magnesium deficiency is common in the plants grown on
coarse textured acidic soils.
 As a consequence of Mg+2 deficiency, the proportion of protein nitrogen decreases
and that of non protein nitrogen increases in plants.
 Shortage of Mg+2 results in an interveinal chlorosis of the leaf in which only the
veins remain green and the interveinal areas turn yellow with streaky or patchy
appearance. In more advanced stages the leaf tissue becomes uniformly pale yellow,
then brown and necrotic.
 Affected leaves turn small in final stage and curve upwards at the margins.
 In some vegetables, interveinal chlorosis with tints of red, orange and purple colors is
observed.
 Grass tetany : Cattle consuming forages with low Mg may suffer from
“Hypomagnesemia” (low level of blood Mg) commonly known as Grass tetany. This
happens due to high levels of NH4+ - N and K application.

Correction measures :
Use of dolomitic lime stone Ca Mg (CO3)2
Magnesia  Mgo 55 % (Mg)
Basic slag  3-4 % Mg
At a dose of 30 – 50 kg ha-

41
Sulphur
Deficiency symptoms
Sulphur content in plants ranges between 0.1 to 0.4 %. In view of the large field
scale occurrences of sulphur deficiencies in India, it has been described as the fourth major
nutrient after N, P and K. Plants suffering sulphur deficiency accumulate non protein
nitrogen in the form of nitrate and amide. N:S ratio of plants is between 9 to 12 : 1. As
sulphur is immobile in the plant, its deficiency is manifested on young leaves.
1. The fading of normal green colour of the young meristem followed by chlorosis.
2. Shoot growth is restricted.
3. In Brassica, the lamina is restricted and the leaves show cupping owing to the
curling of leaves.
4. The older leaves become puckered inwardly with raised areas between veins.
5. The older leaves may develop orange or reddish tints and may be shed
prematurely.
6. The stem and leaf petiole may become brittle and may collapse.
7. Reduced synthesis of proteins and oil.

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Management of sulphur or correction measures for S deficiency:
1. Application of elemental sulphur or gypsum particularly on alkaline soils.
2. Application of sulphur containing fertilizers like single super phosphate (12- 14%
S), Magnesium sulphate (30 % S), Ammonium sulphate (24.2% S).
3. For correcting deficiencies of sulphur on the standing crop, foliar application of
sulphate containing salts like Ferrous sulphate (32.8% S) and ferrous ammonium
sulphate (16% S) etc.

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Zinc (Zn)

Functions: Plants absorb zinc as Zn2+. Zinc sufficient plants contain 27 to 150 ppm Zn
in mature tissue.
 Zinc is a constituent of three enzymes viz., Alcoholic dehydrogenase, carbonic
anhydrase, superoxide dismutase (SOD).
 Zn is involved in the synthesis of indole acetic acid, metabolism of gibberellic acid
and synthesis of RNA.
 Because of preferential binding to sulphydryl group, zinc plays an important role in
the stabilization and structural orientation of the membrane proteins.
 Zn influences translocation and transport of P in plants. Under Zn deficiency,
excessive translocation of P occurs resulting in P toxicity.
Deficiency symptoms
Zn deficiency symptoms show wide variation in different plant species. The
common symptoms are chlorosis between the veins, reduction in the size of the young
leaves, which are often clustered, bronzing, purple, violet, reddish brown or brown
coloration of the foliage.
a) Khaira disease of rice: The first symptom of zinc deficiency appear in 3 - 4 week old
seedlings when the young leaves develop reddish brown pigmentation. The pigmentation
appears first in the middle of the leaves, then intensifies and spreads over the entire lamina.
The affected tissue becomes papery and necrotic and under conditions of severe deficiency,
the entire mass of leaves collapses and further growth of the plant is arrested.
2) White bud of maize: Soon after the emergence of seedlings, areas between the
veins of old leaves become light yellow and develop white necrotic spots, which later
develop dark brown necrotic areas that enlarge and coalesce, resulting in the necrosis
(death of the entire leaf). Leaves that emerge and unroll subsequently appear yellow and
white.

3) Mottle leaf or Frenching of citrus

4) Reduced leaf size and shortening of internodes in brinjal and mango called as
little leaf.

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 Varietal susceptibility to Zn deficiency

Crop High susceptibility Low susceptibility

Rice Jaya,IR - 8, RP-4,14RP6,17 Cauvery, Tellahamsa, Ratna, Mahsuri

Black gram T 27, J 9

Greengram TI,T2,T3,and Hydrid46

Groundnut --------------- M 13

Ganga -2

Maize Ganga-5 Ganga-3

Ganga -101

Corrective measures

1. Soil application of zinc sulphate (21% Zn) @ 50 kg ha -1 once for three

crops or years is effective and economic to overcome its deficiency. Zinc sulphate
need to be applied on the surface and mixed in the soil through light harrowing.

2. In case of rice, zinc sulphate can be broadcast after final puddling before
transplanting.

3. In case of orchards, zinc sulphate can be applied in the basin mixing into
the soil.

4. When deficiency appears on standing crop, spraying of 0.2 % ZnSO 4 twice or

thrice at weekly intervals or at 0.5 per cent concentration with lime.
5. In case of alkali soils, the dose of zinc sulphate for soil application needs
to be doubled to 100 kg ha-1.

6. Zinc is also available as zinc chelate (mostly Zn - EDTA form). In case

of highly alkaline soils (pH>8.0) zinc chelate is better source than zinc sulphate.

7. In calcareous soils, Zn- HEDTA (Hydroxy Ethylene Diamine Tetra

Acetic acid) form is efficient for soil application.

45
Copper (Cu)

Functions
Similar to other micronutrient cations, copper is absorbed by plant roots as Cu2+.
 Concentration of Cu2+ in copper sufficient plants is from 5 to 30 ppm and
toxicity occurs between 20 and 100 ppm.
 Cu2+ is a component of large number of proteins and enzymes like
plastocyanin, SOD, Diamine oxidase, polyphenol oxidase, Ascorbate
oxidase.
 Important in imparting disease resistance.
 Enhances fertility of male flowers.
Deficiency symptoms
 Plants having a copper content of less than 5 ppm are regarded as Cu
deficient.

46
  Male flowers’ sterility, delayed flowering and senescence are the most important
effects of Cu deficiency.
 Chlorosis of the younger shoot tissue, white tips, reclamation disease,

necrosis, leaf distortion and die back are characteristics of Cu deficiency. Necrosis of
apical meristem results in elongation of shoot in cereals and auxiliary shoots in dicots.
 The shoot apex may cease to grow, resulting in the development of several
auxiliary bunds.
 In cereals symptoms appear as bleaching and withering of young leaves.
 Exanthema and dieback in citrus which manifests as dark brown spots on the
leaves, terminal twigs and fruits.
 Yellowish brown blotches on the leaf particularly in legumes.
 Tip drying and bluish green leaf tips are the symptoms in rice.
 Empty glumes in wheat
 Total amino nitrogen accumulates in plants
Correction
Soil and foliar application are both effective. Soil application @ 1.0 – 5 kg /ha of CuSO4. 5
H2O (24 % Cu).
Foliar application of CuSO4 @ 0.2 % concentration. Cu-
EDTA contains 9-13 % Cu.
Copper toxicity occurs in acid soils and also due to the usage of sewage sludge,
municipal composts, pig and poultry manures and mine waste and repeated use of copper
containing pesticides like Bordeaux mixture, CuSO 4. Toxicity symptoms include reduced
shoot vigor, poorly developed discolored root system and leaf chlorosis resembling iron
deficiency.

47
48
 IRON
Functions
Iron is taken up in Fe2+ form by plants. Its concentration in the range of 100
– 500 ppm in mature leaf tissue is regarded as sufficient for crop production. Variable
valency of iron assigns it a role in biological redox systems.
 Iron is a constituent of two groups of proteins viz., a) Heme proteins containing Fe
– porphyrin complex. eg., peroxidase, leghaemoglobin.
 Fe-S proteins in which Fe is coordinated with thiol group Eg : Ferredoxin.
 It activates a number of enzymes including aminolevolinic acid synthetase and
Coproporphyrinogen oxidase.
 It plays an essential role in the nucleic acid metabolism.
 It is necessary for synthesis and maintenance of chlorophyll in plants.
 It is structural constituent of pigments in micro-organisms; the black pigment in
Aspergillus niger contains iron)
Deficiency :
 The critical limit of iron in plant is 30 ppm, the sufficiency range being 50 and 250
ppm.
 It has been established that Fe2+ content of the plant rather than total Fe content
resolves Fe def.
 Deficiency of Fe results in interveinal chlorosis appearing first on the younger
leaves with leaf margins and veins remaining green. Plants having less than 50 ppm
of Fe are usually classified as iron deficient.
 In later stage burning of the chlorotic leaves start from the tips and margin, spread
inwards.
 The chlorotic leaves may become white and the leaf tissues devoid of chlorophyll
die.
 Leaves with large necrotic areas fall off and twigs defoliate.
 In mild cases, mottled pattern may be seen with primary and secondary veins
retaining their green color.
 In graminaceous crops, chlorosis consists of alternate strips with green

49
 veins and yellow interveinal tissues.
 In case of barley, maize and jowar, leaves show reddish brown spots on leaves away
from the base on margin.
 Under conditions of severe deficiency, growth cessation occurs with the whole plant
turning necrotic.
Correction : In general soil application of iron salts such as ferrous sulfate is not practiced
because of their rapid oxidation to much less soluble ferric iron. Correction of Fe
deficiency is generally done by foliar sprays.
Sources
 FeSO4.7 H2O : 19 % Fe
 Iron chelates NaFe EDTA : 5-14 % Fe
 Fe – EDDHA (Ethylene Diamine Dihydroxy acetic acid salt of Fe) for calcareous
soils
 Fe DTPA (Diethylene Triamine Penta Acetate salt of Fe) for alkaline soils
 Fe HEDTA (Hydroxy Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetate salt of Fe) for alkali soils
 Fe EDTA (Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetate salt of Fe) for acid soils
Iron chlorosis in paddy nurseries

Iron chlorosis is common in rice nurseries due to the prevailing irrigated dry
condition in the soil which oxidises Fe2+ to Fe3+ thus reducing its availability. It can be
corrected by spraying 1.0% of Fe SO 4 or FAS (Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate) mixed with 0.
1% citric acid, twice or thrice at 4 to 5 days intervals or till chlorosis disappears.

Iron Toxicity

Toxic situations occur primarily on acid soils (< pH 5.0) and where excess soluble
iron salts have been applied as foliar sprays or soil amendments. Injury due to high soil
iron concentration is not common under neutral or high pH soil but under conditions that
are saturated, poorly draining, compacted or poorly aerated. Iron toxicity also occurs where
zinc levels are low.

Symptoms

One of the most common symptoms is necrosis or death of the leaves. Necrotic spots will
appear on the leaves of plants suffering from iron toxicity. Other symptoms include dark
green foliage, stunted top growth and root growth, as well as leaf bronzing—especially on
rice—which causes dark brown to purple spots on the foliage. The symptoms developed
in rice grown in acid soils are browning of roots and bronzing of leaves.

 Reduced manganese uptake by plants.

50
Management

 Management of iron toxicity is mainly through cultural practices. One of the most
effective ways to avoid and to treat iron toxicity is by adding lime to the topsoil to
raise the soil pH.

 Providing proper aeration to the soil to oxidise Fe2+ to Fe3+ form.

51
52
 Fe deficiency
Maize Sorghum

Fe deficiency
Tobacco

Cucurbits

Jute

53
Manganese (Mn)
Functions : Healthy Mn sufficient mature plants contain 20 to 300 ppm of Mn. It is a
transitional metal, present in plants in Mn 2+ form. Because of its variable valence, Mn plays
an important role in the photosynthesis and detoxification of superoxide free radicals.
 Mn is an integral component of the water splitting enzyme associated with
photosystem II. Because of this role, Mn deficiency is associated with adverse effects
on photosynthesis and O2 evolution.
 It is a constituent of superoxide dismutase (Mn-SOD). Mn SOD, present in
mitochondria protects cells against the deleterious effects of superoxide free radicals.
 Mn has a role in TCA cycle in oxidative and non oxidative decarboxylation reactions
with Nicotine Adenine Diamide (NAD)
o Malic dehydrogenase enzyme catalyzing the reaction.
Malate + NADP+  pyruvate + NADPH + H+ + CO2
o Isocitrate dehydrogenase catalyzing the reaction.
Isocitrate + NADP +  Oxalosuccinate + NADPH

Deficiency symptoms : Mn deficient plants contain less than 25 ppm Mn. Deficiency
symptoms of Mn are more severe on middle leaves than on the younger ones because Mn is
preferentially translocated to the younger tissues. Interveinal chlorosis in dicotyledons is
characterized by the appearance of chlorotic and necrotic spots in the interveinal areas. In
monocotyledonous plants like cereals, Mn deficiency symptoms appear as greenish grey
spots, fleeks and stripes more on the basal leaves (Grey speck). Chlorotic leaf areas soon
become necrotic and turn red, reddish brown or brown. Symptoms of Mn deficiency are
popularly known as
Grey speck of Oats
Speckled yellow of sugar beet
Marsh spot of peas
Pahala blight of sugar cane
Frenching of tung grass
Critical limit of Mn in soil
With 0.005 M DTPA + 0.1 M TEA + 0.01 M CaCl2 : 2-4 ppm
1 N NH4OAc : 3-4 ppm
3 N NH4H2 PO4 and 0.1 N H3PO4 : 15-20 ppm
Corrective measures
Soil application of Mn SO4. 3 H2O (26-28 % Mn) @ 10-25 kg/ha and Mn
SO4 H2O (30-32 % Mn) @ 10-25 kg/ha

54
MnO2 contains 55-65 % of Mn
EDTA - Mn supplies 5-12 % of Mn

Mn deficiency

Wheat

Tobacco

55
 Mn deficiency
Spinach Cucurbits

Cashew
Lettuce

56
Soils where boron deficiency is common are
 Soils low in boron such as those derived from acid igneous rocks.
 Highly leached acid soils like laterites and podsols.
 Light textured soils.
 Soils low in organic matter.
 Alkaline soils with high amount of free CaCO3.
Functions of boron : Boron is absorbed by plants as boric acid. However, it can also be
absorbed in anionic form viz., dihydrogen borate (H2BO3-), monohydrogen borate (HBO32-)
under acidic conditions and borate BO33- under high pH condition. Normal boron
sufficiency in plants is between 10 and 200 ppm.
 Boron is neither a constituent of enzymes nor it activates any of the
enzymes.
 Most important property of boron (H3BO3) is to form stable complexes with
organic compounds with cis - diol configuration.
 It is responsible for cell wall formation and stabilization, lignification and xylem
differentiation. As a consequence, B deficiency causes changes in chemical
composition and ultra structure of cell wall, accumulation of toxic phenols, inhibition
of lignin synthesis and a decrease in the production of indole acetic acid (IAA).
Decrease in IAA is responsible for the induction of Ca deficiency.
 It imparts drought tolerance to the crops.
 Plays a role in pollen germination and pollen tube growth.
 It facilitates ion uptake by way of increasing the activities of plasma membrane
bound H+ - ATPase.
 It facilitates the transport of K in guard cells as well as stomatal opening.
Deficiency symptoms
Plants having B concentration in the order of 5 to 30 ppm are suspected to be boron
deficient. Critical deficiency range of B varies from 5 to 10 ppm in graminae plants and 20
to 70 ppm in dicotyledons.
 Boron deficiency symptoms are conspicuous on the terminal buds or the youngest
leaves; which become discolored and may die under acute deficiency.
 Internodes become shorter and give appearance of a bush or rosette.
 Increased diameter of stem and petiole gives rise to the typical cracked stem of
celery.
 Specific names given to B deficiency in different crops are
Heart rot of sugar beet.
Browning or hollow stem of cauliflower.
Top sickness of tobacco

57
 Internal cork of apple.
Boron fertilizers : Generally crops like alfalfa and other legumes, cruciferous plants such
as cabbage, cauliflower and turnip and fruit trees such as apple, need boron fertilization.
i) Foliar aplication of Borax (Na 2 B4 O7 10 H2O which contains 10.6 % B) at
0.1 % concentration.
ii) Calmonite Ca2B4O7 5 H2O is suitable for sandy soils due to slow solubility.
iii) Boric acid H3BO3 contains 17 % B
iv) Solubor : Na2B407. 5 H2O + Na2B1006 10 H2O contains 20-21 %

B deficiency

Lettuce

Tobacco Groundnut

58
Molybdenum (Mo)
Functions
 Mo is a constituent of nitrate reductase.
 Activates several enzymes like catalase, peroxidase and polyphenol
oxidase.
 Inhibits acid phosphatase.
 Required by N fixing organisms like Azotobacter, clostridium, Nostoc,
Anabaena.
 Being a constituent of the Hydrogenase enzyme, helps in enzymatic transfer of e-
for reduction of N N bonds.
 Deficiency of Mo results in accumulation of nitrates.
 Involved in carbohydrate metabolism and sugar formation.
Deficiency :
 In most plants with reticulate venation, the first effect of Mo deficiency appears as
chlorotic mottling between the veins.
 Brassica crops are very susceptible to Mo deficiency, the symptoms developing in
3-4 week old plants.
 Tomato, lettuce, spinach, beet root and Brassica speces especially cauliflower,
broccoli and rape seed are very sensitive to restricted Mo supply.
 Legumes develop symptoms which resemble N deficiency.
 Grasses seem to have low Mo requirement.
 Citrus plants develop ‘yellow spot’.
 Cauliflower exhibits whiptail (leaves get twisted elongated)
 Cabbage shows cupping, veins become purple, leaves become necrotic and
malformed along the margins.
 Tomato – chlorotic mottling – old leaves roll inwards along leaf
margin.

 In rice, slight chlorosis between the vein in the middle of the upper

59
 and middle leaves and extending across the width.

Correction measures
 Application of 400 -500 gm of sodium molybdate (Na2MoO4) along with
super phosphate to the soil.
 Mo deficiency can be corrected by spraying 0.1 % sodium molybdate.
 Liming of acid soils helps in correcting Mo deficiency.
 Seed treatment with Mo as sodium molybdate is very effective method of
correcting the deficiency.
Toxicity
 Plants develop brilliant tints of golden yellow or blue due to formation of
granular complex between Mo and tannins.
 In potato, tomato and flax, Mo toxicity manifests as reddish or golden yellow color
of the shoots.

CHLORINE (Cl)
Chlorine has recently been established as one of the essential nutrients for plant
growth. Wilting is considered the most general symptom of chlorine deficiency. It is
present primarily in igneous and metamorphic rocks. In the soil, Cl- occurs as NaCl, Ca
Cl2 and Mg Cl2. The quantity of Cl- in soil solution may range from 0.5 ppm or less to over
6000 ppm.
Behavior of Chlorine in soil

Chloride is highly mobile in soils. Chloride ion will accumulate in ground water
which will move into the root zone by capillarity.

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 Functions
 Chlorine has been shown to be involved in the oxygen evolution in
photosynthetic reactions.
 Claimed to be involved in photophosphorylation.
 In microorganisms, chlorine containing metabolically active compounds like
chlorometabolites were found.
 In higher plants, chlorides largely accumulate in free ionic form in cell vacuoles.
Deficiency symptoms
 Common symptoms are wilted appearance of the foliage and stuffy roots with laterals
showing branching.
 Tomato leaves show chlorotic mottling, bronzing and tissue necrosis.
Toxicity symptoms
Excess chloride will increase the osmotic pressure of soil water and
lower the water availability to crops. Some plants are sensitive to chloride and
develop leaf burn symptoms when chloride concentration reaches about
0.5%.leaves of tobacco and tomatoes thicken and begin to roll due to excess
chloride.

The other toxicity symptoms include reduction in the number and size of leaves,
burning or firing and scorching of the leaf tips or margins, bronzing, premature yellowing
and abscission of leaves. Sometimes growth reduction may occur without any leaf
symptom.
High concentration of Cl- in soil is due to
 High amount of chloride in irrigation water.
 Inadequate leaching of salts from the root zone of the plant.
 Inadequate permeability and drainage of the land.
 High water table and capillary movement of Cl- into the root zone.
The crops have been classified into different grades of tolerance to Cl- like
1. Low tolerance to Cl- (< 20 me L-1) eg : Peach, Avocado, Lemon, Beans, Apple
2. Medium tolerance (20-25 me L-1), eg : Orange, Apricot.
3. High tolerance (> 25 me L-1), eg : Tomato, Beet
Chloride is beneficial for some salt loving plants like beetroot, spinach,
cabbage etc. There is a negative interaction between chloride and nitrate (NO3-)
ions in plants.

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 Chloride toxicity

Cashew Betel vine

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