INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS:

DEFINATION OF TERMS

COMPUTER: electronic device that processes a user’s input usually referred to as data to desired
output also known as information

PROGRAMS:A set of instructions that direct operation of a computer

DATA: raw facts that do not have much meaning to user. Examples numbers, letters, symbols

INFORMATION: Processed data that is meaningful to the user.

ICT: The integration of computers and telecommunication facilities for the purpose of
communication

Physical parts of a computer

1.System unit: it houses the brain of a computer called CPU(central processing unit).system unit
also houses other devices called DRIVES

NB: Drivers are used to store, record, and Read data

Example of system units: tower and desktop type.

2.Peripheral devices: They are connected to system unit using special cables called Interface
cable that transmits data and information to and from the device. Cables are attached to system
unit through connectors called PORTS

Examples of peripheral devices

1. Keyboard: it is a device that enable user to enter data and instructions in a computer
2. Mouse: is a pointing device that enables the user to execute commands.it is used to
control arrow displayed on a screen
3. Monitor:(screen)is a television like device used for displaying information.it is called
monitor because it enables user to monitor or see what is going on a computer

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

It can be classified according to physical size, purpose, functionality

Classification according to physical size
1. Supercomputer: fastest, largest, more expensive and powerful computer.it generates a
lot of heat so it is kept in special room. Cooling systems are required.. Used in scientific
research
 2. Mainframe computer: are less powerful and less expensive than supercomputers.
Handles all kinds of problem i.e. scientific and commercial. Mostly found in government
agencies, big companies
3. Minicomputers: resembles the mainframe but is slightly small.it support few peripheral
devices and not powerful and fast as mainframe computers
4. Microcomputers: is the smallest, cheapest and relatively least powerful type of
computers. Used in training and learning institutions, small business enterprises,
communication centres

Classification according to purpose

1. General purpose computers: They have been designed to be able to perform a variety
of task when loaded with appropriate programs
2. Special purpose computers: They are designed to perform specific purpose or to
accomplish one particular task. Such computers can perform no other task except the
one meant to do. example of such computers are ROBOT used in manufacturing
industries

Classification according to functionality

1. Digital computers: They process data that is discrete in nature. Process discrete
data
2. Analog computers: They are computers that process data that is continuous in
nature. Process continuous data
3. Hybrid computers: Designed to process both analog and digital data

Development of computers

1. Abacus: Was a chinese counting instrument which dates back to 3000BC. The abacus has
bead-like parts that move along rods. Each beads above the middle bar stands for five units
2. Napiers bones: Developed by John Napier, a Scottish mathematician in 17th century. help in
multiplication and division
3. Analytical engine: Designed by an English mathematics, Charles Babbage in 1832.it was
recognized as first real computer and Babbage was father of computing
4. Electronic computers: it took several years after Babbage designed the analytical engine
to come up with electrical computers. These computers were classified in to five generations
depending on technology used
 First generation computers (1940s to 1958): Very large physically and use thousands of
electronic gadgets called Vacuum tubes or thermionic valves. They consume a lot of
power, emitted a lot of heat. examples Electronic Numeric Integrator and
calculator(ENIAC) and Electronic Variable Automatic Computers (EDVAC)
 Second generation computers (1954-1964): operated using tiny solid-state electronic
device called a transistor that was much smaller than vacuum tubes. They produce less
 heat, small in size compared to first generation. Examples IBM1401 and
7070,UNIVAC1107,ATLAS LEO MARK111 and HONEYWELL 200
 Third generation computers (1964-1970): uses electronic device called Integrated
circuits (ICs).emitted less heat, small in size compared to second generation. Examples
IBM360 and ICL 19000 series
 Fourth generation computers (1970 to present): this design produced what is called large
scale integrated (LSI) and very large scale integrated (VLSI)circuits which were used in
innovation and technological development of brain of computer called microprocessor.
Low emission of heat, small in size compared to third generation. Examples IBM370 and
4300,Honeywell DPS-88 and Burroughts 7700
 Fifth generation computers: this generation falls todays computers that have high
processing power and speed than their predecessors

Areas where computers are used

1. Supermarket: to control stock

2. Offices: To reduce time and effort needed to access and receive information
3. Banks: For better record keeping and document processing
4. Industries: e.g. robots that work like human being but perform task that are unpleasant,
dangerous, tedious to assign to human beings
5. Hospital: To keep patients records to provide easy access to patient treatment and
diagnosis history
6. Transport: To monitor vehicle traffic in busy towns
7. Law enforcement agencies: information stored in computers such as fingerprints, images
and other identification details help in law enforcement to carry criminal investigation
8. Education:
9. Domestic and entertainment: used in home for recreational activities such as watching
movies, playing music and computer games
10. Library: to easily access and keep updated records of books and other library materials

Computer Laboratory (computer lab)

It is a special room set aside and prepared specifically for safe installation and use of computers

Factors to consider when preparing computer lab

1. Security of computer hardware and software

2. Reliability of the source of power
3. Number of computers to set
4. Maximum number of used

Safety precautions and practices

Measures that protect computers

1. Burglar proofing the room: Include fitting grills and doors, windows and roofs, to detect
forceful entry into computer lab.installing intrusion detection alarm system
2. Installing fire prevention and control equipment:e.g smoke detector,non-liquid based and
non-powder based fire extinguisher. Because liquid cause rusting and corrosion of
computer components
3. Room should be well laid out: with enough space for movement to avoid accidents

Providing stable power supply

To protect the computer from being damaged due to power instabilities, avoid connecting it
direct to main electricity supply. Instead connect to special device called Uninterruptible power
supply (UPS)

1. Dust and dump control: dust are controlled by fitting good window and air conditioning
system that filter dust particles and cover your computers with dust covers.dumpness can
be controlled by using dehumidifiers
2. Cables and power sockets should be well insulated: to avoid short circuits that cause
damage to computer components
3. User should not eat or drink:

Measures that protect the users

1. All cables should be insulated: To avoid the danger of electric shock to users
2. Cables should be laid away: from user paths to avoid stripping on them
3. Providing standard furniture: to avoid poor posture which lead to strain injury and limb
fatigue
4. Providing antiglare screens: adjustable screens to avoid eye strain and fatigue caused by
CRT monitors
5. Room should be properly ventilated: to avoid dizziness caused by lack of oxygen
6. Walls of computer room should not be painted: with over bright reflection oil paints
7. Overcrowding: to avoid suffocation

Booting

2 types

 Cold
 Warm

Cold booting a computer

Once you turn on computer, it automatically goes through a process of self-test and preparation
for use. This process is called Cold booting or bootup

Keyboard and mouse skills

Keyboard layout (draw keyboard)

1. Alphanumeric keys: A to Z,1,2…0,special keys(?,],%),caps lock, enter key, tab, space

bar, backspace
2. Functional keys: F1 to F12.used for task that occur frequently e.g. F1 for help menu
3. Cursor movement and editing keys: arrow keys, page up and down, home and end, insert,
delete.
4. Special purpose keys: combination with other keys to give certain command to computer
CTRL+Esc to display start menu
5. Numeric: 0 to 9,+,-,*,/

Mouse skills

1. Clicking: pressing and releasing left mouse button once

2. Double clicking: pressing left button twice in quick succession. used to open program
3. Right clicking : pressing right hand mouse button once.it displays list of commands from
which user can make a selection
4. Drag and drop: This is where user drag an item from one location on screen to another
location

COMPUTER SYSTEMS
System: collection of entities that collectively work together to achieve stated goal

DEFINATIONS

1. Computer system: collection of three entities namely hardware, software and liveware
that work together to receive, process, manage, and present information into meaningful
format
2. Hardware: Tangible components that makeup a computer. classified into four categories
input device, CPU, output device and storage device
3. Software: set of instruction that direct computer on what to do. Categories system
software, application software
4. Liveware: informal term that refers to human being

INPUT DEVICES
Input device convert user input which is in human readable form to machine language that a
computer can process.

Device can be classified according to the method that can be used to enter data, namely: keying
device, pointing device, scanning device and other technologies used to capture data

Keying Device: enter data by typing.Types of keying device.

1. Traditional keyboards: is the most common type of keying device

2. Flexible keyboard: is a portable keyboard that can be folded and packed into a bag
3. Ergonomic keyboard: is designed to provide comfort and alleviate wrist strain
4. Keypad: keyboard used on portable devices such as PDAs, laptops and mobile phones
5. Braille keyboard: keyboard designed for use by the blind

Pointing device

Mouse: it is a pointing device. There are different types of mouse :

1. Standard mouse/Traditional mouse: has ball underneath, two buttons and an optional
scroll button located between the left and right buttons
2. Optical mouse: does not have any moving part
3. Cordless mouse/wireless mouse: mis battery powered mouse that uses radio or infrared
waves instead of being physically connected to system unit
4. Trackball: it has ball located at the top
5. Joystick: it looks like lever used to control pointer in screen, mostly used for playing
games
6. Light pen and stylus: it operate by detecting the command or item being illuminated by it

Scanning device

Scanning means capturing data from an object and converting it into digital format.it can be
classified into: optical scanners, magnetic scanners

Optical scanners

It captures data sing optical or light technology. A light beam passes over an object and image is
analysed by specialized software. Examples

1. Optical mark recognition scanners (OMR): detects mark made on piece of paper using
ink or soft pencil, by passing an infrared beam over them. Used to mark multiple choice
questions, analyzing responses to structured questionnaires
2. Optical bar recognition(OBR): used to capture data codes as lines of varying thickness
known as barcodes or universal product code (upc).barcodes hold manufactures details
and product code but not price details
 3. Optical character recognition: used to read typewritten, computer-printed, handwritten
characters and transform image to softcopy that can be manipulated using word processor

Magnetic scanners

Magnetic scanners are used to capture data written using magnetic ink or coded onto a magnetic
strip. Examples Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR),card readers

Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)

MICR scanners are used to read characters written using magnetic ink. Example of MICR:
cheque reader used in banks

Digitizers

Also known as graphic tablet allow users to draw image using stylus. It is used for tracing highly
detailed engineering and architectural drawings and designs

Digital cameras

It captures image the same way other cameras do, only that image is stored in digital form.
Pictures are stored on a memory card instead of film. stored image can be edited, printed or
uploaded to the internet

Other input technologies

Touch screen: lets user to touch screen using finger or a stylus in order to write or select an item.

Voice input: is input technology where technology used to enter data in form of speech into the
computer

Interactive whiteboard: also called smartboard, is a large interactive display that connect to a
computer. Used in places such as classrooms, corporate board room, seminars and broadcasting
studios.

The Central Processing Unit(CPU)

CPU is also known as processor is the most important component of computer. It is actually
regarded as brain of computer because all processing activities are carried out inside the
processor.it consist of three functional element namely: control unit, Arithmetic and logic unit
(ALU) and main memory

Assignment: Draw a diagram to illustrate functional elements of CPU

Control unit: coordinates all processing activities in CPU as well as input, storage and output
operations.it determines which operation or instructions to be executed next. To coordinate these
activities, control unit uses system clock

Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): is unit of central processing unit where all arithmetic and
logical operations are carried out. Basic arithmetic operation include: addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division. Logic operations are based on computer capacity to compare two or
more values. In order for ALU to be able to process data, it has special temporary storage
location called registers, which hold the data just before processing

Main memory: also known as primary storage is a type of storage that is directly accessible by
the processor.

Computer memory can be classified into Read Only Memory (ROM) and RAM Random access
memory

Read Only Memory (ROM)

Is used to store programmed instruction and data permanently or semi-permanent. Data and
instruction stored in Rom are those which remain unchanged for long period of time. Types of
Rom:

1. Mask Read Only Memory: once content is written on it by manufacture, it cannot be

changed
2. Programmed Read Only Memory (PROM):this allow the user to alter it only once after
the content is written on it
3. Erasable programmable read only memory (EPROM):This has a transparent quartz
window through which its content, can be erased by exposing it to ultra violet(UV) light,
then reprogrammed for another use
4. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM): this type of ROM
can be erased and reprogrammed using electricity. Example of EEPROM is memory that
stores basic input/output system(BIOS)

Characteristics of ROM

1. One can only read its content but cannot write on it unless it is a special type of memory
2. It is non-volatile i.e. content is not lost when the computer is switched off
3. Store permanent and semipermanent instruction from the manufacture called firmware

Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM is also called working storage is used to hold instructions and data needed by currently
running application. The information in RAM is continually read, changed, and removed

Characteristics of RAM
 1. Data can be read (retrieved) and written (stored) in it
2. It is temporary (volatile) storage because its content disappears when computer is
switched off
3. Its content is user defined i.e. the user dictates what is to be contained in RAM

TYPES OF RAM

1. Static RAM (SRAM): is fast type of memory that is located inside microprocessor. It is
used on special purpose memory such as cache memory
2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM): is slower memory compared to SRAM.DRAM requires
periodic recharging (refresh) to maintain its data storage

Special Purpose Memory

1. Cache memory: There are three memory types of cache memory namely: level 1(primary
cache):located inside microprocessors

Level 2 (external cache): mounted in motherboard

Level 3

BUFFERS: found in input /output devices. input data is held in the input buffer while processed
output is held in output buffer

Registers: hold one piece of data at a time and are inside the CPU. Examples of registers:
Accumulator, Instruction Register, Address registers, Storage registers

Memory Capacity:

Memory and storage capacity is measured in special unit called bytes. Byte is equivalent to a
single character i.e.0 to 9,A to Z or special symbol

Memory Qualities

1. Kilobytes(KB)
2. Megabytes(MB)
3. Gigabytes(GB)
4. Terabytes

Overall Functional organization of the CPU

The arithmetic and logic unit, the control unit and the main memory use electric pathways or
links referred to as BUSES. Types of buses
 1. Control bus: this is pathway for all timing and controlling functions sent by the control
unit to other parts of system
2. Address bus: pathway used to locate the storage position in memory where the next
instruction data to be processed is held
3. Data bus: this is path where actual data transfer takes place

Assignment: diagram to show functional organization of the CPU

TYPES OF PROCESSORS

1. Complex instruction set computers: CISC processor is made up of large number of a

large number of complex instruction set. Example of CISC are Intel Pentium and PDP-II
processors
2. Reduced instruction set of computers: RISC uses fewer instruction set compared to
CISC. Motorola and sun microsystems companies are main manufactures of RISC
processor

OUTPUT DEVICES

Output devices are peripheral devices that computer uses to give out information produced after
processing operation. They are classified into soft copy and hard copy

Soft Copy Output Device:

Softcopy refers to intangible output that can be seen or heard; such as screen display and sound.
Example of such device include monitors, LCD projectors and speakers

Monitors/Screen /VDU

Is used to display information in the form of text, pictures and video, enabling the user to
monitor what is going on the computer. Types of monitors: Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD) and Gas Plasma Display (GPD) monitors. LCD and Gas plasma displays
are generally referred to as Flat-panel display

Cathode Ray Tube Monitors

Consist of a long glass tube with an electron gun on one end and a screen on the other. The
electron gun shoots electron to illuminate the screen and is coated with tiny phosphorous dots

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Monitors

It is made of special liquid crystals. Are less bulky compared to CRTs, consume less power and
have little strain on eye. Technologies used to make LCDs, passive matrix and active matrix.
Passive matrix create image by scanning the entire screen. It requires little power but have poor
clarity. Active matrix displays are made using thin film transistors technology, it consume more
energy than passive matrix but offer better clarity

Gas Plasma Display

They make use of gas instead of liquid crystal. Contain millions of pixels that are illuminated by
charged neon gas. Currently technology is used to produce high definition TV (HDTV)

Monitor display terminologies

1. Pixel: Tiny dots which are used to form the image displayed on the screen.it has three
primary colours namely red, green, blue
2. Colour depth: Number of colours which displayed by a pixel. Measured in bits
3. Resolution: This is number of pixels per inch on the screen usually given in dots per inch
(dpi) or bits
4. Refresh rate: Since CRT cannot hold an image for long time, image in the video RAM is
used to refresh the one on screen as long as necessary
5. Display size: Is measured in inches as the diagonal length of the screen measured from
top right to bottom left

SOUND OUTPUT DEVICES

Produce sounds such as beeps, audio or digital. example speakers. Some computers come with
inbuilt speakers, hence eliminating need to connect external ones

Data Projector

Used to display output from computer onto a plain white screen like wall or whiteboard

Hard Copy Output Devices

Refers to tangible output that can be felt such as papers. Examples of hard copy output device
include: Printers, plotters and facsimile (fax)

Printers

Used to produce information on a piece of paper. Classification of printers: Impact and non-
impact printers

Impact Printers

Print using striking mechanism. this means that they strike the paper in order to form an imprint
on it. Examples of impact technologies are dot matrix and daisywheel printers

Dot matrix printers

Has set of pins on printers head which strikes on an ink ribbon placed over the paper

Daisy wheel printers

Has removable flower-like wheel consisting of spoke with embossed characters. When printing,
the wheel is rotated to align the required character and then the character are hit with hummer.
Impact printers produce low quality printouts

Non-impact printers

They are faster and more quiet than the impact printers. They print using ink, thermal or laser
mechanism. Types on non-impact printers: inkjet, thermal, laser and photo printer

Inkjet Printers

Print spraying tiny ink droplets onto a paper to create an image. They are cheaper to purchase
and produce better quality printouts; they are more expensive to run due to high quality cost of
replacing the cartridges

Thermal Printers

Use thermal technology to heat ink which is normally in wax or resin form to melting point
before fusing it onto the paper. It is used in point of sale terminals to print receipts and bar codes.
They produce more quality printouts, they are more expensive to purchase and run

Laser Printer

Operate by shining a laser beam to create an image on a rotating drum. As the beam hits the
drum, it ionizes some region which attract ink toner particles. The tonner is then fused onto a
piece of paper through heating. Laser prints faster compared to the other two. Cheaper to run and
produce high quality printouts, they are expensive to purchase

Photo printer

Special purpose printers designed to print photos

Factors to consider when purchasing a printer

1. Print quality
2. Initial cost
3. Running cost
4. Speed
5. colour printing

Plotters
Used for printing geographical, architecture and engineering drawing e.g. maps, advertisement
posters to be placed to be the billboards, machine parts

Secondary Storage Device and Media (Auxiliary)

Are devices that provide alternative long term storage for programs, data and information.
Secondary storage device can be classified according to:

1. Portability as removable and fixed

2. Technology used to store and retrieve data as magnetic, optical, magneto-optical and
solid state

Removable Storage

Removable storage media are those that are not housed inside the computer. Data is read and
written into the media using a device known as drive. There are those that use magnet
technology to store and retrieve data.

Example

 Magnetic tapes
 Floppy disks (2.88 MB)
 zip disk (250 MB)
 Jaz disk (2GB)
 High capacity floppy (HiFD) (200 MB)
 Laser servo 120 super disk (240MB)

There are optical storage media that use laser beams or light to read and write data. They store
large volume of data and data stored in them is more stable and more permanent than magnetic
media

Example

 Compact disks(CD) (700 MB)

There are three types

i. Compact disk read only memory (CD-ROM)

Contains data that can only be read but cannot be written on

ii. Compact disk-recordable (CD-R)

Bought blank then data can be reorded on it once

iii. Compact disk-rewritable (CD-RW)

Allows the user to record, erase and rewrite new information as many times as on wants

NB

CD-ROMs and CD-Rs are referred to as WORMS( write once read many). Data can only be
recorded once but read as many times as possible

 Digital versatile disk(DVD)

 Optical card
 Optical tape.

There are solid state storage media that are non –volatile that use circuit technology.

Example

 Flash disk
 Memory stick

Fixed storage media

Storage devices that are mounted inside a computer.

Example

 Hard disk/hard drive

Computer software
Software can be classified into three;

 Purpose
 Acquisition
 End- user license (EUL)
 Classification according to purpose

In this class there are two types

1. System software
2. Application software
a) System software

Thus performs a variety of fundamental operations that avails computer resources to the end
user. These functions include;

 Booting the computer and making sure that all the hardware elements are working
  Performing operations such as retrieving, loading, executing and storing application
programs
 Storing and retrieving files
 Performing variety of system utility functions

System software can further be subdivided into four sub- categories;

o Operating system
o Firmware
o Utility software
o Networking software

Operating system

An operating system consist of a set of complex programs that work together to control
execution of user programs called applications and act as an interface (go between) between the
applications and the computer hardware. Examples of operating systems; Microsoft
windows(2000, XP, vista, 7,8), UNIX, Linux, Macintosh (Mac OS), Microsoft disk operating
system (MS DOS).

Firmware/ stored logic

Combination of both the software and hardware and software recorded permanently on electronic
chips. Firmware is a read-only memory chip that is mounted or plugged into the motherboard. It
may hold operating system, utility programs and language processors.

Utility software

It is a special program that performs commonly used services that make aspects of computing go
on smoothly. Such services include; sorting, copying, file handling, disk management etc. there
are two types of utility software;

o System- level utility- helps the user to work with the operating system and its functions.
E.g. tells the user when they enter wrong commands and gives suggestions how the error
can be corrected
o Application-level utility- make application programs run more smoothly and efficiently

Networking software

They are used to establish communication between two or more computers by linking them using
a communication channel like cables to create a computer network. It enables exchange of data
in a network as well as providing data security

b) Application software/application packages

Programs designed to help the user achieve a specific task

Software Uses examples

Word processors Typing documents like letters Microsoft word, WordPro,
word star, open office writer
Spreadsheets Calculating budgets Microsoft excel, lotus 1-2-3
Desktop publishers Designing publications like Microsoft publisher, Adobe
newspapers, cards and books PageMaker, Adobe InDesign
Databases Keeping records and files Microsoft access, my SQL,
Foxbase, Paradox
Presentation packages Designing presentations Microsoft PowerPoint
Computer aided design Technical drawing AutoCAD
Graphic software Designing graphics Corel draw, Photoshop

 Classification according to acquisition

There are two types

o In-house/tailor made
o Vendor off- the shelf/ standard

In-house

These are programs that are uniquely designed and tailored to meet a particular user need. They
are not available in the market and once developed fro one company or user they may not
address the needs of other users

Vendor off- the-shelf

They are developed by software engineers, packaged and then made available fro purchase
through a vendor, distributor or directly from the developer. A developer can bundle more than
one but closely related software into one package to form a suite or integrated software or sell
single-purpose software

Advantages of standard over in-house

i. They are easy to install and run

ii. They are cheaper than in-house
iii. They are readily available for almost any task
iv. They have minor or no error since they are thoroughly tested
v. They can easily be modified to meet user needs

Limitation

i. They have some feature not needed by the user which may take extra storage
 ii. They may require the user to change processes and hardware for compatibility which
may in turn be expensive
iii. They may lack some features required by the user

 Classification according to End-user-license

Three types

 Open source/ non-proprietary

 Proprietary
 freeware

Open source

Refer to software whose source codes a freely available to users. Users can use, modify and
distribute modified product e.g. Linux operating system

Proprietary

Software whose source code is hidden from users. Modification is only done by the manufacture.
e.g. Microsoft windows operating system

Freeware

Software products that are freely made available to users e.g. AVG free edition

Criteria of selecting a computer system

Before purchasing a computer hardware or software resources it is advisable to consider some

factors

Hardware consideration

 microprocessor type and speed

the processor power, speed and cost of a computer mainly depends on the type of
microprocessor and its clock speed

 Warranty

Warranty is an agreement between the buyer and the seller that spells out terms and conditions of
after selling a product in case of failure or malfunction

 Cost
The cost of a computer depends on processing capability, whether it is branded or clone and it
size

 Upgradability and compatibility

The hardware should be compatible across platforms and easily upgradable

 Portability

Ability to be moved from one place to another

 Special user needs

When selecting hardware consider the unique user needs i.e. physically challenged users.

 Monitor

Depending on preference, choice of a monitor may depend on size, resolution and technology
used.

 Multimedia capability

Ability for a computer to process and output text, sound, video and pictures. They should have
speakers, CD?DVD drive, sound cards and SVGA monitor.

Software considerations

 Authenticity

Refers to genuineness, validity or legitimacy of an item. When acquiring ensure it is an original

copy accompanied by the developer’ license and certificate of authenticity.

 Documentation

Manual prepared by developer having details on how to install, use and maintain software

 User needs

User needs dictate the type of operating system and application programs that should be
considered for acquisition. People with special disability will require software.

 Reliability and security

Data security is important and good software should have security mechanisms

 User friendliness

Software should be easy to user

  Cost

The cost of acquiring software product must be carefully considered before acquiring them
against the benefits

 Compatibility and system configuration

Software should be compatible with existing hardware and easy upgradable

 Portability

Refers to whether a program can be copied or installed in more than on computer

OPERATING SYSTEM

An operating system is the main program that controls the execution of user applications and
enables the user to access hardware and software resources of a computer.

DIAGRAM

Functions of operating system in resource management

An operating system consist of two main parts namely shell and kernel. Shell is the outer part of
an operating system used to interact with operating system. Kernel is the core of the operating
system regarded as the operation system. Kernel is responsible for managing and controlling
computer resources such as processors, main memory, storage devices, input devices, output
devices and communication devices. The functions include;

 Processor (CPU) scheduling

Allocating each job waiting for execution processor time. Computers may have concurrent
processes ready for execution , it is the operating system that determines which task will be
processed first. The operating system schedules jobs according to priorities.

 Resource allocation

Resources in a computer are given unique identification number called interrupt request(IRQ).
The operating system uses the number to identify resources. Poor resource allocation results to
deadlock. Deadlock is a situation where a particular job holds requested resources and fails to
release it, yet it is requesting for resource held by another job

 Memory management

Data and instructions entered into a computer are temporarily held in main memory before and
after processing. Since RAM is a scarce resource, the operating system determines which task
remains in memory waiting for execution and which one inn swapped out back to secondary
storage.

 Input/output management

Operating system coordinates between various I/O and any other peripheral and auxiliary storage
devices making sure that data is transmitted securely

 Communication control and management

Operating system is responsible for managing various communication devices and provide and
environment within communication protocol operate.

 Error handling

The operating system alerts the users of errors that may rise out of illegal operations, hardware or
software failure

 Interrupt handling

An interrupt is break from the normal sequential processing of instructions in a program. A

critical request causes the processor to stop executing the current process to attend to it, before
returning the control back to the process that was initially interrupted.

Types of operating systems

Operating system can be classified according to;

i. Number of tasks
ii. Number of users
iii. User interface

Classification according to number of tasks

There are two types

 Single program or single task operating system

Allows processing of one application program in the main memory at a time example Microsoft
disk operating system (MS DOS).

 Multitasking operating system

Allows a single processor to execute more than one application programs apparently at the same
time. Through processor scheduling, the operating system allocates a time slice to each task. The
CPU switches its attention between programs as directed by the operating system. The switching
mechanism is so that it appears as if the tasks are being executed simultaneously. e.g. all
windows operating system

Classification according to number of users

There are two types

 Single-user operating system

Designed for use by only one person at a time. e.g. MS DOS

 Multi- user operating system

Allows more than one user to interactively use a computer. e.g. all windows operating system,
UNIX, Novel and Linux.

Classification according to interface

There are three types

 Command-line based operating system

It lets the user type a command at a command prompt. The computer reads the typed command
from the command line and executes it. E.g. MS DOS

 Menu driven interface

Provides the user with a list of options to choose from. It is suitable for beginners who may have
difficulties recalling commands.

 Graphical user interface (GUI)

It is the latest version which is user-friendly since besides the menu it has rectangular
working area called window, graphic object called icons and most of the commands are
executed using a pointing device. The features are given an acronym WIMP Meaning
Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointing devices. e.g. Windows operating systems, Linux, Mac
OS