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Contents
Previous Paper, 2019 ................................................................1-12
Previous Paper, 2018 ................................................................1-12
Previous Paper, 2017 ................................................................1-12
Previous Paper, 2016 ................................................................1-24
 Political Theory ...................................................................3-38

Decline and Resurgence of Political Theory; Liberalism; Marxism; Role of
Ideology; Individual and Social Justice; Theory of Social Change; Multiple
Choice Questions.
 Political Thought ............................................................. 39-90

Plato; Aristotle; Machiavelli; Hobbes; Locke; Rousseau; Karl Marx; J.S. Mill;
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi; Aurobindo Ghosh; M.N. Roy; Multiple Choice
Questions.
 Comparative Politics and Political Analysis ............ 91-137

Approaches to the Study of Comparative Politics; Constitutionalism in Theory
and Practice; Executive, Legislature and Judiciary with special reference to
UK, USA and Switzerland; Party System; Political Parties in Great Britain,
USA and Switzerland : A Comparison; Electoral System; Separation of
Powers; Rule of Law; Judicial Review; Multiple Choice Questions.
 Indian Constitution ..................................................... 138-194

Making of the Indian Constitution; Fundamental Rights; Fundamental Duties;
Directive Principles of State Policy; The President; Vice President; The
Council of Ministers; Prime Minister; The Parliament; The Judiciary;
Federalism; Multiple Choice Questions.
 Public Administration ................................................. 195-230

Growth of Public Administration as a Discipline & New Public Administration;
Growth of Public Administration; Theories of Organization; Principles of
Organisation; The Chief Executive; Control Over Administration; Bureaucracy;
Multiple Choice Questions.
(iii)
(iv)
 International Relations ............................................... 231-268

Determinants and Compulsions of India’s Foreign Policy; India’s Nuclear
Policy; Indo-Pak Relations; Indo-Sri Lanka Relations; Indo-Bangladesh
Relations; Indo-Nepal Relations; Indo-China Relations; India-USA Relations;
India’s Role in United Nations; India and SAARC; India and ASEAN; India and
Indian Ocean; Multiple Choice Questions.
 Miscellaneous Questions .......................................... 269-320

Important Multiple Choice Questions.
  
Previous Paper
1 (Solved)
University of Delhi
M.A. – Political Science
Entrance Exam 2019*
1. Which of the following statement is correct C. States and geopolitics remain the principle
with regard to Raja Rammohan Roy? forces shaping contemporary world order
A. Belief in the existence of the soul D. Geopolitics, state power, nationalism and
B. Belief in one Universal Supreme Being territorial boundaries are of growing, not
C. Belief in life after death less, importance in world politics.
D. All of these 5. Which one of the following is not a text
2. Which of the following books described state related to Classical Realism?
power in India as occupying a continuum A. Politics among Nations
with “centralisation and concentration” at one B. Tragedy of Great Power Politics
end and “decentralisation and pluralism” on C. The Prince
the other? D. The Peloponnesian War
A. In Pursuit of Lakshmi 6. Which among the following can be associated
B. India's Political Economy, 1947–1977— with Aurobindo’s beliefs?
The Gradual Revolution A. His conviction that he did not regard the
C. The Political Economy of Development country as an inert object, but as Mother
D. The State and Poverty in India B. His resolve that he would not merely
repeat the name of God, but have direct
3. Which of the following does not figure in
realisation of Him
Almond & Verba’s classification of Political
C. That his education and talent belong to
Cultures?
God which could be utilised for personal
A. Evaluative orientation
happiness alone
B. Cognitive orientation
D. All of these
C. Affective orientation
D. Empirical orientation 7. “I do not wish them (women) to have power
over men; but over themselves.” These words
4. Which one of the following is a transfor-
are attributed to which of the following
mationalist view of globalisation?
thinkers?
A. Globalisation is not leading to the
A. Hannah Arendt
withering away of nation states rather to
B. Mary Wollstonecraft
the emergence of a conspicuously global
C. J.S. Mill
politics in which the traditional distinction
D. Simone de Beauvoir
between domestic and international affairs
is not enough meaningful. 8. Atul Kohli links his “crisis of governability”
B. Globalisation is bringing about the demise thesis to which of the following reasons?
of sovereign nation-state A. Pressing problems of law & order all over
India
* Exam held on 05 July 2019. 1 1822 (DU-MA) (P. Sci.) ’19–1

2 1822 (DU-MA) (P. Sci.) ’19–1-II
B. Insecurity of the Congress leadership human misery in modern society’ can be

C. Unequal socio-economic conditions attributed to which of the following thinkers?
D. Organisational decline of the Congress A. Bal Ganghadar Tilak
9. Communitarians argue that: B. Gopal Krishna Gokhale
A. Communities must take precedence over C. Rabindranath Tagore
nations D. M.K. Gandhi
B. Communal thinking is morally wrong 16. The “Block Vote System” is also known as:
C. None of these A. Proportional representation
D. Liberalism devalues communal attach- B. List system
ments C. First-past-the-post system
10. Hanafi, Hanbali, Shafii and Maliki are Islamic: D. Limited vote system
A. Sect-based Identities 17. “He is the head of the state but not of the
B. Religious Practices executive. He represents the nation but does
C. Ethnic Identities not rule the nation”. Who among the
D. Juridical Systems following made this comment about the
11. Positive Liberty implies that President of India?
A. All of these A. B.R. Ambedkar
B. The state can make interventions for B. Sardar Patel
betterment of lives C. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
C. One must be free to do things one D. Jawaharlal Nehru
considers positive 18. Deliberative democracy is the idea that:
D. There must not be any constraints on the A. People must deliberate their choice of
freedom of thought candidates
12. Identify the incorrect pair B. Decisions must follow reasonable
A. Political Development — Lucian W. Pye discussion and debate
B. Dependency theory — A.G. Frank C. Dissent delivers bad democracy
C. Civic Culture — Sydney Verba D. Preference must be aggregated
D. Modernization theory — Amartya Sen 19. Article 371A of the Indian Constitution
13. Rousseau’s idea of “perfectibility” entails provides special protections to which of the
which of the following ideas? following states?
A. Men are essentially good natured A. Assam and Meghalaya
B. Men have no basic essence B. Maharashtra and Gujarat
C. None of the above C. Jammu and Kashmir
D. Nature of man is essentially bad D. Nagaland
14. “If I was asked to name any particular article 20. Who defined Development Administration as
in this Constitution as the most important— “action-oriented, goal-oriented administrative
an article without which this Constitution system”?
would be a nullity—I could not refer to any A. Fried W. Riggs B. Dwight Waldo
other article except this one.” — Ambedkar C. Edward Weidner D. Robert Dahl
was referring to which 21. Who among the following termed the four
A. Article 21 B. Article 15 different bases of an Organisation as Four (4)
C. Article 32 D. Article 16 ‘P’s?
15. The thought that the ‘advent of technology A. Henry Fayol B. L.D. White
and industrialisation is the basic cause of C. Luther Gullick D. Herbert Simon
3
22. Who among the following describes India as 30. Frederick W. Taylor’s concept of “Mental
a “polycentric hierarchy”? Revolution stands for:
A. Aseema Sinha B. M.P. Singh A. Restricted Output and Cooperation
C. Douglas Verney D. Paul Wallace B. Economy, Cooperation and Restricted
23. Who among the following is considered to Output
have inaugurated the liberal-reformist C. Cooperation, Harmony and Restricted
modernisation of India? Output
A. Raja Rammohan Roy D. Harmony and Cooperation
B. Sri Aurobindo 31. The philosophy of “dependent origination”
C. Rabindranath Tagore can be attributed to which of the following
D. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee traditions?
24. Who among the following identified the A. Ajivikas B. Brahmanism
Indian state as interchangeably “weak” and C. Jainism D. Buddhism
“captured”? 32. Identify the correctly matched answer:
A. Pranab Bardhan B. Pradeep Chhibber (a) Geneva Protocol (i) Reduces Strategic
C. Ashutosh Varshney D. Atul Kohli Arms
25. Who coined the terms, “Party of Consensus” (b) Nuclear Non- (ii) Limits spread
and “Parties of Pressure”? Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
A. Bruce Graham B. Francine Frankel Treaty
C. Myron Weiner D. Rajni Kothari (c) INF Treaty (iii) Bans use of
Chemical Weapons
26. In which of the following years was the
(d) START I Treaty (iv) Bans two categories
Central Vigilance Commission established by
of land-based
the Government of India?
missiles
A. 1961 B. 1964
Codes:
C. 1967 D. 1991
(a) (b) (c) (d)
27. The institution of Ombudsman was first A. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
established in 1809 by which of the following B. (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
countries? C. (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
A. Switzerland B. Sweden D. (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
C. United Kingdom D. Denmark
33. M.M. Punchhi Commission was constituted
28. Who coined the phrase, “iron law of to review which of the following?
oligarchy”? A. Centre-state relations
A. Sydney Verba B. Harold Lasswell B. Reorganisation of States
C. Vilfredo Pareto D. Robert Michels C. Administrative Reforms
29. What is the correct sequence of Morton D. Reservation Policies
Kaplan’s model of systems analysis? 34. The Duverger-Riker model tries to establish
(i) Balance of Power link between which of the following?
(ii) Loose Bipolarity A. Electoral system and caste mobilization
(iii) Tight Bipolarity B. Party system and electoral system
(iv) Universal International System C. Fundamental Rights and Directive
A. (iv), (ii), (iii), (i) B. (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Principles
C. (iii), (iv), (ii), (i) D. (iv), (iii), (ii), (i) D. Federalism and Party system
4
35. “Life is not determined by consciousness but Codes:

consciousness by life”. The line relates to: (a) (b) (c) (d)
A. All of these A. (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
B. Marx’s critique of idealism B. (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
C. Plato’s theory of forms C. (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
D. Aristotle’s criticism of Plato D. (i) (iv) (ii) (iii)
36. Which of the following is false for Marx? 40. Match the authors with their works:
A. Capitalism does not lead to commodity (a) James Scott (i) Perception and
fetishism Misperception in
B. Capitalists also suffer from alienation
International
C. Capitalism produces alienation
Relations
D. Consciousness is embodied
(b) Robert Jervis (ii) Seeing Like a State
37. “Each of them by himself may not be of good (c) Ernest Gellner (iii) The Great
quality, but when they all come together is Transformation
possible that they may surpass—collectively (d) Karl Polanyi (iv) Nations and
as a body, although not individually—the Nationalism
quality of the few best ... and when they all
Codes:
meet together, the people may thus become
(a) (b) (c) (d)
something in the nature of a single person...”.
A. (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
In these lines,:
A. All of these B. (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
B. Hobbes is propounding his idea of C. (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
Commonwealth D. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
C. Rousseau is enunciating how a corporate 41. Structural-Functionalism is primarily:
body possess General Will A. An ideology of development
D. Aristotle is advocating for the Polity as a B. A method of governance
rule of the Many C. A framework of investigation
38. Match the following: D. A measurement for comparison
Thinker Types of Realism 42. Structural-functionalism by Almond and
(a) Kenneth Watlz (i) Offensive Realism Powell was an application of:
(b) John J. (ii) Neo-classical
A. Lucian Pye’s Modernization Theory
Mearsheimer Realism
B. Dahl’s Polyarchy
(c) Fareed Zakaria (iii) Classical Realism
C. Rostow’ Theory of growth
(d) Hans Morgenthau (iv) Neo Realism
D. Easton’s framework of Political System
Codes:
(a) (b) (c) (d) 43. The core elements common to both classical
A. (iv) (i) (ii) (iii) and structural realism are:
B. (iii) (ii) (i) (iv) A. Statism B. Survival
C. (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) C. All of these D. Self-help
D. (i) (iii) (iv) (ii) 44. Which environmental Convention was
39. Match the following: adopted for the protection of Ozone layer?
(a) Theory of two wheels (i) Kabir A. Stockholm Convention
(b) Doctrine of Mandala (ii) Buddhism B. Montreal Protocol
(c) Syncretism (iii) Manu C. Basel Convention
(d) Dharmasastra (iv) Kautilya D. Vienna Convention
5
45. M.K. Gandhi wrote editorials for the first time Codes:
in which one of the following journals? (a) (b) (c) (d)
A. Samvad Kaumudi B. Indian Opinion A. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
C. Young India D. Calcutta Journal B. (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
46. Rawls introduces the ‘veil of ignorance” C. (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
because: D. (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
A. Any contract must always start from a blank 49. Match the words with their meaning:
slate Words Meaning
B. All of these (a) Matsyanyay (i) The law of
C. It is closest to how people were in the abnormal times
state of nature (b) Apaddharma (ii) Intending
D. It is a device to eliminate bias in reasoning conqueror
47. Match the thinkers with their ideas: (c) Vijigshu (iii) Cosmic law
Idea Thinker (d) Riti (iv) Law of fishes
(a) Application of (i) M.K. Gandhi Codes:
Vedanta to the (a) (b) (c) (d)
everyday life of A. (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
the common man B. (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
(b) Application of the (ii) Pandita C. (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
criteria of reason and Ramabai D. (i) (iii) (iv) (ii)
social utility to sacred 50. “Greatest benefit to the least advantaged” is
texts associated with which of the following?
(c) Criticism of (iii) Swami A. The Communist Manifesto
modernity Vivekananda B. None of the above
(d) Advocacy for the (iv) Rammohan C. Rawls’s theory of justice
admission of Women Roy D. Aristotle’s distributive justice
to Medical Colleges 51. IMG
Codes:
(a) (b) (c) (d) Match the works in list–I with the authors in
A. (iii) (i) (iv) (ii) list–II
List–I List–II
B. (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
Works Authors
C. (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
(a) Hindu-pad-padshahi (i) V.D. Savarkar
D. (i) (iv) (ii) (iii)
(b) Wheel of History (ii) Pandita
48. Match the following and mark the correct Ramabai
answer: (c) Tuhfat-ul (iii) Raja Rammohan
(a) J. Ann Tickner (i) Post-colonial Muwahhiddin Roy
feminism (d) The High Caste (iv) Rammanohar
(b) Cynthia Enloe (ii) Reformulation of Hindu Women Lohia
Morgenthau’s Six Codes:
Principles (a) (b) (c) (d)
(c) Sandra Whitworth (iii) “Where are the A. (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
Women? B. (i) (iv) (iii) (ii)
(d) Chandra Mohanty (iv) Feminist Critical C. (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
Theory D. (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
6
52. Who among the following considered 60. Who among the following described India as
democracy as nothing more than periodic quasi-confederacy?
elections and ordinary citizens, beyond the A. Granville Austin B. W.H. Morris Jones
act of voting, should have no role in shaping C. K.C. Wheare D. Myron Weiner
policy? 61. Who among the following questioned the
A. Joseph A. Schumpeter claim that Public Administration is a science?
B. Larry Diamond A. L. Urwick B. Frank Goodnow
C. Juan Linz C. Luther Gulick D. Robert Dahl
D. Robert Dahl
62. Who among the following introduced the
53. Who among the following suggested that concept of ‘Zone of indifference’ in an
“nationalism can be attributed to the rise of organisation?
the industrial age”? A. Chester I. Bernard B. Chris Argyris
A. Liah Greenfeld B. Anthony Smith C. Douglas Mcgregor D. Herbert Simon
C. Ernest Gellner D. Donald Horowitz
63. Who among the following is not a liberal
54. Who among the following said, “caste system thinker?
is not merely division of labour, it is also A. Michael Doyle B. Stephen Walt
division of labourers”? C. G. John Ikenberry D. Robert Keohane
A. Jyotiba Phule B. B.R. Ambedkar 64. Washington Consensus refers to:
C. Savitribai Phule D. M.K. Gandhi A. The ten point neo-liberal guideline to
55. Who among the following used models and liberal economic reform for development
assumptions drawn from economics to analyse around the world
political behaviour? B. The ten point neo-liberal guideline to
A. Anthony Downs B. S.M. Lipset liberal economic reform for development
C. J.M. Keynes D. Robert Dahl in Europe
56. Who among the following laid stress on the C. The ten point neo-liberal guideline to
liberal economic reform for development
“imagined qualities of nationalism”?
in the USA
A. Benedict Anderson B. E. Hobsbawm
D. None of these
C. Ernest Gellner D. Hans Kohn
65. The emergence of Public Administration as a
57. Who among the following wrote the classic
discipline is associated with which of the
essay, “Science as a vocation”?
following?
A. Max Weber B. Charles Tilly
A. American Society of Public Administration
C. Sidney Tarrow D. Ira Katznelson
B. Indian Institute of Public Administration
58. Who among the following states, “Public C. Minnowbrook Conference
policy is whatever governments choose to do D. Comparative Administration Group
or not to do”?
66. Which of the following is not true of
A. B. Guy Peters B. Thomas R. Dye
Rousseau?
C. David Easton D. Y. Dror
A. He wants to reconcile liberty with
59. Who among the following scholars sovereignty
conceptualises Indian constitution as a B. Sovereignty originates in people and gets
‘seamless web’? transferred to ruler
A. Subhash Kashyap B. D. D. Basu C. General Will is always morally right
C. Granville Austin D. M. V. Pylee D. He holds a positive view of liberty
7
67. Which of the following is not true of Marx’s 73. Which of the following is not a feature of
view of the state? Ram Manohar Lohiya’s concept of “Sapta
A. The proletariat will need to capture state Kranti”?
power A. Violent revolution
B. The state is an instrument of class B. Emancipation of women
exploitation C. Abolition of caste
C. The state is necessary for resolving class D. Economic equality
conflict 74. Which of the following statements is not true
D. The state will wither away of Hobbes?
68. Which of the following is not the basic A. There is no occasion for disobeying the
principle of Hans J. Morgenthau’s Realism? sovereign
A. Politics is governed by universal moral B. Sovereign is a product of a pact
values C. Sovereign must be absolute or nothing
B. Politics is autonomous D. Law is command of the sovereign
C. Politics is rooted in human nature
75. Which of the following statements best
D. National interest is defined in terms of
describes the scientific character of
power
Comparative Politics?
69. Which of the following treaties ended the A. Comparative political analysis is basically
thirty years war? reducible to ideology and opinions
A. Peace of Westphalia B. Comparative political analysis is a type of
B. Treaty of Vienna science that probably cannot produce
C. Treaty of Utrecht knowledge of the same degree of certainty
D. Treaty of Versailles as in the physical sciences
70. Which of the following pacts resulted in a C. Comparative political analysis is a non-
compromise between Ambedkar and Gandhi explanatory mode of science
on the issue of separate electorates? D. Comparative political analysis is just like
A. Lahore Pact B. Lucknow Pact the physical sciences in its ability to
C. Delhi Pact D. Poona Pact produce certain knowledge
71. Which of the following is not included in the 76. Which of the following statements are correct
list of essential elements (Prakriti) of a state with respect to the Global Commons?
as identified by Kautilya? (i) These are areas not under sovereign
A. The minister jurisdiction.
B. The territory and its population (ii) They have an environmental dimension.
C. Nationalism (iii) They are owned by nation-states.
D. The ruler (iv) The high seas, deep ocean floor and outer
space come within this category.
72. Which of the following does not constitute a A. (i), (ii) and (iv) only
central idea of the “Instrumentalist” school B. (i), (ii) and (iii) only
of ethnicity? C. (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv)
A. Is based on “shared blood” and “shared D. (ii), (iii) and (iv) only
ancestry”
B. Is shaped by the ways political institutions 77. Which of the following propositions is not
are designed found in Classical Realism?
C. Is neither inherent in human nature nor A. The structure of international politics is
intrinsically valuable anarchic
D. Is a construct of the modern epoch B. States act on the basis of their self interest
8
C. The concept of interest is defined in terms B. Both Gandhi and Tagore advocated the
of power use of charkha
D. The laws of politics have their roots in C. Tagore disagreed with Gandhi’s programme
human nature of non-cooperation
78. Which of the following propositions is not D. Tagore supported the use of violence while
given by the theorists of Complex Gandhi opposed the use of violence in
Interdependence? freedom struggle
A. There is an absence of hierarchy among 84. Which one of the following is true about the
issues of international politics First World War?
B. There is a minor role of military force in (i) It was the first modern, industrialised total
international politics war.
C. The state is a unitary actor (ii) It was fought between 1939-1945
D. Multiple channels connect societies (iii) It began between European States and
79. Which of the following authors gave the fought on European Battlefields.
concept of the ‘Tragedy of Commons’? (iv) It is also known as the Great War.
A. Jon Barnett B. James Lovelock A. (i), (ii) and (iv) only
C. Garrett Hardin D. Carl Sagan B. (i), (ii) and (iii) only
C. (i), (iii) and (iv) only
80. Which of the following was not a distinctive D. (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv)
feature of the dharmasastra tradition in India?
A. Scholars concentrated on the nature and 85. Who gave the ‘domino theory’ about the
mechanics of power geopolitical consequences of the victory of
B. Scholars of the tradition discussed the Vietminh during the cold war?
sources of dharma A. Bernard Baruch
C. Scholars provided a detailed prospectus B. Joseph Stalin
of duties C. President Kennedy
D. Scholars provided a detailed code of D. President Eisenhower
conduct covering the entire human life 86. Who first described Congress hegemony in
81. Which of the following is true? India in terms of one-party dominance?
A. Both globalists and skeptics believe that A. Paul Brass
the states are losing their power in the B. James Manor
globalized world C. Rajni Kothari
B. Globalists believe that the role of the state D. L. Rudolph & S. Rudolph
is eroding in the present times 87. According to Foucault power-knowledge
C. None of the above relationship is:
D. Skeptics believe that the role of the state A. Independent
is eroding in the present times B. None of these
82. Which of the following level of analysis is C. Mutually Constitutive
not discussed by Waltz in his book Man, The D. Contradictory
State and War? 88. According to the “Hind Swaraj” the major
A. State level B. Dyadic level obstacle to Indian Self-government is:
C. Individual level D. Systemic level A. British Government
83. Which of the following is true? B. Extremist politics
A. Both Gandhi and Tagore regarded C. Indian elites
nationalism as a menace D. Sectarian Nationalism
9 1822 (DU-MA) (P. Sci.) ’19–2
89. According to Kautilya “Danda” is the symbol 94. The Saptanga theory of state is described in
of: which of the following texts?
A. Discipline B. War A. The Brahmanas
C. Punishment D. Sovereign B. The Visnu Dharmottara Purana
90. According to Pradeep Chhibber, “weak C. The Arthasastra
associational life” in India results in: D. The Digha Nikaya
A. Consolidation of social capital 95. The Ninth Schedule to the Constitution was
B. An activist State added by which of the following amendment?
C. Fragmentation of the party system A. First Amendment
D. Change in electoral law B. Tenth Schedule
91. According to L. Rudolph and S. Rudolph, C. Seventeenth Schedule
caste in India fosters democracy for all of the D. Fourteenth Amendment
following reasons except one. 96. The theory of “just war” can be attributed to
Identity the exception. which of the following?
A. Produces a new set of caste leaders A. Immanuel Kant B. Ole Holsti
B. Ensures affirmative action policies by the C. Hans Morgenthau D. Samuel Pufendorf
state 97. J. Mill’s harm principle states that:
C. Makes caste a sacred rather than a secular A. Prevention of harm to self is found for
entity restricting liberty
D. It capacitates a politically illiterate mass B. Prevention of harm to others is the only
electorate to organise ground for restricting liberty
92. According to Aristotle, the state is the highest C. There are no purely self-regarding actions
association because: D. All of these
A. it aims at moral fulfilment of citizens 98. The notion of “Administrative man” was
B. it ensures economic self-sufficiency coined by
C. it undertakes distributive justice A. Max Weber B. Dwight Waldo
D. it possesses sovereignty C. Charles F. Taylor D. Herbert Simon
93. The terms ‘Command Polity’ and ‘Demand 99. Who is the author of the book, “Silent Spring”?
Polity’ were coined by which of the following A. Rachel Carson B. Naomi Klein
political thinkers? C. Henry A. Kissinger D. Jared Daimond
A. Francine Frankel
B. D. L Seth 100. Makkali Gosala belonged to which of the
C. L. Rudolph & S. Rudolph following traditions of Indian thought?
D. Rajni Kothari A. Determinism B. Materialism
C. Jainism D. Buddhism
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B A D A B D B D D D
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B D * C D C A B D C
10
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
C A A D D B B D B D
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
D D A B B A D A C A
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
C D C D B D C D A C
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
B A C B A A A B C C
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
D A B A C B C A A D
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
C A A A B A A C C A
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
B B C C D C C D A B
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
C A C C A D B D A C
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Previous Paper
1 (Solved)
University of Delhi
M.A. – Political Science
Entrance Exam 2018*
1. Collective Security System of the UN is based 5. Which of the following statements is true of
on the principle of: the Social Contract of Hobbes?
A. Balance of power to be maintained by A. Everybody gives up their right of
state of equilibrium governing themselves.
B. All for one, one for all B. The Leviathan is a party to the contract.
C. Imposing sanctions against the belligerent C. The contract is reversible.
state unilaterally D. The contract takes away only some of the
D. Maintenance of security by the major natural rights.
powers 6. Which of the following is associated with
2. Abul Fazl represents the fusion of: pluralist Theory?
A. Arab Indian political thought A. Charles Taylor
B. Indian and Chinese thought B. Wright Mills
C. Vilfredo Pareto
C. None of the above
D. Robert Dahl
D. Persian-Indian political thought
7. Which of the following is not a Special
3. In 1945, the new organization called the
Minority Right endorsed by Will Kymlicka?
United Nations pledged ‘‘to promote social
A. Poly-ethnic Rights
progress and better standards of life’’ because:
B. Territorial Autonomy Rights
A. It was competing with other international C. Special Representation Rights
organizations like the World Bank D. Self-Government Rights
B. The colonized countries had started to
exert pressure on the international 8. Which of the following is not an idea
community associated with Jeremy Bentham?
A. Individual rights are inviolable
C. The founders of UN considered it to be a
B. Every Law is an infraction of liberty
white man’s burden
C. It is the greatest happiness of the greatest
D. The UN Charter draws a link between
number that is a measure of right and
international security and global poverty
wrong
and development
D. Natural Rights are ‘Nonsense on stilts’
4. Structural Functionalism as a method was 9. Which of the following books deals with the
developed to study the politics of: concept of “Civic Virtue”?
A. Politics of developing countries A. Leviathan
B. Developed Socialism B. The Social Contract
C. Advanced Capitalism C. The Discourses
D. Modern Totalitarianism D. The Republic
* Exam held on 17 June, 2018. 1 1822 (DU-MA) (P. Sci.) ’18–1

2 1822 (DU-MA) (P. Sci.) ’18–1-II
10. Which one of the following depict the (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
Westphalian Constitution of World Politics? A. (c) (d) (a) (b)
(a) Sovereignty B. (a) (d) (c) (b)
(b) Territoriality C. (a) (c) (b) (d)
(c) Autonomy D. (a) (b) (c) (d)
A. (b) and (c) only
16. Match the thinkers with their corresponding
B. (a), (b) and (c)
texts and choose the correct answer from the
C. (a) and (b) only
code:
D. None
(a) Thucydides (i) Politics among Nations
11. Which one of the following is the position of (b) Morgenthau (ii) Theory of International
the ‘transformationalists’ in the debate about Politics
globalization? (c) Kenneth (iii) The Peloponnesian War
A. States are losing power and influence as a Waltz
result of globalization. (d) Machiavelli (iv) The Prince
B. States remain in charge of globalization (a) (b) (c) (d)
and have even managed to expand their A. (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
capacities for regulation and control.
B. (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
C. States are becoming stronger in some
C. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
respects and weaker in others as a result of
D. (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
globalization.
D. All of these 17. Match the following.
(a) Politics is the art (i) Aristotle
12. Which one of the following is the example of
‘ Social Audit’? of the possible
A. MNREGA B. RTI (b) Man is a political (ii) Harold Laswell
C. RTE D. NRHM animal
(c) Politics is about (iii) Otto Von Bism-
13. Which one of the following is not a model of who gets what, arck
public policy making?
when and how
A. Elite Model
(d) Politics as ‘capacity (iv) Hannah Arendt
B. Rational Model
of acting in concert’
C. Institutional Model
(a) (b) (c) (d)
D. Transformational Model
A. (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
14. Which conception of liberty Isaiah Berlin B. (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
defends in his essay “Two Concepts of C. (i) (iv) (ii) (iii)
Liberty?” D. (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
A. Both Negative and Positive liberty
B. Positive liberty 18. Which among the four Vedas gives
C. Negative liberty importance to Indra in its hymns?
D. None of these A. Samveda
B. Atharvaveda
15. Match the following
C. Yajurveda
(i) Plato (a) The Law of Peoples
D. Rigveda
(ii) Rousseau (b) The Subjection of
Women 19. When was gender mainstreaming adopted as
(iii) Rawls (c) The Laws official UN policy by the UN General
(iv) J.S. Mill (d) Emile Assembly:
3
A. 2000 B. 1996 26. What is the central assumption of

C. 2005 D. 1980 Modernisation theory?
20. 14th SAARC Summit held in New Delhi in A. None of these
B. All societies should follow the path which
2007, stressed on:
modern western states have adopted in
A. Improving intra-regional connectivity
order to become modern.
B. Not to extend SAARC membership
C. All societies should follow different paths
C. Commitment to bilateralism within
to become modern.
SAARC
D. All societies should adopt traditional
D. Connecting SAARC with other regional
modes of production.
organisations
27. The South Asian Free Trade Agreement
21. Kabir is considered a political theorist
(SAFTA) has not been a success because of:
because:
1. Narrow export base of countries.
A. He questions birth based identities 2. Lack of bilateral free trade agreements.
B. He is a poet 3. Political hurdles.
C. He is a feminist
D. He is a potter Select the correct answer using the codes given
below.
22. The materialist conception of history views A. 2 and 3 only
history. B. 1, 2 and 3
A. As creation of men subject to empirical C. 1 and 2 only
laws D. 1 and 3 only
B. As shaped by acts of great men
28. Under the Indus Water Treaty (IWT), India
C. As result of accident
has been given the exclusive right over the
D. As imposed by supernatural powers
rivers of:
23. Who among the following is called Father of 1. Chenab 2. Ravi
Liberalism? 3. Beas 4. Indus
A. Hobbes 5. Satluj 6. Jhelum
B. Locke Select the correct answer using the codes given
C. Machiavelli below.
D. Rousseau A. 1, 2 and 6 only
24. Who among the following is not a B. 2, 3 and 5 only
postcolonial theorist? C. 1, 3 and 4 only
A. Partha Chatterjee D. 1, 2 and 3 only
B. Sudipta Kaviraj 29. Iqbal’s idea of community is:
C. Karl Marx A. Transnational
D. Homi K. Bhabha B. Local
25. With whom would you associate Cave C. External
Allegory? D. International
A. Aristotle 30. Marshall Plan was meant for:
B. Plato A. Rebuilding Western European economics
C. Hobbes B. Rebuilding the economics of the North-
D. Machiavelli American countries
4
C. Building the economics of the third world 35. Who among the following would you
D. Building the economics of African associate the concept of “Tyranny of
countries Majority”?
A. Rousseau B. Hobbes
31. “But in the long run, it would be in interest
C. Mill D. Marx
of all to forget that there is anything like
majority or minority in this country and that 36. Who among the following talked about a
in India there is only one community…”– ‘Third Dimension of Power’?
who gave this statement in Constituent A. Hannah Arendt
Assembly debate? B. Hans Morgenthau
A. B.R. Ambedkar C. Steven Lukes
B. Sardar Patel D. Michel Foucault
C. Pandit Nehru 37. Who is the author of the book The Rights of
D. Rajendra Prasad Man (1791)?
A. Thomas Paine
32. India has Kalapani and Susta territorial
B. Voltaire
dispute with:
C. Mahatma Gandhi
A. Bangladesh B. Bhutan
D. Richard Dworkin
C. Myanmar D. Nepal
38. Who is the author of the book “The high-
33. State autonomy is challenged in the “Post-
caste Hindu woman?”
Westphalian” order because: A. Meera Kosamb
A. In a more interdependent world, national B. B.R. Ambedkar
governments are forced to engage in C. Pandita Ramabai
extensive multilateral collaboration and D. Ramabai Ranade
co-operation simply to achieve domestic
39. The policy of structural adjustment was
objectives.
initially mooted by:
B. By comparison with the heyday of
A. Dr. Manmohan Singh
European global empires the majority of
B. Third World Countries
the world population and countries in the
C. United States and other developed countries
South are now much less integrated into
D. IMF and World Bank
the global system.
C. State power, nationalism and territorial 40. Match the following:
boundaries are of growing, not less (i) J.S. Mill (a) Deliberative
importance in world politics. democracy
(ii) Schumpeter (b) Proportional
D. Countries appear as autonomous
representation
containers of political, social and economic
(iii) Robert Dahl (c) Democracy as a
activity in that fixed borders separate the
political method
domestic sphere from the world outside.
(iv) Cohen (d) Enlightened
34. Who amongst the following is the exponent understanding
of Negative and Positive peace? (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
A. Kenneth Boulding A. (b) (a) (d) (c)
B. Johan Galtung B. (c) (b) (d) (a)
C. M.K Gandhi C. (b) (c) (d) (a)
D. John Dewey D. (a) (b) (c) (d)
5
41. Match the following institutions with their (c) Power as legiti- (iii) Michel Foucault
corresponding functions: mate authority
(a) GATT (i) lender of last resort (d) Power as Hege- (iv) Max Weber
providing technical mony
assistance and short- (a) (b) (c) (d)
term flows of stabiliza- A. (iv) (i) (iii) (ii)
tion finance to any B. (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
member facing balance C. (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
of payment crisis. D. (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
(b) World Bank (ii) a provisional agree-
ment between many 43. Match the following.
countries, whose A. Authors B. Books
overall purpose was to (a) Vishnu Gupta (i) Harsh Charit
promote international (b) Kalidas (ii) Arthashastra
trade by reducing or (c) Bhartihari (iii) Raghuvansam
eliminating trade (d) Banbhatta (iv) Nitishatak
barries such as tariffs or (a) (b) (c) (d)
quotas for physical A. (i) (iv) (ii) (iii)
commodities. B. (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
(c) World (iii) Provides loans and C. (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
Trade financial and technical D. (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
Organization assistance to support
reconstruction and 44. What does the concept Dialectic mean in
development, with a Marxism?
growing emphasis on A. Coexistence of Contradictions
the task of reducing B. All the above
poverty. C. Discussion
(d) International (iv) a permanent institution D. Transfer of Essence
Monetary promoting a free trade 45. In A Theory of Justice John Rawls gives
Fund agenda covering lexical priority to:
services, intellectual (a) Liberty Principle over Equality Principle.
property and invest- (b) Principle of Fair Equality of Opportunity
ment issues as well as over Principle of benefit to worst off
pure merchandise trade. (c) Principle of benefit to worst off over
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Principle of Fair Equality of Opportunity
A. (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
(d) Equality Principle over Liberty Principle.
B. (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
A. (a) and (d)
C. (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
B. (a) and (b)
D. (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
C. (a) and (c)
42. Match the conception of power with the D. (b) and (d)
thinker
(a) Power as capillary (i) Antonio Gramsci 46. Who said that international affairs are
action ‘inhospitable’ to Liberalism?
(b) Power as enhanced (ii) Hannah Arendt A. Joseph Nye
capacity emerging B. Stanley Hoffman
from collective C. Stephen Walt
action D. Robert Keohane
6
47. Pandita Ramabai’s political ideas fused several B. 1, 2, 3 and 4 only

linkages of: C. 1 and 2 only
A. Caste D. 2, 3 and 4 only
B. Hinduism, Feminism and Caste
54. Modern Indian Political thought is ‘modern’
C. Feminism
because:
D. Feminism and caste
A. India was always modern
48. Ramanuja was associated with which among B. Modern political ideals of eqaulity and
the following? liberty influenced these thinkers
A. Vaishnavism B. Sikhism C. Modernity begins in the nineteenth
C. Shaivism D. Jainism century
49. Machiavelli is a modern philosopher because: D. The British were modern and brought
A. He advocated double standards of morality modernity to India
B. He believed end justifies the means 55. The ineffectiveness of the Protection of Civil
C. He had adhered to a sentiment of Rights Act 1955 led to the enactment of which
nationalism in his writings particular Act in late 1980s?
D. He was nostalgic about Roman Republic A. The Scheduled Tribes and Other
50. Ramabai converted to: Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition
A. Christianity of Forest Rights) Act
B. Judaism B. The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
C. Islam Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act
D. Buddhism C. The Consumer Protection Act
51. Rajukas were appointed by Ashok to perform D. Protection of Human Rights Act
which among the following functions. 56. Considering Isaiah Berlin’s understanding of
A. Collection of revenue liberty, which of the following statements is
B. Educational activities not correct?
C. Judicial function A. Berlin makes a distinction between
D. Religious activities negative and positive liberty
52. Which Article of Indian Constitution provides B. Negative liberty means not being
greater autonomy to the J&K compare to the prevented from other individuals to attain
other states of India? one’s goal
A. Article 371 C. The capacity or incapacity to fulfill one’s
B. Article 365 desires belongs to the individual himself
C. Article 375 D. The state can only secure positive liberty
D. Article 370 to the individual
53. Wassenar arrangement seeks to bring 57. The term ‘Washington Consensus’ is another
transparency in the export of: way to describe:
1. Conventional arms A. Neoliberalism and is based on the model
2. Dual-use goods of ‘development as modernization’ with a
3. Small arms and light weapons thrust to ‘stabilize, privatize and liberalize’.
4. Military aircraft B. Multiculturalism focusing on a positive
Select the correct answer using the codes given endorsement of diversity based on the right
below. of different cultural groups to respect and
A. 1, 3 and 4 only recognition.
7
C. McDonaldization whereby global D. The idea of ‘Complex Equality’ is

commodities and commercial and associated with Michael Walzer
marketing practices associated with the 61. India has signed Comprehensive Economic
fast food industry have come to dominate Partnership Agreement (CEPA) with:
more and more economic sectors. 1. USA
D. Protectionism and is a set of policies 2. Singapore
pursued at the expense of other states that 3. Japan
are believed to be in their own country’s
short-term national interest. Select the correct answer using the codes given
below.
58. Which of the following is true of Marxism? A. 1, 2 and 3
(a) Marx would have supported the liberal B. 1 and 2 only
welfare state because it improved the C. 2 and 3 only
condition of the proletariat. D. 3 only
(b) Emancipation is impossible to achieve
under capitalism. 62. In Marxian philosophy Mode of Production
(c) Under capitalism, only the workers are can be roughly equated with:
alienated. A. Forces of Production and Relations of
(d) Capitalism is the system under which Production
productive forces reach their peak. B. Factors of Production
A. (a) and (c) C. All the above
B. (a) and (d) D. Means of Production
C. (a) and (b) 63. Saptanga theory of the state was propounded
D. (b) and (d) by:
59. Match the provisions of the constitution with A. Kalhana
the countries from which they are borrowed: B. Kautilya
(a) DPSP (i) USA C. Banbhatta
(b) Judicial Review (ii) Ireland D. Kalidas
(c) Charter of Fundamental (iii) France 64. With which ideology would you associate
Right the idea of state as an unnecessary evil?
(d) Principle of Liberty, (iv) USA A. Communism
Equality and Fraternity B. Anarchism
(a) (b) (c) (d) C. Fascism
A. (i) (ii) (iv) (iii) D. Liberalism
B. (ii) (i) (iv) (iii) 65. Negative liberty should be distinguished from
C. (iv) (ii) (i) (iii) the ‘conditions of its exercise,’ said:
D. (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) A. Isaiah Berlin
60. Which one of the following statements is not B. Thomas Hobbes
correct? C. Karl Popper
A. Rawls and Dworkin are the proponents of D. John Stuart Mill
the idea of equality of resources 66. Nehru is considered as a secular thinker:
B. Rawls gave priority to the difference A. On account of his autobiography
principle over the principle of fair equality B. Because he was a Kashmiri pandit
of opportunity C. Because he was a politician
C. Martha Nussbaum is associated with the D. Because he believed that the state should
capability approach not support any religion
8
67. The dictum, ‘Imperialism is the highest stage A. Immanuel Wallerstein

of Capitalism’ was propounded by: B. Immanuel Kant
A. V.I. Lenin C. Andre Gunder Frank
B. Andre Gunder Frank D. Karl Marx
C. Emmanuel Wallerstein 75. Consider the following statements about NPT
D. Karl Marx and CTBT:
68. Who among the following can be considered 1. India has neither signed NPT nor ratified
as an exponent of procedural theory of justice? it.
A. C. B. Macpherson 2. India has signed CTBT but not yet ratified
B. Immanuel Kant it.
C. F.A. Hayek Which of the statements given above is/are
D. Robert Nozick correct?
69. Who among the following can be justifiably A. Neither 1 nor 2
called the first modern propounder of the idea B. Both 1 and 2
of negative liberty? C. 1 only
A. Hobbes B. Locke D. 2 only
C. Machiavelli D. Mill 76. After split in Congress Party in 1969, the two
70. Who among the following gave a law about parties that formed were:
the relationship between electoral system and A. Congress (S) & Congress (I)
party system? B. Congress (O) & Congress (R)
A. Anthony Downs C. Congress (O) & Congress (I)
B. Maurice Duverger D. Congress (R) & Congress (S)
C. Seymour M. Lipset 77. What does the concept Base mean in Classical
D. Giovanni Sartori Marxism?
71. Who among the following first modernized A. Politics
the tradition of Natural Law? B. Economy
A. Hobbes B. Locke C. Social structure
C. Machiavelli D. Marx D. Superstructure
72. Who among the following are the propagators 78. What is the time period of the Third Wave of
of Capability approach? Democratization as explained by Samuel P.
A. John Rawls and Robert Nozick Huntington?
B. J.S. Mill and Amartya Sen A. 1945-1960
C. Martha Nussbaum and Amartya Sen B. 1826-1926
D. Amartya Sen and Jurgen Habermas C. 1920-1930
73. Who among the following is credited for D. 1974-1989
having discovered the ancient text 79. What kind of vision is exhibited by Kautilya
Arthashastra? according to V.R Mehta?
A. K.P. Jaiswal A. Idealist
B. P.V. Kane B. Pragmatic
C. R. Samasastry C. Cosmopolitan
D. R. G. Bhandarkar D. Syncretic
74. Who amongst the following is the proponent 80. Which of the following is NOT a political
of ‘World System Theory’? work written by J.S. Mill?
9 1822 (DU-MA) (P. Sci.) ’18–2
A. Vindication of the Rights of Women 85. Which of the following is the most important
B. The Subjection of Women component of the intellectual movement
C. On Liberty called Enlightenment?
D. Considerations on Representative A. Capitalism
Government B. Scientific Revolution
C. Reason/Rationality
81. Which of the following is not a feminist D. Nationalism
argument? 86. The Shramamic view of political life:
A. The public-private divide has been used A. none of the above
to marginalise women from public B. questions the position of women
participation. C. questions the authority of Brahmins as
B. Patriarchy is a system of structural rule makers
domination that disadvantages women. D. provided an alternative to the Brahmincal
C. The goal of feminism is to dismantle world view
patriarchy and establish matriarachy. 87. Who gave the catch’all model of party system?
D. Unequal sexual division of domestic A. Geovanni Sartori
labour is a source of women’s oppression. B. Maurice Duverger
C. Otto Kirchheimer
82. Which of the following is not an argument in
D. Lipset and Rokkan
favour of political obligation?
A. We should obey the state because the state 88. The Kaladan transport project by India and
is powerful and can punish us. Myanmar consists of which of the following
B. We should obey the state because we have modes of transport?
1. Roads
derived benefits from having lived under
2. Railways
its rule. 3. Shipping
C. We should obey the state because we have 4. Inland water transport
given our tacit consent to do so.
Select the correct answer using the codes given
D. We should obey the state because we
below.
expect others to do so. A. 1, 2, 3 and 4
83. Which of the following is a necessary B. 1, 2 and 3 only
characteristic of the state? C. 1, 3 and 4 only
A. Common race D. 2, 3 and 4 only
B. Common language 89. The 2+2 dialogue in bilateral relations
C. None of the above between India and Japan refers to meetings
D. Sovereignty attended by which two dignitaries of the two
countries?
84. Which of the following statements accurately
A. Prime Minister and Defense Minister
describes Plato’s theory of justice? B. Prime Minister and President
A. Justice is what the strong can do, and the C. Prime Minister and Foreign Minister
weak must endure. D. Foreign Secretary and Defense Secretary
B. Justice obtains when inequality benefits
90. The four fold programme of Socialist struggle
the least-advantaged. in Lohia’s thought comprised of Angrezi
C. Justice is doing one’s own duty as per Hatao (Banish English), Jati Todo (Liquidate
one’s station of life. Caste), Dam Bandho (Fix Price). What was
D. Justice is being even. the fourth one?
10
A. Class division 2. Enhancing security and protection from

B. Rural-urban divide piracy.
C. Himalaya Bachao (save Himalayas) 3. Trade facilitation.
D. Stree-purush samanta (Gender Equality) Select the correct answer using the codes given
91. The Manusmrti was: below.
A. A feminist code A. 2 and 3 only
B. A code which reflected the stratification B. 1, 2 and 3
of society based on caste C. 1 and 2 only
D. 1 and 3 only
C. A social code of conduct
D. A penal code of conduct 96. In Indian context, the Vishaka Guidelines lay
down the provisions related to which of the
92. The 13th amendment has been a point of
following?
contention between India and Sri Lanka. The A. Protection of women from sexual
13th amendment provided for: harassment at workplace
1. Establishment of provincial councils. B. Protection of women from sexual abuse
2. Taking action against the human rights within marriage
violators C. Protection of women from domestic
3. Creation of a second chamber in central violence
legislature. D. Protection of women from trafficking for
Select the correct answer using the codes given prostitution
below. 97. Who is associated with the work The Civic
A. 2 and 3 only Culture (1963)?
B. 1 only A. Thomas Dye and Sydney Verba
C. 1, 2 and 3 B. David Easton and Gabriel Almond
D. 1 and 2 only C. Gabriel Almond and Thomas Dye
D. Gabriel Almond and Sydney Verba
93. The Mahabharat is considered a political text
because: 98. Who is the author of the book “Anarchy,
A. It discusses contemporary politics State, and Utopia?”
B. It is an epic poem A. Milton Friedman
B. Friedrich Hayek
C. It questions the role of women
C. Ronald Dworkin
D. It raises dilemmas on the nature of political
D. Robert Nozick
power
99. Who is the author of provocatively titled
94. The ‘Clash of Civilization and New World article- “An Anti-Secularist Manifesto”?
Order’ predict an ideological shift in the post- A. Rajeev Bhargava
cold war period from: B. Ashish Nandy
A. Political ideology to economic liberalism C. T.N. Madan
B. Political ideology to culture and religion D. Akeel Bilgrami
C. Geopolitics to geo-Economics
100. Who is the author of The Discourse on
D. Nation-State to Civilization
Colonialism?
95. The Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) A. Kwame Nkrumah
aims towards: B. Archbishop Desmond Tutu
1. Social development of Indian Ocean rim C. Aime Cesare
region. D. Nelson Mandela
11
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B D D A A D B A C B
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
C B D C A D B D D A
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A A B C B B D B A A
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
B D A B C C A C D C
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
A B D A B B B A C A
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
C D B B B D A D D B
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
C A B B A D A D A B
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
A C C A C B B D B A
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
C A D C C D C C D C
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
B B D B B A D D B C
12
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Previous Paper
1 (Solved)
University of Delhi
M.A. Political Science, Entrance Exam 2017*
1. In POSDCORB, ‘C’ stands for: 7. McGregor is associated with :

A. Centralization A. Human relations
B. Coordinating B. Theory X and Theory Y
C. Conflict resolution C. Scientific Management
D. Command D. Bureaucracy
2. The Hawthorne studies were conducted by: 8. Who is popularly associated with Systems
A. Henry Gantt B. Elton Mayo Theory?
C. Mary Parker D. Charlie Chaplin A. Talcott Parsons B. Leonard White
3. The suggestion that people are motivated by C. Herbert Simon D. None of the above
a hierarchy of needs, was conceived by: 9. The concept of New Public Management is :
A. F.W. Riggs A. A mechanism to improve services
B. Douglas McGregor B. A reassertion of Weberian bureaucracy
C. Chester Bernard C. A new name of Public Administration in
D. Abraham Maslow this century
4. The idea of bounded rationality was D. Application of business practices in
propounded by: public administration
A. Herbert Simon B. Abraham Maslow 10. The concept of ‘Good Governance’ was
C. F.W. Riggs D. Henry Fayol stressed in the World Bank Report of :
5. Herbert Simon identified four basic A. 1992 B. 1997
motivations of subordinates to accept the will C. 2000 D. 2003
of a superior. Which one of the following is 11. Towards a New Public Administration was
not one of them? written by :
A. Rewards and sanctions A. B Guy Peters B. Frank Marini
B. Social disapproval C. Benn & Gauss D. White & Dimock
C. Legitimacy
12. Consumer interest and indiviual perference
D. Subordinate's confidence in superior's
is highlighted in :
ability
A. Behavioural Approach
6. The classical study ‘The Function of the B. Systems Theory
Executive’ was written by : C. Scientific Management
A. Mary Parker Follet D. Public Choice Theory
B. F.W. Taylor
13. The distinguishing feature between public
C. Chester Bernard
D. Douglas McGregor and private administration is :
* Exam held on 02 July, 2017. (1822) DU-M.A.(P. Sci.)-2017–1

2 (1822) DU-M.A.(P. Sci.)-2017–1-II
A. Access B. Commitment A. Gandhi B. Nehru

C. Interest D. Agency C. Patel D. Ambedkar
14. Identify similarities between Neo-Realists and 20. What is the first virtue of social institution,
Neo-Liberals : according to Rawls?
1. Both believe in absolute gain A. Wealth
2. Both believe in status-quo B. Strength
3. Both believe in institutions and regimes C. Militarism
4. Both exclude domestic politics D. Justice
A. All of them B. 2 and 4 21. Match the following ideas with the thinker:
C. 2, 3 and 4 D. 1 and 4
Ideas Thinker
15. Who among the following inspired Raja Ram (a) theory of forms 1. Isaiah Berlin
Mohan Roy? (b) withering away of state 2. Rousseau
A. Dara Shikoh B. Aurangzeb (c) negative liberty 3. Marx
C. Sher Shah D. Rana Pratap (d) republic 4. Plato
16. New Institutionalism in understanding Codes:
comparative politics includes following (a) (b) (c) (d)
schools of thought : A. 4 3 1 2
1. Functional Institutionalism B. 1 4 2 3
2. Rational Choice Institutionalism C. 2 1 3 4
3. Cultural Institutionalism D. 3 2 4 1
4. Structural Institutionalism 22. The territory of India shall comprise :
A. All of them 1. The territories of the state
B. None of them 2. The Union Territories specified in the
C. 1, 2 and 3 First Schedule
D. 2, 3 and 4 3. Such other territories as may be acquired
17. New Public Manangement focuses on : 4. Territorial waters which is at a distance
1. The role of public agencies in adopting of 13 nautical miles from the nearest point
private sector techniques of the appropriate base line
2. Process oriented administration A. All of them
3. Less hierarchical organizational structure B. None of them
4. Citizens as active customers C. 1, 2 and 3
A. None of them B. All of them D. 2, 3 and 4
C. 1, 2 and 3 D. 2, 3 and 4 23. The President of India shall be elected by the
18. Consociational Democracy has the following members of an electoral college consisting of
characteristic/s: 1. All members of both Houses of
1. Grand coalition Parliament
2. Mutual veto 2. The elected members of both Houses of
3. Segmented autonomy Parliament
3. All members of the Legislative
4. Direct democracy
Assemblies of the States
A. All of them B. 1, 3 and 4
4. The elected members of the Legislative
C. 2, 3 and 4 D. 1, 2 and 3
Assemblies of the States
19. Who said ‘constitutional morality must be 5. All members of Legislative Councils of
held higher than public morality’? the States
3
A. 1 and 3 B. 2 and 3 27. Select the writings of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

C. 3 and 5 D. 2 and 4 1. Buddha or Karl Marx
24. Match the following : 2. Riddles in Hinduism
3. Manu and the Shudras
Article No. Provision of the 4. Annihilation of Caste
Indian Constitution
A. All of them B. 1, 3 and 4
(a) 123 1. Supreme Court
C. 1, 2 and 4 D. 2, 3 and 4
(b) 124 2. Law declared by
Supreme Court to be 28. The term Sadagraha (Satyagraha) was
binding by all courts suggested to M.K. Gandhi by
(c) 141 3. Emergency Provisions A. Kasturba Gandhi
(d) 352 4. Ordinance by President B. Maganlal Gandhi
Codes: C. Valji Govindji Desai
(a) (b) (c) (d) D. Harilal Gandhi
A. 4 1 2 3 29. The theory of ‘Prismatic Society’ in Public
B. 1 4 2 3 Administration is based on :
C. 2 1 4 3 A. Study of public serices in developed and
D. 3 1 2 4 developing countries
25. List the establishment of the following Indian B. Institutional comparison of public
states in a chronological order and select the administration in developed countries
correct answer from the codes given below : C. Structural-functional analysis of public
administration in developing countries
Name of the State Year of establishment
(a) Manipur 1. 1987 D. Historical studies of public administration
(b) Haryana 2. 1975 in different societies
(c) Goa 3. 1972 30. ‘Institutions facilitate the coordination of
(d) Sikkim 4. 1966 policies and actions but only in so far as this
Codes: does not alter the balance of power among
(a) (b) (c) (d) states’. Which approach in IR subscribes to
A. 1 2 3 4 this understanding of the role of international
B. 4 3 2 1 institutions in this globalizing world
C. 3 4 1 2 economy:
D. 3 2 1 4 A. Neo-liberal Institutionalism
26. Match the following : B. Realism
C. Constructivism
Philosophy Philosopher D. None of the above
(a) Existentialism 1. Bakunin
(b) Anarchism 2. Charles Taylor 31. Which of the following interconnected roles
(c) Communitarianism 3. Sartre for UN to maintain peace and security in the
(d) Positivism 4. Auguste Comte post-cold war context are laid out in the 1992
Codes: report of the United Nations ‘An Agenda of
(a) (b) (c) (d) Peace’ :
A. 3 4 2 1 1. Preventive diplomacy
B. 1 3 2 4 2. Peace-making
C. 2 1 3 4 3. Peace-keeping
D. 3 1 2 4 4. Post-conflict peace building
4
A. 1 and 3 36. Which of the folloiwng can be attributed as

B. 1, 2 and 3 the main reasons of the agrarian distress in
C. 1, 2, 3 and 4 India :
D. None of the above 1. Changing nature of agriculture and
32. What defines a good society, according to democratic politics
Rawls? 2. Cultivation becoming an unrewarding
A. A wealthy society occupation
B. A society that owns the most land 3. Inability of farmers to become a political
C. A just society force
D. A strong society 4. Decreasing disparities of wealth between
the rural and urban areas
33. The Northcote-Trevelyan Report of 1854 A. 1, 2, 3 and 4 B. 1, 2 and 3
established. C. 1, 2 and 4 D. 2, 3 and 4
A. A bureaucratic model which has been
followed by other states. 37. Which of the following are true about social
B. A system in whcih civil service applicants contract theory :
are selected on the basis of competitive 1. The image of a hypothetical stateless
examinations rather than patronage. society (state of nature) is established
C. A division between civil servants who 2. Individuals seek to escape from the
perform routine administrative tasks and insecurity in the state of nature
those who are responsible for policy 3. The social contract obliges individuals
formation to obey the state
D. All of the above 4. The social contract is an involuntary
agreement
34. Which of the following are true above A. 1, 2 and 4 B. 2, 3 and 4
Comparative Politics : C. 1, 2 and 3 D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
1. It is a discipline that analyses political
phenomenon as they appear in the real 38. Which of the following was not an objective
world. of the Industrialisation Strategy articulated
2. It deals with interactions within political by P.C. Mahalanobis in the Second Five Year
systems. Plan :
3. Its goal is to describe differences and A. Development of basic and heavy Industries
similarities between political systems B. National self-reliance
4. It ignores external influences on internal C. Concentration of economic power
structures D. Building up of indigenous industrial
A. 1, 2 and 3 B. 1, 3 and 4 capacity
C. 1, 2, 3 and 4 D. 1, 2 and 4 39. Natural Rights are ‘Nonsense upon Stilts',
35. In context of the debate about globalization said
and nation-states the scholars holding the A. James Mill
B. Wesley Hohfeld
view that 'as a result of globalization states
C. Jeremy Bentham
are becoming stronger in some respects and
D. Harold Laski
weaker in others' are called:
A. Sceptics 40. The feminist concept ‘personal is the political’
B. Globalists means :
C. Transformationalists A. There is no difference between public
D. None of the above and private domains.
5
B. Inequalities of power in the public and A. Nagar Panchayat

private domains reinforce each other. B. Panchayat Samiti
C. Feminists do not value privacy C. Mandal Panchayat
D. All matters of the private domain should D. Gram Panchayat
be subject to state action 46. With whom are the following ideas associated?
41. Which of the following is not a valid (a) Imperialism as the 1. Joseph Stalin
difference between Rawls' and Nozick's highest stage of
political philosophy? capitalism
A. Rawls was liberal, Nozick was libertarian. (b) Revolution from 2. Leon Trotsky
B. Rawls' theory is an end-state theory of above
justice, Nozick's is procedural. (c) Permanent revolution 3. Vladimir Lenin
C. Rawls supported redistribution while (d) Ideological and 4. Louis Althusser
Nozick opposed it. repressive state
D. Rawls was opposed to private property apparatus
rights while Nozick upheld them. Codes:
42. Which of the following are positive (a) (b) (c) (d)
conceptions of liberty : A. 4 3 2 1
1. Not just availability of options, but also B. 3 1 2 4
ability to choose wisely. C. 2 1 4 3
2. Being free from legal constraints. D. 1 4 2 3
3. State intervening in economy to ensure 47. Match the following :
meeting of basic needs. (a) Deliberative 1. J.J. Rousseau
4. Not being deliberately interfered with by Democracy
other individuals. (b) Radical Democracy 2. Jurgen Habermas,
A. 1 and 2 B. 2 and 4 Amy Gutmann
C. 1 and 3 D. 3 and 4 (c) Cosmopolitan 3. Chantal Mouffe,
43. Which of the following is not true of Democracy Ernesto Laclau
conservatism? (d) Direct Democracy 4. David Held
A. They believe in organic society Codes:
B. They give importance to traditionalism (a) (b) (c) (d)
rather than rationalism A. 2 3 4 1
C. They oppose all change B. 4 1 3 2
D. The support gradual and reformist change C. 1 2 4 3
D. 3 4 2 1
44. Communitarianism is oppossed to which
liberal assumptions : 48. Which of the following is not associated with
1. Universal principles of justice postmodernism:
2. Right to private property A. Rejection of metanarratives
3. Abstract individualism B. Belief that world is socially constructed
4. Limited State C. Rejection of binary oppositions
A. 1 and 4 B. 2 and 3 D. Belief in objective truth
C. 1 and 3 D. 2 and 4 49. What did CB MacPherson characterise the
45. Ashok Mehta Committee recommended for classical liberal view on individualism as?
the establishment of : A. Possessive individualism
6
B. Acquisitive individualism (b) Maratha 2. Capability Approach

C. Capitalist individualism Nussbaum
D. Liberal individualism (c) Robert Nozick 3. Global Justice
(d) Thomas Pogge 4. Distributive Theory
50. Match the following :
(a) Power elite 1. C. Wright Mills Select the correct answer :
(b) Group theory 2. Gaetano Mosca (a) (b) (c) (d)
(c) Elite theory 3. Robert Dahl A. 4 2 1 3
(d) Polyarchy 4. A.F. Bentley B. 2 3 1 4
Codes: C. 4 3 2 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) D. 3 4 1 2
A. 1 2 3 4 54. Match List-I with List-II based on the
B. 1 4 2 3 important work authored by each of the
C. 4 3 2 1 following political thinker.
D. 2 3 4 1 (a) J.J. Rousseau 1. Perpetual Peace :
A Philosophical
51. Match each of the following social theorists
Sketch
methodological contribution in social
(b) Immanuel Kant 2. Discourses on the
sciences with the associated term :
Arts and Sciences
(a) Max Weber 1. Historical
(c) John Rawls 3. The Structural
Materialism Transformation of
(b) Karl Popper 2. Paradigm Shift the Public
(c) Thomas Kuhn 3. Falsification sphere.
(d) Karl Marx 4. Ideal Type (d) Jurgen Habermas 4. Political
Codes: Liberalism
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Select the correct answer :
A. 1 2 3 4
(a) (b) (c) (d)
B. 2 3 1 4
A. 4 2 1 3
C. 4 3 2 1
B. 2 1 4 3
D. 3 4 1 2
C. 2 3 1 4
52. Which of the following is true about John D. 3 4 1 2
Locke's views about human understanding? 55. Match the following scholars with the
1. There is no innate knowledge and mind tradition of thought they are primarily
is a tabula rasa (blank tablet). associated with.
2. Ideas are the materials of knowledge and (a) Edmund Burke 1. Communitarianism
all ideas come from experience. (b) Robert Nozick 2. Libertarianism
3. Experience is of two kinds-sensation and (c) Jeremy Bentham 3. Conservatism
reflection. (d) Alasdair 4. Utilitarianism
Select the correct answer : MacIntyre
A. 1 and 2 B. 2 and 3
C. 1, 2 and 3 D. None of the above (a) (b) (c) (d)
53. Match List-I with List-II based on the idea of A. 1 2 3 4
justice each of the following scholars B. 2 3 4 1
advocate. C. 2 1 4 3
(a) John Rawls 1. Entitlement Theory D. 3 2 4 1
7
56. The concept of “global village” is closely Select the correct answer :
associated with the name of which scholar? Code :
A. David Held B. Paul Hirst A. 1, 2 and 4 B. 1, 2 and 3
C. Michael Lowy D. Marshall McLuhan C. 1 and 4 D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
57. Which among the following is true about 61. Which of the following propositions is not
Weber's conception of authority? found in Classical Realism?
1. He defines authority as a matter of A. Human nature is characterized by a lust
people's belief about its rightfulness, for power
regardlss of where that belief came from B. International politics is characterized by
and whether or not it was morally a struggle for power between states
justified. C. States act on the basis of their self-interest
2. Charismatic authority stems from the D. The structure of international politics is
power of personality. anarchic
3. Legal-rational authority is grounded in a
62. The idea of Sulh-i-Kuhl (peace everywhere)
set of impersonal rules associated with
is associated with which political thinker?
an office rather than office holder.
A. Abul Fazal
B. Barani
A. Only 1 B. 1, 2 and 3
C. Iqbal
C. 2 and 3 D. None of the above
D. Syed Ahmed Khan
58. ‘Eudaemonia’ is the central concept in the
63. Which among the following distinctions are
ethical and political philosophy of which of
correct, as laid down by Gandhi between
the following thinkers?
satyagraha and passive resistance?
A. Aristotle B. Plato
1. While there is no scope for love in passive
C. Hugo Grotius D. St. Augustine
resistance there is not only no place for
59. Match List-I with List-II for the following hatred in satyagraha, but it is a breach of
political thinkers based on the important work its ruling principles.
authored by each of the following : 2. Satyagraha can be offered to one's near
(a) Hobbes 1. Emile and dear ones, whereas passive resistance
(b) J.S. Mill 2. The Eighteenth cannot, unless they have ceases to be
Brumaire of Louis dear to us.
Bonaparte 3. Satyagraha is non-violent, whereas
(c) Karl Marx 3. Principles of violence is an essential component of
Political Economy passive resistance.
(d) J.J. Rousseau 4. De Cive Select the correct code :
Select the correct answer : A. Only 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) B. 1 and 2
A. 4 3 2 1 C. 1, 2 and 3
B. 4 1 3 2 D. None of the above
C. 1 2 3 4 64. Which among the following are important
D. 3 4 1 2 components of Swami Vivekanand's political
60. Which of the following can be associated philosophy?
with Gandhi's philosophy? 1. He reconstructed the advaita philosophy
1. Trusteeship 2. Nai Talim as advocated by Shankara and led the
3. Hijrat 4. Sarvodaya foundation of neo-vedantism.
8
2. He advocated a creative engagement A. Discrimination against women in the

between sciences of the 'west' and Police Service
spirituality of the 'east'. B. Reservation in Promotion for the
3. His idea of selfless service was inspired Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
by the principles of Karma Yoga and in Government Service
nishkama karma as advocated in the C. Reservation in Promotion for the Other
Bhagavad Gita. Backward Classes in Government Service
Select the correct code : D. Sexual harassment of women at work places
A. Only 1 B. 2 and 3
70. In which work was Vande Mataram first
C. 1, 2 and 3 D. 1 and 3
propounded?
65. Consider the following statements. A. Anandamath
In the early 1920s, Gandhi argued that Swaraj B. Hind Swaraj
is impossible without C. Gita
1. Khadi D. The Discovery of India
2. Hindu-Muslim unity
71. “Smiling Buddha” was the code name of:
3. Abolition of untouchability
A. India's First Nuclear Test 1974
4. Nai Talim (Basic Education)
B. India's Second Nuclear Test
Which of the statements given above are
C. Indo-Soviet Treaty 1971
correct?
D. Indo-US Nuclear Agreement
A. 1, 2, 3 and 4 B. 1, 2 and 3
C. 1 and 3 D. 2 and 4 72. “We will wage a thousand years war against
India”, is a statement related to :
66. The Social contract theory paved the way
A. Zia-Ul-Haq
for:
B. Ayub Khan
A. rise of absolute monarchy
C. Yahya Khan
B. democracy
D. Z.A. Bhutto
C. growth of autocratic government
D. direct democracy 73. "Operation PARAKRAM" refers to military
deployment at :
67. Which three traditions influenced Marx?
A. India-China border
A. The Enlightenment, the Reformation, and
B. India-Bangladesh border
political enonomy
C. India-Pakistan border
B. Industrialism, feudalism and communism
C. Hegelianism, socialism, and political D. India-Sri Lanka Oceanic Region
economy 74. The social contract theory replaced:
D. Communism, socialism, and capitalism A. force theory
68. For Savarkar what were the three fundamental B. divine right theory
bonds that united the Hindus? C. patriarchal theory
A. Territory, Race and culture D. matriarchal theory
B. Territory, Population and Sovereignty 75. Which European thinker most influenced the
C. Territory, Government and International Anushilan samity?
recognition A. Locke B. Voltaire
D. None of the above C. Mazzini D. Mill
69. Vishakha and others vs. State of Rajasthan 76. Rousseau's social contract theory exercised
case pertained to which one of the following? great influence on :
9 (1822) DU-M.A.(P. Sci.)-2017–2
A. October revolution 81. Which two of the following four scholars

B. French revolution of 1789 have studied and written about colonialism
C. Paris commune of 1871 and its forms of knowledge in the context of
D. American Revolution South Asia?
77. The first effective attempt by the nationalists 1. M.N. Srinivas
for drafting the Constitution of Independent 2. Bernard Cohn
India may be traced back to : 3. Nicholas Dirks
A. The Poona Pact 4. Veena Das
B. Sapru Report
Options :
C. Nehru Report
A. 1 and 2
D. Jinnah's Fourteen Points
B. 2 and 3
78. During whose viceroyalty was ‘Repressive Act’, C. 1 and 3
also known as the ‘Gagging Act’, enacted? D. 1 and 4
A. Lord Curzon
B. Lord Lytton 82. The Surrogacy (Regulation) Bill, 2016,
C. Lord Ripon prevents all, except one, of the following
D. Lord Morley categories of people from having a child
79. Match the following and select the correct through surrogacy. Identify the exception.
pairs : A. Single individuals
B. Homosexual couples
Scholars
C. Heterosexual married couples where the
(a) Pranab Bardhan
male and female partners are above 50
(b) Lloyd and Susanne Rudolph
years of age
(c) Robert Jenkins
(d) Ronald Herring D. Couples in live-in relationships
Books 83. Match the following and select the correct

1. In Pursuit of Lakshmi : The Political pairs :
Economy of the Indian State Scholars
2. Land to the Tiller : The Political Economy (a) Atul Kohli
of Agrarian Reform in South Asia (b) Yogendra Yadav
3. The Political Economy of Development (c) Partha Chatterjee
in India (d) Kanchan Chandra
4. Democratic Politics and Economic
Reform in India Books
Options : 1. ‘Second democratic upsurge’
(a) (b) (c) (d) 2. ‘Political society’
A. 3 1 2 4 3. ‘Crisis of governability’
B. 1 2 3 4 4. ‘Patronage democracy’
C. 3 1 4 2 Options :
D. 4 3 2 1 (a) (b) (c) (d)
80. Who among the following specifically A. 3 1 2 4
critiqued Gandhi's celebration of charkha? B. 4 1 2 3
A. Tagore B. Savarkar C. 2 4 1 3
C. Tilak D. Patel D. 1 3 4 2
10
84. The Sixth Schedule of the Indian Consti- Books

tution makes special provisions for the 1. The Story of My Experiments with Truth
administration of tribal-dominated areas in 2. Glimpses of World History
four states. Identify the correct group of states. 3. Poverty and Un-British Rule in India
A. Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram 4. Buddha or Karl Marx
B. Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Manipur Options :
C. Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Nagaland (a) (b) (c) (d)
D. Assam, Tripura, Manipur, Nagaland A. 3 1 2 4
85. All of the following scholars, barring one, B. 4 1 3 2
have theorized and written on the subject of C. 3 4 1 2
nationalism. Identify the one scholar who D. 4 3 1 2
has not. 88. Whi ch ame ndment to t he Indian
A. Frantz Fanon Constitution reduced the age of voting rights
B. Theda Skocpol from 21 to 18?
C. Benedict Anderson A. 61st Amendment B. 60th Amendment
D. Anthony Smith C. 48th Amendment D. 45th Amendment
86. Match the following and select the correct 89. Of the following four figures, over whose
pairs : political thought did the American philosopher
John Dewey's thinking on democracy exercise
Scholars profound influence?
(a) Leela Fernandes A. Jawaharlal Nehru
(b) Christophe Jaffrelot B. B.R. Ambedkar
(c) Marc Galanter C. M.N. Roy
(d) Rajni Kothari D. Subhas Chandra Bose
Books 90. Match the following and select the correct
1. India's New Middle Class : Democratic pairs :
Politics in an Era of Economic Reform
Scholars
2. The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India
(a) Ranajit Guha
3. Caste in Indian Politics
(b) Shahid Amin
4. Competing Equalities: Law and the
(c) Gyanendra Pandey
Backward Classes in India
(d) Dipesh Chakravarty
Options :
Books
(a) (b) (c) (d)
1. Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency
A. 4 3 1 2
in Colonial India
B. 1 2 4 3
2. The Construction of Communalism in
C. 3 1 4 2
Colonial North India
D. 1 3 2 4
3. Rethinking Working Class History:
87. Match the following and select the correct Bengal, 1890-1940
pairs : 4. Event, Metaphor, Memory : Chauri
Political Figures/Thinkers Chaura, 1922-1992
(a) B.R. Ambedkar Options :
(b) Dadabhai Naoroji (a) (b) (c) (d)
(c) M.K. Gandhi A. 1 4 2 3
(d) Jawaharlal Nehru B. 1 2 3 4
11
C. 3 1 4 2 A. L.D. White B. Luther Guilik

D. 4 3 2 1 C. Woodrow Wilson D. Pffifner
91. Which one of the following scholars would 95. The Politics-Administration dichotomy was
you associate with the anti-modernist critique enunciated by :
of Indian secularism? A. W. Paul Appleby
A. Akeel Bilgrami B. Max Weber
B. Neera Chandhoke C. Frank Henry Goodnow
C. Ashis Nandy D. Fredrick Taylor
D. Rajeev Bhargava 96. Fredrick Taylor started his career in the :
92. Which amendment to the Indian Constitution A. Hawthorne Plant
transformed the ‘right to property’ from a B. General Electric Company
fundamental right to a statutory right? C. Enterprises Hydraulic Works
A. The 44th Amendment D. Midvale Steel Works
B. The 42th Amendment 97. Who is considered to be the founding father
C. The 4h Amendemnt of Bureaucracy?
D. The 1st Amendment A. Woodrow Wilson B. Max Weber
93. Match the following : C. Herbert Simon D. Karl Marx
(a) Orientalism 1. James C. Scott 98. Max Weber articulated the following three
(b) Political Order in types of leadership :
changing Societies 2. Judith Butler A. Charismatic, institutionalists, hereditary
(c) Weapons of 3. Edward Said B. Titular, controllers, organizers
the Weak C. Charismatic, traditional, legal/rational
(d) Gender Trouble 4. Samuel D. Popular, democratic, professional
P. Huntington 99. Max Weber's theory is also called:
Codes: A. Classic bureaucracy
(a) (b) (c) (d) B. Ideal type of bureaucracy
A. 2 3 1 4 C. Objective bureaucracy
B. 3 4 1 2 D. Executive bureaucracy
C. 4 1 3 2 100. Which of the following terms is not associated
D. 1 2 3 4 with Fredrick Taylor :
94. Public Administration is defined as a detailed A. Piece Rate System
and systematic application of law. Every B. Scientific Management
particular application of law is an act of C. Soldering
administration. Who said this? D. Social Man
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B B D A B C B A D A
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B D C B A D B D D D
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A C D A C D A B C B
12
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
C C D A C B C C C B
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
D C C C C B A D A B
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
C C A B D D B A A D
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
D A B C B B C A D A
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
A D C B C B C B C A
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
B C A A B B D A B A
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
C A B C C C B C B D
Previous Paper
1 (Solved)
University of Delhi
M.A. Political Science, Entrance Exam 2016*
1. When and where did Rabindra Nath Tagore 8. In explaining administrative decision-making,
deliver his lecture on Nationalism? Simon’s decision-theory did not focus on
A. Japan, 1911 B. England, 1914 which one of the following?
C. Japan, 1916-17 D. India, 1921 A. The single best choice made by the
2. Charles Lindblom and David Braybrooke are decision-maker
associated with: B. The limits of information availability in
A. Line Principle the organization
B. Staff Principle C. The constraints on computational
C. Decision Making Processes abilities of the administrator
D. Recruitment Procedure D. Bounded Rationality and Satisfying
9. ‘Good Governance’ was stressed in the World
3. The idea of ‘Prismatic Society’ is associated
Bank Report of :
with:
A. 1992 B. 1997
A. Fred Riggs B. Elton Mayo
C. 2000 D. 2003
C. Herbert Simon D. F.W. Taylor
10. Who wrote Towards A New Public Adminis-
4. Who wrote Protestant Ethics and the Spirit
tration : The Minnowbrook Perspective’?
of Capitalism?
A. Frank Marini
A. Max Weber B. Karl Marx
B. Dwight Waldo
C. Woodrow Wilson D. Adam Smith
C. C.J. Charlesworth
5. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar borrowed the idea of D. J.M. Pfiffner
constitutional morality from:
11. According to Fayol managerial principles are:
A. John Dewy B. David Ricardo
A. Fixed and rigid
C. Goerg Grote D. Beatrice Webb
B. Fixed but flexible
6. Which of the following is not a method of C. Both the above correct
estimating national income? D. None of the above
A. Product Method
12. Which of the following is not true for
B. Export-Import Method
participatory democracy?
C. Income Method
A. It regards competitive theory of
D. Expenditure Method
democracy as unduly minimalist
7. In POSDCORB, ‘CO’ stands for: B. It calls for reforms in social and political
A. Centralization structures of decision-making
B. Co-ordination C. It justifies political apathy
C. Conflict resolution D. It calls for radical transformation of
D. Command citizenship
* Exam held on 20 June, 2016. (1822) DU-M.A.(P. Sci.)-2016–1

2 (1822) DU-M.A.(P. Sci.)-2016–1-II
13. Which one of the following is not associated C. Democratic decision-making

with Fredrick Taylor? D. Effective and humane delivery of public
A. Differential Rate System services
B. Functional Foremanship 20. Who originally coined the term ‘property as
C. Piece Rate System
theft’?
D. Gang Plank
A. Immanual Kant B. Karl Popper
14. Who among the following makes a C. Adam Smith D. Proudhon
distinction between hygiene factors and
21. Which combination can be associated with
motivation factors?
‘historical materialism and dialectic
A. Frederick Herzberg
materialism’?
B. Abraham Maslow
A. Hegel and Marx
C. Chester Bernard
B. Rawls and Rousseau
D. Douglas McGregor
C. Green and Kant
15. Who talked about industrial democracy? D. Mosca and Marx
A. M.P. Follett
B. Herbert Simon 22. Which is the appropriate combination for
C. Frederick Taylor Locke’s Theory of Natural Rights?
D. Douglas McGregor A. Social, political, economic
B. Life, liberty, property
16. Who wrote The Human Side of the C. Rights, duties, life
Enterprise? D. Liberty, equality, sovereignty
A. Douglas McGregor
B. Chester Bernard 23. Who of the following would you associate
C. Herbert Simon with ‘the end of ideology’ thesis?
D. Elton Mayo A. Francis Fukuyama
B. Daniel Bell
17. Which one of the following term is not
C. Isaiah Berlin
introduced by Elton Mayo?
D. Brian Barry
A. Rate Buster B. Chiseller
C. Squealer D. Rate Booster 24. ‘A has power over B to the extent that A can
get B to do something which B would not
18. Arrange the following in rational decision
otherwise do’. With whom do you associate
making in proper order:
the above definition?
(a) Identification
A. Michel Foucault B. Steven Lukes
(b) Assessing cost
C. Karl Marx D. Robert Dahl
(c) Priority rating
(d) Selection 25. Who among the following political theorists
(e) Listing means was one of the first to offer a conception of
Select correct answer from the following: distributive justice?
A. (a), (c), (e), (b), (d) A. Plato B. Aristotle
B. (a), (e), (b), (c), (d) C. Locke D. Mill
C. (a), (b), (c), (e), (d) 26. Who among the following offers a critique of
D. (a), (c), (b), (e), (d) the classical conception of democracy?
19. The leaders of New Public Administration do A. Joseph Schumpeter
not emphasize on: B. Philip Pettit
A. Social equity C. C.B. Macpherson
B. Value neutrality of administration D. Carole Pateman
3
27. Who wrote The Origin of Family, Private 35. Identify the odd-one out from the social
Property and the State? contract theory:
A. Marx B. Plato A. Thomas Hobbes B. John Locke
C. Engels D. Rousseau C. J.J. Rousseau D. J.S. Mill
28. Which among the following concepts is 36. Which of the following statements cannot be
attributed to the ‘Young Marx’? attributed to Plato?
A. Alienation A. He had a very pale view of Athenian
B. Class struggle democracy.
C. Surplus value B. Men and women were different by nature,
D. Mode of production but their natural differences were
29. Which thinker gave the ‘triadic’ concept of irrelevant to their political roles
liberty? C. Plato endorsed the institutions of private
A. Gerard Macullum property and the family for the Guardians
B. Isaiah Berlin D. Until philosophers are kings or the kings
C. Charles Taylor and princes have the spirit and power of
D. John Locke philosophy, cities will never have rest
from their evils
30. Which of the following best describes John
Rawls’s theory of justice? 37. The power of the Supreme Court of India to
A. Justice is given by the state adjudicate on a dispute between the centre
B. Justice consists of treating equals and and states falls under its:
unequals similarly A. Advisory jurisdiction
C. Justice is a distributive principle B. Original jurisdiction
D. Justice is blind C. Appellate jurisdiction
31. Who presented the concept of “Iron Law of D. Constitutional jurisdiction
Oligarchy”? 38. The objective of the Morley-Minto Reforms
A. C. Wright Mills B. Vladimir Lenin was:
C. Gaetano Mosca D. Robert Michels A. To give more powers to local self-
32. Taylor, Walzer, MacIntyre, Sandel—What governments
kind of a philosophical position do these B. Extension of provincial assemblies
four philosophers represent? C. To abolish the post of Secretary of the
A. Marxism State of India
B. Multiculturalism D. To establish dyarchy in provinces
C. Communitarianism 39. Who wrote The Intimate Enemy?
D. Feudalism A. Sudipta Kaviraj
33. The idea of social contract has been recently B. Partha Chatterjee
revived under a new form by: C. Ashish Nandy
A. Robert Nozick D. Rajni Kothari
B. John Rawls 40. Who wrote Why I am not a Hindu : A Shudra
C. Michael J. Oakshott Critique of Hindutva Philosophy, Culture and
D. Hannah Arendt Political Economy?
34. Who said ‘Natural rights are simple A. Kanshi Ram
nonsense’? B. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
A. Hobbes B. Hegel C. Jyotiba Phule
C. Bentham D. Laski D. Kancha Illiah
4
41. ‘A caste may be said to be ‘dominant’ when 46. In India all residuary powers of legislation
it preponderates numerically over the other (i.e., which are not in the State or Concurrent
castes, and when it wields preponderant lists) lie with:
economic and political power. A large and A. The Supreme Court of India
powerful caste group can more easily be B. The Parliament of India
dominant if its position in the local caste C. The President of India
hierarchy is not too low.’ D. The Prime Minister and his/her Council
Who, among the following scholars, provided of Ministers
the above definition of a ‘dominant caste’? 47. Which among the following was a law of
A. Louis Dumont B. M.N. Srinivas detention?
C. Veena Das D. Bernard Cohn A. POTA B. NSA
C. MISA D. All of these
42. Which of the figures mentioned below is
associated with the concept of ‘graded 48. In which year did the Communist Party of
inequality’? India split into CPI and CPI(M)?
A. Mahatma Gandhi A. 1961 B. 1963
B. Shahuji Maharaj C. 1964 D. 1965
C. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar 49. Regionalization of party system in India is
D. Jyotiba Phule manifested in which of the following ways:
43. Which of the following politicians (and party A. Declining significance of the Congress
leaders) did not have a parent involved in B. Growing importance of the BJP
electoral politics? C. Increasing autonomy of states to make
A. Naveen Patnaik independent decisions on political and
B. Mayawati economic matters
C. Uddhav Thackeray D. The emergence of the two party system
D. Ajit Singh 50. The Constitutional 52nd amendment act
44. Which one of the following understanding of deals with which of the following?
identity is not ‘constructivist’ in perspective? A. Disqualification on the basis of defection
A. Identity is a matter of strategic choice B. Article 356 is beyond the scope of
B. Identity is an outcome of political judicial review
processes C. Public Interest Litigation
C. Identity is an outcome of historical D. Impeachment of the judges of the
processes Supreme Court
D. Identity is a matter of primordial 51. The 6th Schedule to the Constitution of India
attachment covers which of the following states?
45. The Electoral College for the election of the A. Assam, Sikkim and Manipur
Vice President of India consists of: B. Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram
A. Elected members of both Houses of C. Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim
Parliament assembled at a joint meeting D. Jharkhand, Chattisgarh and Uttarakhand
B. Members of both Houses of Parliament 52. Who was the first Indian Governor General of
C. Members of both Houses of Parliament independent India?
and members of all Legislative assemblies A. Dr. Rajendra Prasad
D. Members of both Houses of Parliament B. Chakravarty Rajagopalachari
and elected members of all Legislative C. G.V. Mavalankar
assemblies D. Lord Louis Mountbatten
5
53. Who wrote The Idea of India? 60. Who among the following is associated with
A. Rajni Kothari the concept of ‘the development of under-
B. Paul Brass development’?
C. Sunil Khilnani A. Andre Gunder Frank
D. Granville Austin B. Mao Zedong
C. Wolfgang Sachs
54. What concept of federalism does Seventh
D. Immanuel Wallerstein
Schedule of the Indian Constitution
represent? 61. Which of the following is incorrect statement
A. Separation of Powers with regard to the British Monarch?
B. Fusion of Powers A. The Monarch is the Head of the State
C. Division of Powers B. The Monarch is the Commander in Chief
D. Asymmetrical federalism of the armed forces
C. The Monarch is the head of the Church
55. The President can make a proclamation of of England
Financial Emergency under Article 360: D. The Monarch can dissolve the Parliament
A. For the whole of India or any part of
India 62. Which of the following is the correct
B. For the whole of India except Nagaland, chronological order of the offices held by the
Chinese Communist Leaders?
Tripura, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram
A. Mao Tse-Tung, Deng Xioping, Jiang
and Arunachal Pradesh
Zemin, Xi Jinping
C. For the whole of India except Jammu and
B. Mao Tse-Tung, Jiang Zemin, Deng
Kashmir
Xioping, Xi Jinping
D. For the whole of India except Andaman
C. Deng Xioping, Mao Tse-Tung, Xi Jinping,
and Nicobar Islands
Jiang Zemin
56. Who gave the concept of ‘Congress System’? D. Mao Tse-Tung, Xi Jinping, Deng
A. Maurice Duverger Xioping, Jiang Zemin
B. Rajni Kothari 63. Who advocated cleavage model of party
C. Partha Chatterjee systems?
D. K.C. Wheare A. Robert Michels
57. The basic structure doctrine was first given B. Maurice Duverger
in which of the following judicial decision? C. Lipset and Rokkan
A. Golaknath D. Geovanni Sartori
B. S.R. Bommai 64. Dependency school emerged as a reaction to:
C. Minerva Bills A. Historical materialism
D. Keshavananda Bharti B. Dialectical materialism
58. K.C. Wheare described India as: C. Modernization perspective
A. quasi-confederal B. quasi-federal D. Civil society
C. federal D. confederal 65. “The more well-to-do a nation, the greater
59. Who talked about the ‘second democratic the chances that it will sustain democracy.”
upsurge’? —Seymour Lipset
A. Pratap Bhanu Mehta Which of the following countries could be
B. M.V. Pylee cited in support of this proposition?
C. Yogendra Yadav A. China B. Nigeria
D. Suhas Palshikar C. United Kingdom D. Vietnam
6
66. What term describes a set of attitudes and 73. Match the political parties with the
practices that shapes people’s political corresponding countries and choose the
behaviour? correct answer from the codes:
A. Catch-all party B. Political party (a) Liberal Democratic Party 1. China
C. Social culture D. Political culture (b) Communist Party 2. Nigeria
67. In Communist Manifesto It is states that (c) Workers’ Party 3. UK
“..........is the committee for managing the (d) People’s Democratic Party 4. Brazil
affairs of the whole bourgeoisie” (Karl Marx Codes:
and Fredrich Engels). Fill the hash space (a) (b) (c) (d)
column from the followings: A. 3 1 2 4
A. Executive of the state B. 3 1 4 2
C. 3 2 4 1
B. President
D. 1 3 4 2
C. Council of Ministers
D. None of the above 74. Who was of opinion that, ‘the end of cold
war represented the victory of ideal state and
68. Which of the following countries formed part
liberal capitalism?
of the first wave of democratization?
A. Michael Doyle
A. India
B. Thomas Dunne
B. Sri Lanka
C. Francis Fukuyama
C. United States of America
D. Samuel Huntington
D. Kenya
75. According to Keohane and Nye, the inter-
69. Where does the Parliament of the United
nationalisation of the world economy had
Kingdom meet?
led the major industrialised nations to a
A. Royal Parliament
pattern of:
B. Big Ben Tower
A. Complex interdependence
C. Westminster
B. Complex dependence
D. Whitehall
C. Dependence
70. Which one of the following could be D. Interdependence
associated with Hyperfactualism?
76. Which of the following South Asian countries
A. David Easton B. Jean Blondel
has the best Human Development Index?
C. Karl Deutsch D. Almond Powell A. Afghanistan B. Pakistan
71. Marshall Plan, 1947 was also formally known C. Sri Lanka D. India
as: 77. The meaning of non-State actor in
A. European Reconstruction Programme international relations is:
B. European Revival Plan A. People living in the forest
C. European Recovery Programme B. Criminals in the prison
D. European Restrenghtening Plan C. Groups that are part of the civil society
72. Name the feminist scholar who redescribed such as International Non-Governmental
Morgenthau’s Six ‘Objective’ Principles of Organisations
International Politics according to Feminist D. Those who do not pay taxes
perspective: 78. The Arab Spring is:
A. Cynthia Enloe A. A movement for fighting droughts in
B. Jacqui True Arabia
C. J. Ann Tickner B. A movement for democratisation of
D. V. Spike Peterson authoritarian regimes
7
C. A sports meet (d) Afghanistan is a member of SAARC

D. Celebration of the arrival of the Spring Select the correct answer:
season in Arabia A. (a), (b) B. (b), (d)
79. In 1972, India signed a treaty of peace C. (a), (c) D. (c), (d)
friendship and cooperation with which 85. Match List–I with List–II and select the
country? correct answer from the codes given below:
A. USSR B. China List–I List–II
C. USA D. Bangladesh Scholar Book
80. Which statements are true about G8 (a) David Held 1. In Defence of
countries? Choose the correct answer from Globalization
the codes: (b) Joseph E. 2. The World is Flat : The
(a) it’s a group of developing countries Stiglitz Globalized World in
(b) it comprises seven nations and European 21st Century
union (c) Jagadish 3. A Globalizing World :
(c) Russia has been suspended from this Bhagwati Culture, Economics
Group on the issue of Crimean crisis and Politics
(d) India is also a member of this group (d) Thomas 4. Globalization and its
A. (a) & (d) B. (b) & (d) Friedman Discontents
C. (a) & (c) D. (b) & (c) Codes:
81. Which one of the following country is not a (a) (b) (c) (d)
member of BIMSTEC? A. 3 4 1 2
A. Bangladesh B. India B. 4 3 2 1
C. Spain D. Thailand C. 1 2 3 4
D. 2 4 1 3
82. ‘Look East Policy’ was enacted by:
A. Narshimha Rao B. Narendra Modi 86. Given below are two statements, one labelled
C. Manmohan Singh D. I.K. Gujral as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as
83. Match List–I with List–II and select the Reason (R):
correct answer from the options given below: Assertion (A) : Samir Amin argued that
List–I List–II Marx foresaw that no
Scholar Concept colonial power would be
(a) Kenneth Waltz 1. Structural Realism able to continue for long
(b) E.H. Carr 2. Classical Realism due to the local
(c) Robert Gilpin 3. Neo-Realism development of capitalism.
(d) Hedley Bull 4. English School
Reason (R) : This was because of a
Select correct answer:
dearth of knowledge of
A. All four (a, b, c, d) are true
non-European societies.
B. (a), (b), (c) are true and (d) is false
C. (a) is false and (b), (c), (d) are true Select the correct answer from the codes given
D. (a) and (b) are true, (c) and (d) are false below.
84. Which among the following is not true about A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the
SAARC? correct explanation of (A)
(a) Mynamar is a member of SAARC B. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not
(b) SAARC was founded in 1985 the correct explanation of (A)
(c) All decisions in SAARC are taken by a C. (A) is true but (R) is false
majority vote D. (A) is false but (R) is true
8
87. Match List–I with List–II and select the 92. Match List–I with List–II and select the
correct answer from the codes given below: correct answer from the options given below:
List–I List–II List–I List–II
Treaties/Principles Year Authors Books
(a) FMCT 1. climate change (a) Mahatma Gandhi 1. Bunch of
(b) Montreal Protocol 2. world trade Thoughts
(c) TRIPS 3. non-proliferation (b) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar 2. Hind Swaraj
of weapons of (c) M.S. Golwalkar 3. Annihilation of
mass destruction Caste
(d) WSF 4. global social (d) V.D. Savarkar 4. Hindutva
movements Code:
Codes: (a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) (b) (c) (d) A. 1 2 3 4
A. 3 1 2 4 B. 2 3 1 4
B. 1 2 3 4 C. 3 1 4 2
C. 2 3 4 1 D. 4 3 1 2
D. 2 3 1 4 93. M.N. Roy can be associated with:
A. Radical Humanism
88. Which of the following is incorrectly
B. Integral Humanism
matched?
C. Sanskritisation
A. Pax Indica – Shashi Tharoor
D. Socialism
B. The Making of India’s Foreign Policy –
J. Bandyopadhyaya 94. Saptange theory of Kautilya does not discuss
C. India as an Emerging Power – Sumit about:
Ganguly A. Swami
D. None of the above B. Durg
C. Amatya
89. ‘There are three fundamental bonds that D. Dharma
would conjoin the Hindu as a common
entity’–Savarkar. Eliminate the fourth from 95. Who wrote Astadhyayi?
the following: A. Kalidas
B. Panini
A. Rastra (Territory) B. Jati (Race)
C. Maharishi Ved Vyas
C. Sanskriti (culture) D. Language
D. Maharishi Valmiki
90. Abul Fazal in Ain-i-Akbari creates a theory
96. Who among the following advocated
of sovereignty based on:
‘Partyless democracy’ in India?
A. Social Contract A. Ram Manohar Lohia
B. Legal Contract B. Acharya Narendra Dev
C. Religious Contract C. Jayaprakash Narayan
D. Economic Contract D. Achyut Patwardhan
91. Which one of the following is not correct 97. The idea of Swadeshi can be best attributed
about Zia Barani? to:
A. Barani wrote Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi A. Mahatma Gandhi and Bal Gangadhar
B. Barani described about Ideal Sultan Tilak
C. Barani categorised law into two B. Bal Gangadhar Tilak and B.S. Munje
categories–the Shariat and the Zawahit C. Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
D. Barani did not discuss about army D. Jawaharlal Nehru and Mahatma Gandhi
9 (1822) DU-M.A.(P. Sci.)-2016–2
98. Kautilya’s idea of sovereignty as a mandal is A. Thoreau B. John Dewey

imagined to be: C. John Ruskin D. T.H. Eliot
A. Concentric circles 100. From the sales of which book did Ramabai
B. Intersecting circles travel to Great Britain in order to study
C. Parallel lines medicine?
D. Independent circles A. Hindu High Caste Woman
99. Which American philosopher taught Dr. B.R. B. Stree Dharma Neeti
Ambedkar at Columbia and remained his C. The Women’s Question
lifelong friend? D. A History of Feminism
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C C A A C B B A A A
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B C D A A A D A B D
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A B B D B A C A A C
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
D C B C D C B B C D
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
B C B D B B D C A A
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
B B C C A B D B C A
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
D A C C C D A C C A
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
C C B C A C C B D D
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
C A A C A C A D D A
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
D B A D B C A A B B
EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
1. Tagore's reaction to nationalism in Japan is during the 19th century. At the beginning of
particularly telling. As in the case of India, one of his lectures in Japan in 1916, he
he saw the need to build the self-confidence observed that "the worst form of bondage is
of a defeated and humiliated people, of people the bondage of dejection, which keeps men
left behind by developments elsewhere, as hopelessly chained in loss of faith in
was the case in Japan before its emergence themselves.” Tagore shared the admiration
10
for Japan widespread in Asia for the first time by American sociologist Talcott
demonstrating the ability of an Asian nation Parsons in 1930. It is considered a founding
to rival the west in industrial development text in economic sociology and sociology in
and economic progress. He noted with great general.
satisfaction that Japan had "in giant strides In the book, Weber wrote that capitalism in
left centuries of inaction behind, overtaking Northern Europe evolved when the Protestant
the present time in its foremost achievement.” ethic influenced large numbers of people to
But then Tagore went on to criticize the rise engage in work in the secular world,
of a strong nationalism in Japan, and its developing their own enterprises and
emergence as an imperialist nation. engaging in trade and the accumulation of
wealth for investment. In other words, the
2. Charles Lindblom and David Braybrooke are Protestant work ethic was an important force
associated with Decision making process. behind the unplanned and uncoordinated
Decision making is the process of making emergence of modern capitalism.
choices by identifying a decision, gathering
information, and assessing alternative 6. The national income of a country can be
resolutions. Using a step-by-step decision- measured by three methods: (i) Product
making process can help you make more method (ii) Income method (iii) Expenditure
method.
deliberate, thoughtful decisions by organising
relevant information and defining alternatives. In the product method, national income is
measured as a flow of goods and services. We
3. ‘In administration in developing countries’ calculate money value of all final goods and
Riggs presented the concept of ‘prismatic services produced in an economy during a
society’ to explain the unique conditions and year. Final goods here refer to those goods
the dynamics of politics and administration which are directly consumed and not used in
in developing countries. further production process.
As an alternative model for conceptualizing In the income method, national income is
developing countries Riggs offered his measured as a flow of factor incomes. There
‘prismatic model’ based on the metaphor of are generally four factors of production—
a prism. When white light (light made up of labour, capital, land and entrepreneurship.
all visible wavelengths) passes through a Labour gets wages and salaries, capital gets
prism it is diffracted/broken into a variety of interest, land gets rent and entrepreneurship
colours—a rainbow. Similarly Riggs gets profit as their remuneration.
contended societies in the process of In the Expenditure method, national income
development move from a fused mode in is measured as a flow of expenditure. GDP is
which little or no differentiation exists to a sum-total of private consumption expen-
diffracted condition in which there is a high diture, Government consumption expenditure,
degree of functional specialization. gross capital formation and net exports.
4. ‘The Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of 7. POSDCORB is an acronym widely used in
Capitalism’ is a book written by Max Weber, the field of Management and Public
a German sociologist, economist and Administration that reflects the classic view
politician. Begun as a series of essays, the of administrative management. Largely drawn
original German text was composed in 1904 from the work of French industrialist Henri
and 1905, and was translated into English for Fayol, it first appeared in a 1937 staff paper
11
by Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick written (iii) capacity of governments to formulate
for the Brownlow Committee. The acronym policies and have them effectively
stands for steps in the administrative process implemented.
: Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing,
10. Frank Marini wrote “Towards A New Public
Co-ordinating, Reporting and Budgeting.
Administration : The Minnowbrooks
In his piece “Notes on the Theory of Perspective”. A once-in-a-generation event
Organization”, a memo prepared while he was held every 20 years, the Minnowbrook
a member of the Brownlow Committee, Luther Conference brings together the top scholars
Gulick asks rhetorically “What is the work in public administration and public
of the chief executive? What does he do?” management to reflect on the state of the
POSDCORB is the answer, “designed to call field and its future.
attention to the various functional elements
of the work of a chief executive because Minnowbrook I (1968), II (1988) and III
‘administration’ and ‘management’ have lost (2008) are watershed events in the intellectual
all specific content.” development of public administration. Ist
Minnowbrook Conference was held under the
In Gulick’s own words, the elements of chairmanship of Dwight Waldo.
POSDCORB are as follows :
12. Participatory democracy emphasizes the
· Planning · Organizing
broad participation of constituents in the
· Staffing · Directing
direction and operation of political systems.
· Coordinating · Reporting Etymological roots of democracy imply that
· Budgeting the people are in power and thus that all
8. Decision-making is regarded as the cognitive democracies are participatory. However,
process resulting in the selection of a belief participatory democracy tends to advocate
or a course of action among several alternative more involved forms of citizen participation
possibilities. Every decision-making process and greater political representation than
produces a final choice, it may or may not traditional representative democracy.
prompt action. Decision-making is the process Participatory democracy strives to create
of identifying and choosing alternatives based opportunities for all members of a population
on the values and preferences of the decision- to make meaningful contributions to
maker. decision-making, and seeks to broaden the
9. ‘Good Governance’ was stressed in the World range of people who have access to such
Bank Report of 1992. The World Bank is opportunities.
more concerned with the reform of economic 13. Fredrick Taylor is not associated with
and social resources control. In 1992, it Gangplank. The Gangplank refers to the need
underlined three aspects of society that they for ‘level jumping’ in a hierarchical
feel affect the nature of a country's organisation. Although Fayol places emphasis
governance— on formal organisation, he is alive to the
(i) type of political regime; dangers of conformity to hierarchy and
(ii) process by which authority is exercised in formalism. ‘It is an error to depart needlessly
the management of the economic and from the line of authority, but it is even greater
social resources, with a view to deve- one to keep it when detrimental to the
lopment; and business', asserts Fayol.
12
14. In 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioural employee help programmes, etc.

scientist proposed a two-factor theory or the · Physical Working conditions : The wo-
motivator-hygiene theory. According to rking conditions should be safe, clean
Herzberg, there are some job factors that result and hygienic. The work equipments
in satisfaction while there are other job factors should be updated and well-maintained.
that prevent dissatisfaction. According to
· Status : The employees' status within
Herzberg, the opposite of “Satisfaction” and
the organization should be familiar and
the opposite of “Dissatisfaction” is “No
retained.
Dissatisfaction”.
· Interpersonal relations : The relation-
Herzberg classified these job factors into two ship of the employees with his peers,
categories : superiors and subordinates should be
(a) Hygiene factors : Hygiene factors are appropriate and acceptable. There
those job factors which are essential for should be no conflict or humiliation
existence of motivation at workplace. element present.
These do not lead to positive satisfaction · Job Security : The organization must
for long-term. But if these factors are provide job security to the employees.
absent/if these factors are non-existant at
workplace, then they lead to diss- (b) Motivational factors : According to
Herzberg, the hygiene factors cannot be
atisfaction. In other words, hygiene factors
are those factors which when adequate/ regarded as motivators. The motivational
reasonable in a job, pacify the employees factors yield positive satisfaction. These
and do not make them dissatisfied. These factors are inherent to work. These factors
factors are extrinsic to work. Hygiene motivate the employees for a superior
factors are also called as dissatisfiers or performance. These factors are called
satisfiers. These are factors involved in
maintenance factors as they are required
performing the job. Employees find these
to avoid dissatisfaction. These factors
describe the job environment/scenario. factors intrinsically rewarding. The
The hygiene factors symbolized the motivators symbolized the psychological
physiological needs which the individuals needs that were perceived as an additional
wanted and expected to be fulfilled. benefit. Motivational factors include:
Hygiene factors include: · Recognition : The employees should
be praised and recognized for their
· Pay : The pay or salary structure should
be appropriate and reasonable. It must accomplishments by the managers.
be equal and competitive to those in · Sense of achievement : The employees
the same industry in the same domain. must have a sense of achievement. This
· Company Policies and administrative
depends on the job. There must be a
policies : The company policies should fruit of some sort in the job.
not be too rigid. They should be fair · Growth and promotional opportunities :
and clear. It should include flexible There must be growth and advancement
working hours, dress code, breaks, opportunities in an organization to
vacation, etc. motivate the employees to perform well.
· Fringe benefits : The employees should · Responsibility : The empployees must
be offered health care plans (medi- hold themselves responsible for the
claim), benefits for the family members, work. The managers should give them
13
ownership of the work. They should NPA provides solutions for achieving these
minimize control but retain account- goals, popularly called 4 D’s i.e. Decent-
ability. ralization, Debureaucratization, Delegation
· Meaningfulness of the work : The work and Democratization.
itself should be meaningful, interesting 20. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon was a French
and challenging for the employee to politician and the founder of mutualist
perform and to get motivated. philosophy. He was the first person to declare
15. M.P. Follett talked about industrial himself an anarchist and is widely regarded
democracy. Industrial democracy is an as one of the ideology's most influential
theorists. Proudhon is even considered by
arrangement which involves workers making
many to be the “father of anarchism”. He
decisions, sharing responsibility and authority
became a member of the French Parliament
in the workplace. While in participative
after the revolution of 1848, whereafter he
management organizational designs workers
referred to himself as a federalist. His best-
are listened to and take part in the decision-
known assertion is that ‘Property is Theft’,
making process, in organizations employing
contained in his first major work, ‘What is
industrial democracy they also have the final
Property’?, published in 1840.
decisive power (they decide about
organizational design and hierarchy as well). 21. Hegel and Marx can be associated with
‘historical materialism and dialectic
16. Douglas McGregor wrote ‘The Human side materialism’. The concept of dialectical
of the Enterprise’. In this book McGregor materialism emerges from statements by Marx
identified an approach of creating an in the preface to his magnum opus, ‘capital’.
environment within which employees are There Marx says he intends to use Hegelian
motivated via authoritative, direction and dialectics but in revised form. Marx's criticism
control or integration and self-control, which of Hegel asserts that Hegel’s dialectics go
he called theory X and theory Y, respectively. astray by dealing with ideas, with the human
Theory Y is the practical application of Dr. mind. Hegel’s dialectic, Marx says,
Abraham Maslow's Humanistic School of inappropriately concerns “the process of the
Psychology or Third Force Psychology, human brain”, it focuses on ideas. Hegel's
applied to scientific management. thought is in fact sometimes called dialectical
19. New Public Administration is an anti- idealism. Marx believed that dialectics
should deal not with the mental world of
positivist, anti-technical, and anti-hierarchical
ideas but with “the material world”, the world
reaction against traditional public admi-
of production and other economic activity.
nistration. A practiced theory in response to
the ever changing needs of the public and 22. The appropriate combination for Locke's
how institutions and administrations go theory of natural rights is life, liberty and
about solving them. Focus is on the role of property. Locke's political theory was founded
government and how they can provide these on social contract theory. Unlike Thomas
services to citizens in which are a part of Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature is
public interest, by means, but not limited to characterised by reason and tolerance. Like
public policy. Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature
allowed people to be selfish. This is apparent
The leaders of NPA emphasize on Relevance, with the introduction of currency. In a natural
Values, Social Equity, Change, Client Focus state all people were equal and independent,
and Management-workers relations. and everyone had a natural right to defend
14
his "life, health, liberty or possessions." Most science, Dahl developed an operational
scholars frace the phrase "life, liberty and the definition of power that was frequently cited
pursuit of happiness". In the American as an important insight into the phenomenon.
Declaration of Independence, to Locke's According to Dahl, “A has power over B to
theory of rights, though other origins have the extent that he can get B to do something
been suggested. that B would not otherwise do.” Dahl gave
23. The concept of ‘the end of ideology’ debate as an example a professor threatening a
implies that at the advanced stage of industrial student with a failing grade if he did not read
growth, a country's social-economic orga- a certain book during the holidays. In this
nisation is determined by the level of its case, the amount of power held by the
development, and not by any political professor can be conceived as the difference
ideology. Edward Shils reported it as ‘the between the probability that the student
end of ideology’. This has been argued on would read the book before receiving the
two occasions. The first occasion was in the threat and the probability that he would read
1950s when an argument was put forward as it after receiving the threat. Dahl argued that
the ‘end of ideology’ thesis. The second his definition could be used to compare the
occasion has produced the ‘end of history’ power of political actors in a given sphere—
thesis which first appeared in 1989, and is for instance, the influence of different U.S.
still the subject of fierce debate. senators on questions of foreign policy.
The best known proponents of ‘end of Critics, such as the social theorist Steven
ideology’ thesis are : S.M. Lipset (Political Lukes, argued that Dahl’s definition failed to
Man-1959) and Daniel Bell (The End of capture other important dimensions of power,
Ideology : On the Exhaustion of Political such as the capacity of an actor to shape the
Ideas in the fifties-1960). For the first time, norms and values held by others.
Lipset offered the version of ‘end of ideology' 25. Aristotle was one of the first political theorist
thesis that was later espoused by Daniel Bell, to offer a conception of distributive justice.
Edward Shils and Raymond Aron. Aristotle was of the opinion that this form of
24. American political scientist and educator. A justice is the most powerful law to prevent
leading theorist of political pluralism, Dahl any revolution, as this Justice believes in
stressed the role in politics played by proper and proportionate allocation of offices,
associations, groups, and organizations. honours, goods and services as per their
Dahl was a graduate of the University of requirement being a citizen of the State.
Washington and obtained a Ph.D. from Yale This justice is mostly concerned with political
University in 1940. He served in the U.S. privileges. Aristotle advocate that every
Army during World War II and was awarded political organization must have its own
the Bronze Star (with cluster) for distinguished distributive justice. He, however, rejected
service. After the war, Dahl returned to Yale, democratic as well as oligarchic criteria of
where he taught until 1986. He subsequently justice and permitted the allocation of offices
became Sterling Professor Emeritus of to the virtuous only owing to their highest
Political Science and Senior Research contributions to the society, because the
Scientist Sociology. virtuous people are few. Aristotle believed
In “The Concept of Power” (1957), his first that most of the offices should be allocated
major contribution to the field of political to those few only.
15
26. Joseph Schumpeter offers a critique of the being, as an economic entity, this worker is
classical conception of democracy. In directed to goals and diverted to activities
opposition to classical doctrine, Schumpeter that are dictated by the bourgeoisie, who own
puts forth his own theory of democracy, which the means of production, in order to extract
consists of an institutional arrangement from the workers the maximum amount of
wherein individuals acquire power to make surplus value, in the course of business
decisions by competing for the people's vote. competition among industrialists.
However, Schumpeter neglects normative 29. Gerald MacCallum gave the ‘triadic’ concept
arguments in favour of a criterion of of liberty. MacCallum defines the basic
observability. His arguments on behalf of a concept of freedom—the concept on which
minimalist approach's merit are based not on everyone agrees—as follows : a subject or
its value or even its value relative to classical agent, is free from certain constraints or
doctrine, but only on its ability to be preventing conditions, to do or become
observed empirically. certain things. Freedom is therefore a triadic
Schumpeter states, “The principle of relation—that is, a relation between three
democracy then merely means that the reins things : an agent, certain preventing
of government should be handed to those conditions, and certain doings or becomings
who command more support than do any of of the agent. Any statement about freedom
the competing individual or team.” With this or unfreedom can be translated into a
conception, Schumpeter does not even go so statement or the above form by specifying
far as to say democracy itself has a value what is free or unfree, from what it is free
outside of empirical observability. or unfree, and what it is free or unfree to do
27. Engels wrote ‘The Origin of the Family, or become. Any claim about the presence or
Private Property and the State’ in 1884. It absence of freedom in a given situation will
focuses on early human history, following therefore make certain assumptions about
the disintegration of the primitive community what counts as an agent, what counts as a
and the emergence of a class society based constraint or limitation on freedom, and what
on private property. Engels looks into the counts as a purpose that the agent can be
origin and essence of the state, and concludes described as either free or unfree to carry out.
it is bound to wither away leaving a classless 30. ‘A Theory of Justice’ is a work of political
society. philosophy and ethics by John Rawls, in
28. Alienation is attributed to the ‘Young Marx’. which Rawls attempts to solve the problem
The theoretic basis of alienation, within the of distributive justice by utilising a variant
capitalist mode of production, is that the of the familiar device of the social contract.
worker invariably loses the ability to The resultant theory is known as “justice as
determine life and destiny, when deprived of fairness”, from which Rawls derives his two
the right to think of themselves as the director principles of justice : the liberty principle and
of their own actions; to determine the the difference principle. First published in
character of said actions; to define relation- 1971, ‘A Theory of Justice’ was revised in
ships with other people; and to own those both 1975 and 1999.
items of value from goods and services, 31. The “Iron Law of Oligarchy” is a political
produced by their own labour. Although the theory, first developed by the German
worker is an autonomous, self-realized human sociologist Robert Michels in his 1911 book,
16
‘Political Parties’. It claims that rule by an Even this vague basic idea, though, is
elite, or oligarchy, is inevitable as an “iron anything but simple, and even this abstract
law” within any democratic organisation as rendering is objectionable in many ways. To
part of the “tactical and technical necessities” explicate the idea of the social contract we
of organisation. analyze contractual approaches into five
Michels’ theory states that all complex variables: (1) the nature of the contractual
organizations, regardless of how democratic act; (2) the parties to the act; (3) what the
they are when started, eventually develop into parties are agreeing to; (4) the reasoning that
oligarchies. Michels observed that since no leads to the agreement; (5) what the
sufficiently large and complex organization agreement is supposed to show.
can function purely as a direct democracy, 34. Natural rights, according to Bentham, are
power within an organization will always get “simple nonsense : natural and imprescriptible
delegated to individuals within that group, rights, rhetorical nonsense—nonsense upon
elected or otherwise. stilts” so-called moral and natural rights are
32. Taylor, Walzer, MacIntyre and Sandel are the mischievous fictions and anarchical fallacies
communitarian philosopher. Communi- that encourage civil unrest, disobedience and
tarianism is a philosophy that emphasizes the resistance to laws, and revolution against
connection between the individual and the established governments. Only political
community. Its overriding philosophy is based rights, those positive rights established and
upon the belief that a person's social identity enforced by government, have “any
and personality are largely molded by determinate and intelligible meaning”. Rights
community relationships, with a smaller are “the fruits of the law, and of the law alone.
degree of development being placed on There are no rights without law-no rights
individualism. Although the community contrary to the law-no rights anterior to the
might be a family unit, communitarianism law”.
usually is understood, in the wider, philo-
sophical sense, as a collection of interactions, 35. Thomas Hobbes expanded on Social Contract
among a community of people in a given theory, saying that people came together to
place, or among a community who share an create states the protect themselves from their
interest or who share a history. naturally warlike tendencies. Hobbes
believed that once the people created the
33. The idea of the social contract goes back, in state, they gave up any right to the state's
a recognizably modern form, to Thomas power. Later, John Locke and Rousseau further
Hobbes; it was developed in different ways interpreted the theory. Rousseau said that the
by John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and government gets its authority from the
Immanuel Kant. After Kant the idea largely
consent of the people. Locke emphasized the
fell into disrepute until it was resurrected by
role of the individual in society and believed
John Rawls. It is now at the heart of the work
that revolution was the people's obligation
of a number of moral and political
if the state abused its power.
philosophers. The basic idea seems simple:
in some way, the agreement (or consent) of 36. Plato abolished private family life and
all individuals subject to collectively property for the ruling class (guardian) for
enforced social arrangements shows that those they concouraged nepotism, favouritism,
arrangements have some normative property particularism, factionalism and other corrupt
(they are legitimate, just, obligating, etc.). practices commonly found among the rulers.
17 (1822) DU-M.A.(P. Sci.)-2016–3
Plato thereby established a high standard for pending before the High Court or High Courts
the rulers. He proposed that the members of and dispose of all such cases itself. Under the
the guardian class live together in a common Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996,
barrack. The life of the guardian class would International Commercial Arbitration can also
be in accordance with the rule followed be initiated in the Supreme Court.
among the Greeks that friends have all things The appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme
in common. In the ‘Republic’ Plato devoted Court can be invoked by a certificate granted
greater space and consideration to by the High Court concerned under Article
communism of family than to property. 132(1), 133(1) or 134 of the Constitution in
However, marriage was necessary to ensure respect of any judgement, decree or final order
the reproduction and continuation of the of a High Court in both civil and criminal
human race. He, therefore, advocated cases, involving substantial questions of law
temporary sexual union for the purpose of as to the interpretation of the Constitution.
bearing the children. Appeals also lie to the Supreme Court in civil
37. The Supreme Court has original, appellate and matters if the High Court concerned certifies
advisory jurisdiction. Its exclusive original : (a) that the case involves a substantial
jurisdiction extends to any dispute between question of law of general importance, and
the Government of India and one or more (b) that, in the opinion of the High Court,
States or between the Government of India the said question needs to be decided by the
and any State or States on one side and one Supreme Court. In criminal cases, an appeal
or more States on the other or between two lies to the Supreme Court if the High Court
or more States, if and insofar as the dispute (a) has on appeal reversed an order of acquittal
involves any question (whether of law or of of an accused person and sentenced him to
fact) on which the existence or extent of a death or to imprisonment for life or for a
legal right depends. In addition, Article 32 period of not less than 10 years, or (b) has
of the Constitution gives an extensive withdrawn for trial before itself any case from
original jurisdiction to the Supreme Court in any Court subordinate to its authority and
regard to enforcement of Fundamental Rights. has in such trial convicted the accused and
It is empowered to issue directions, orders or sentenced him to death or to imprisonment
writs, including writs in the nature of habeas for life or for a period of not less than 10
corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto years, or (c) certified that the case is a fit one
and certiorari to enforce them. The Supreme for appeal to the Supreme Court. Parliament
Court has been conferred with power to direct is authorised to confer on the Supreme Court
transfer of any civil or criminal case from one any further powers to entertain and hear
State High Court to another State High Court appeals from any judgement, final order or
or from a Court subordinate to another State sentence in a criminal proceeding of a High
High Court. The Supreme Court, if satisfied Court.
that cases involving the same or substantially The Supreme Court has also a very wide
the same questions of law are pending before appellate jurisdiction over all Courts and
it and one or more High Courts or before two Tribunals in India in as much as it may, in
or more High Courts and that such questions its discretion, grant special leave to appeal
are substantial questions of general under Article 136 of the Constitution from
importance, may withdraw a case or cases any judgment, decree, determination,
18 (1822) DU-M.A.(P. Sci.)-2016–3-II
sentence or order in any cause or matter passed He was senior fellow and former Director of
or made by any Court or Tribunal in the CSDS for several years. Today, he is a senior
territory of India. Honorary fellow at the institutie and apart
The Supreme Court has special advisory from being the chairperson of the Committee
jurisdiction in matters which may specifically for Cultural Choices and Global Futures, also
be referred to it by the President of India under in New Delhi.
Article 143 of the Constitution. 42. For Ambedkar the Purusha Shukta establishes
38. The objective of the Morley-Minto Reforms a completely unique social system because
was extension of provincial assemblies. These ‘no society has an official gradation laid
reforms are also called ‘The Indian Councils down, fixd and permanent, with an ascending
Act 1909’. The Act was important for the scale of reverence and a descending scale of
following reasons— contempt’. The specificity of the system is
indeed held together by this ‘graded
It effectively legitimised the election of
inequality’ to which Ambedkar was to return
Indians to the various legislative councils in
many times in his writings and speeches, as
India for the first time. Earlier, only a limited
emphasised by Olivier Herrenschmidt. In his
number of Indians were appointed to
last book he mentions ‘an ascending scale
legislative councils. The majorities of the
of hatred and a downward scale of contempt
councils remained British government
(which) indeed could well be a perpetual
appointments. Moreover, the electrorate was
source of conflict. The replacement of the
limited to specific classes of Indian nationals.
words ‘reverence/contempt’ by ‘hatred/
To divide the Hindu-Muslim unity, with the contempt’ reveals a shift: one element of the
help of some Pro-British Muslim leaders, the holistic logic of the system—respect for
British conceded the so-called demand of superiors—is downplayed in favour of a more
Muslim leaders for separate electorates. The spontaneous feeling in the heart of Ambedkar:
Act of 1909 stipulated that in councils and hatred of the oppressor.
in the imperial legislature, for the number of
The notion of ‘graded inequality’ was indeed
reserved seats to be in excess of their relative
Ambedkar's main sociological finding. The
population, and that only Muslims should
President of the Indian Republic in 1997-
vote for candidates for the Muslim seats
2002, K.R. Narayanan, A Dalit member of the
(‘separate electorates’).
Congress party who has nonetheless read
39. Ashish Nandy wrote the book ‘The Intimate Ambedkar, implicitly acknowledged this fact
Enemy’ in 1983. Nandy is an Indian political when he recalled Ambedkar's adage regarding
psychologist, social theorist and critic. Nandy the caste system: ‘A progressive order of
has provided theoretical critiques of European reverence and a graded order of contempt’.
colonialism, development, modernity, For Ambedkar, this order possesses a strong
secularism, Hindutva, science, technology, resilience to social change: if the lower castes
nuclearism, cosmopolitanism and utopia. He are not in a position to overthrow their
has also offered alternative conceptions oppressors, it is not only because they have
relating to cosmopolitanism and critical partially internalised hierarchy but also
traditionalism. In addition to the above, because of the very characteristics of ‘graded
Nandy has offered an original historical inequality’.
profile of India's commercial cinema as well 46. The farmers of the constitution had placed
as critiques of state and violence. matters of national concerns in the Union List
19
and those of purely state or local significance 57. The Kesavanand Bharati judgement is a
in the State List. Matters that are of common landmark decision of the Supreme Court of
interest to the States and the Union were India that outlined the Basic structure
placed in the Concurrent List, in order to doctrine of the constitution. The Basic
ensure uniformity in legislation with due structure doctrine forms the basis of power
regard to the country's diversity. of the Indian judiciary to review, and strike
Parliament and the State legislatures have down, amendments to the constitution of
exclusive powers to legislate on items in the India anacted by the Indian Parliament which
Union List and the State List respectively. conflict with or seek to alter this basic
Both can legislate on items in the Concurrent structure of the constitution.
List. However, foreseeing the possibility of 58. K.C. Wheare described India as “quasi-
a situation in which legislation might be federal”. He remarked that ”Indian Union is
required on matters that are not mentioned a unitary state with subsidiary federal features
in any of the three Lists, the founding fathers rather than a federal state with subsidiary
made residuary provisions in Article 248 of unitary features.”
the Constitution and Entry 97 of the Union Paul Appleby characterises the Indian system
List. The residuary powers of legislation are as “extremely federal”.
vested in Parliament.
Morris Jones termed it as a “bargaining
47. The provisions for preventive detention federalism”.
mentioned in Article-22 of the Indian Ivor Jennings has described it as a “federation
constitution. A person can be put in jail/ with a strong centralising tendency” and
custody for two reasons. One is that he has Granville Austin called the Indian federalism
commited a crime. Another is that he is as a “cooperative federalism.”
potential to commit a crime in future. The
custody arising out of the later is preventive 59. Yogendra Yadav talked about the ‘second
detention and in this, a person is deemed democratic upsurge’. The ‘first democratic
likely to commit a crime. Thus preventive upsurge’ occurred in the 70s with the
detention is done before the crime has been emergency and collapse of Congress rule.
committed. Some law of detention are as Politically, this had the consequence of a non-
follows— Congress coalition ruling India for the first
time since independence. Socially, it led to
(i) Prevention of Terrorist Activities Act
the transfer of political power from the upper
(POTA)-2002
caste Hindus who had dominated the
(ii) National Security Act (NSA)-1980
Congress since its inception to the
(iii) The Maintenance of Internal Security Act intermediate peasant castes, today called the
(MISA)-1971 OBCs (Other Backward Castes). The second
50. The 52nd Amendment Act of 1985 provided democratic upsurge, which began in the late
for the disqualification of the members of 80s, brought the Dalits into the political
Parliament and the State legislatures on the mainstream as an independent force. By 2007,
ground of defection from one political party the Dalit controlled BSP rules India's largest
to another. For this purpose, it made changes state. However, the economic and social
in Articles 101, 102, 190 and 191 of the transformation of the second democratic
constitution and added a new schedule (10th upsurge is far from complete, with the Dalits
Schedule) to the constitution. This act is often continuing to face marginalization and
referred to as the ‘anti-defection law’. violence, mainly from the OBCs.
20
60. Andre Gunder Frank is associated with the and Christian Historical Union (CHU), the
concept of ‘the development of under- social democratic Dutch Labour Party
development’. Dependency theory first (PvdA), and the liberal People's Party for
emerged in the 1950s, advocated by Raul Freedom and Democracy (VVD), the last
Prebisch whose research found that the wealth two being secular.
of poor nations tended to decrease when the · Owner vs. Worker: a class cleavage, causing
wealth of rich nations increased. The theory the formation of parties of the left and
quickly divided into diverse schools. Some, parties of the right. Sometimes it is argued
most notably Andre Gunder Frank and Walter that this cleavage represents a conflict
Rodney adapted it to Marxism. ‘Standard’ between the rich and poor. Various parties
dependency theory differs sharply from have claimed to represent either interest,
Marxism, however, arguing against though this may or may not be genuine.
internationalism and any hope of progress in · Land vs. Industry : continued state exercise
less developed nations towards indust- of control over tariffs against freedom of
rialization and a liberating revolution. Former control for industrial enterprise.
Brazilian President Fernando Cardoso wrote 64. Dependency theory is the notion that
extensively on dependency theory while in resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and
political exile. Immanuel Wallerstein refined underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy
the Marxist aspect of the theory, and called states, enriching the latter at the expense of
it the ‘World System’. the former. It is a central contention of
63. There are probably as many cleavages in dependency theory that poor states are
society as diverse members, but Seymour impoverished and rich ones enriched by the
Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan (1967) way poor states are integrated into the "world
defined four basic cleavages for western system".
civilization after the Industrial Revolution. The theoy arose as a reaction to moder-
According to Lipset and Rokkan, these nization theory, an earlier theory of
cleavages determined the emergence and the development which held that all societies
content of all European parties. progress through similar stages of deve-
· Centre vs. Periphery : between elites in the lopment, that today's underdeveloped areas
urban areas and those in more outlying are thus in a similar situation to that of today's
areas. This usually expresses itself in terms developed areas at some time in the past, and
of regional nationalism. For example, in that, therefore, the task of helping the
Spain many regions have regionalist or underdeveloped areas out of poverty is to
separatist parties. This devision is, accelerate them along this supposed common
according to Lipset and Rokkan, caused path of development, by various means such
by the creation of modern nation-states, as investment, technology transfers and closer
where some states were better than others integration into the world market.
at assimilating other cultures into the Dependency theory rejected this view, arguing
majority nation. that underdeveloped countries are not merely
· State vs. Church : between religious and primitive versions of developed countries, but
secular voters. In the Netherlands until the have unique features and structures of their
1970s there were five major parties : the own; and, importantly, are in the situation of
Catholic People's Party (KVP), the being the weaker members in a worldmarket
Protestant Anti-Revolutionary Party (ARP) economy.
21
Dependency theory no longer has many 20 years later in 1962 with 36 recognised
proponents as an overall theory, but some democracies in the world. The second wave
writers have argued for its continuing ebbed as well at this point, and the total
relevance as a conceptual orientation to the number dropped to 30 democracies between
global division of wealth. 1962 and the mid-1970s. But the "flat line"
would not last for long, as the third wave was
66. Political culture is defined by the Inter-
about to surge in a way no one had ever seen.
national Encyclopedia of the Social Science
as the “set of attitudes, beliefs and sentiments Scholars have noted that the appearance of
that give order and meaning to a political "waves" of democracy largely disappears when
process and which provide the underlying women's suffrage is taken into account;
assumptions and rules that govern behaviour moreover, some countries change their
in the political system.” It encompasses both positions quite dramatically : Switzerland,
which is typically included as part of the first
the political ideals and operating norms of
wave, did not grant women the right to vote
a polity. Political culture is thus the
until 1971.
manifestation of the psychological and
subjective dimensions of politics. A political The Third wave began in 1974 (Carnation
culture is the product of both the history of Revolution, Portugal) and included the
a political system and the histories of the historic democratic transitions in Latin
members. Thus it is rooted equally in public America in the 1980s, Asia Pacific countries
events and private experience. (Philippines, South Korea and Taiwan) from
1986 to 1988, Eastern Europe after the
In 1963, two Americans, Gabriel Almond and collapse of the Soviet Union and Sub-Saharan
Sidney Verba, outlined three pure types of Africa beginning in 1989.
political culture that can combine to create
Experts have associated the collapse of
civic culture. These three key features
several dictatorship in the Middle East and
expressed by both men were composed to
North Africa, phenomenon known as Arab
establish a link between the public and the
Spring, with the events which followed the
government. The first of these features is
fall of the Soviet Union in Eastern Europe.
‘difference’, which considers the concepts of
The similarity between the two phenomena
respect, acknowledgment of ‘inferiority’ or
inspired hope for a fourth wave of demo-
‘superiority’, and authority in society. cratization.
68. The First wave of democracy began in the 71. The Marshall Plan (officially the European
early 19th century when suffrage was granted Recovery program, ERP) was an American
to the majority of white males in the United initiative to aid Western Europe, in which the
States (“Jacksonian democracy”). At its peak, United States gave over $12 billion
the first wave saw 29 democracies in the (approximately $120 billion in current dollar
world. This continued until 1922, when value as of June 2016) in economic support
Benito Mussolini rose to power in Italy. The to help rebuild Western European economies
ebb of the first wave lasted from 1922 until after the end of World War II. The plan was
1942, during which the number of demo- in operation for four years beginning April
cracies in the world dropped to a mere. 8, 1948. The goals of the United States were
The Second wave began following the Allied to rebuild war-devastated regions, remove
vicotry in World War-II, and crested nearly trade barriers, modernize industry, make
22
Europe prosperous again, and prevent the Bangladesh war, it was a key development
spread of communism. The Marshall Plan in a situation of increasing Sino-American ties
required a lessening of interstate barriers, a and American pressure. The treaty was later
dropping of many regulations, and adopted to the Indo-Bangladesh Treaty of
encouraged an increase in productivity, labour Friendship and cooperation in 1972.
union membership, as well as the adoption 80. The Group of Eight (G8) is a group made
of modern business procedures. up of Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan,
74. Francis Fukuyama expressed the opinion that, Russia (suspended), the United Kingdom and
‘the end of cold war represented the victory the United States. The European Commission
of ideal state and liberal capitalism’. ‘The End is also represented in the committee. The
of History and the Last Man’ is a 1992 book group has conferences or meetings throughout
by Francis Fukuyama, expanding on his 1989 the year, it researches policies, and has a
essay “The End of History?”, published in summit meeting once a year. The heads of
the international affairs Journal ‘The National government of each G8 country attend the
Interest’. In the book, Fukuyama argues that summit meeting.
the advent of Western liberal democracy may Each year a different country takes over the
signal the end point of humanity’s socio- presidency of the group for the duration of
cultural evolution and the final form of human the year. The country that holds the
government. presidency sets the agenda for the year and
What we may be witnessing is not just the hosts the summit for that year. The first G6
end of the cold war, or the passing of a meeting was in 1975. Canada joined in 1975,
particular period of post-war history, but the making G7. Russia made it G8 in 1997.
end of history as such : that is, the end point David Cameron, the Prime Minister of the
of mankind's ideological evolution and the United Kingdom, has indicated that the
universalization of western liberal democracy organization's official 2014 summit will not
as the final form of human government. be held, which was previously planned to take
78. The collapse of several dictatorships in the place in Russia. As of March 24, 2014, all
Middle-East and North Africa, phenomenon seven member nations voted to suspend
known as Arab Spring, with the events which Russia from the G-8.
followed the fall of the Soviet Union in As of March 2014, the G8 will be called G7
Eastern Europe. The similarity between the since there are now seven leaders.
two phenomena inspired hope for a fourth 82. India's Look East Policy is an effort to cultivate
wave of democratization. However, a few extensive economic and strategic relations
months after the apparent beginning of the with the nations of South-East Asia in order
transition, most of the Arab political openings to bolster its standing as a regional power
closed, causing an inevitable pull-back. and a counter weight to the strategic influence
79. The Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship of the people's Republic of China. Initiated
and Cooperation was a treaty signed between in 1991, it marked a strategic shift in India’s
India and the Soviet Union in August 1971 perspective of the world. It was developed
that specified mutual strategic cooperation. and enacted during the government of PM
The treaty was a significant deviation from Narasimha Rao and rigorously pursued by the
India's previous position of non-alignment in successive administrations of Atal Bihari
the Cold War and in the prelude to the Vajpayee and Manmohan Singh.
23
84. The South Asian Association for Regional Bhattacharya, was an Indian revolutionary,
Cooperation (SAARC) is the regional radical activist and political theorist, as well
intergovernmental organization and as a noted philosopher in the 20th century.
geopolitical union of nations in South Asia. Roy was a founder of the Mexican
Its member states include Afghanistan, Communist Party and the Communist Party
Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal the of India. He was also a delegate to congresses
Maldives, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. SAARC of the Communist International and Russia's
comprises 3% of the world's area, 21% of the aide to China. Following the rise of Joseph
world's population and 9.12% of the global Stalin, Roy left the mainline communist
economy, as of 2015. movement to pursue an independent radical
politics. In 1940 Roy was instrumental in the
SAARC was founded in Dhaka on 8th
December, 1985. Its secretariat is based in formation of the Radical Democratic Party,
an organisation in which he played a leading
Kathmandu, Nepal. The organization
role for much of the decade of the 1940s.
promotes development of economic and
Roy later moved away from Marxism to
regional integration. It launched the South
become an exponent of the philosophy of
Asian Free Trade Area in 2006. SAARC
radical humanism.
maintains permanent diplomatic relations at
the United Nations as an observer and has 94. The Mauryan era of ancient India gave the
developed links with multilateral entities, world a significant treatise, the Arthashastra
including the European Union. of Kautilya. It offiers deep insights into
political statecraft. Kautilya is known as the
89. According to V.D. Savarkar, there are three
Indian Machiavelli because of his ruthless
fundamental bonds that would conjoin the
and shrewd tactics and policies reflecting an
Hindus as a common entity, namely, Rashtra
approach to statecraft including warfare.
(territory), Jati (race) and Samskriti (culture).
Thus, territorically, a Hindu is one who feels Kautilya enumerated 7 Prakritis or essential
being attached to the geographical tract organs of the State. They are as follows—
extending between the rivers Sindhu (Indus) (i) Swami (The Ruler)
and Brahmputra, on the one hand, and from (ii) Amatya (The Minister)
Himalayas to the Cape Comorin, on the other. (iii) Janapada (The Population)
This geographical specification, indeed, (iv) Durga (The Fortified Capital)
becomes identical to what has traditionally
(v) Kosha (The Treasury)
been considered to the land of India for
(vi) Danda (The Army)
centuries.
(vii) Mitra (Ally and Friend)
Racially, Savarkar considered a Hindu as the
one ‘whose first and discernible source could 96. Jayprakash Narayan was one among the few
be traced to the Himalayan altitudes of the luminaries in India, whos life was a message
Vedic Saptasindhu.’ of struggle for freedom and justice. In the
post-Independence era he was the only
Culturally, Savarkar maintains that a Hindu ‘Crusader’ to launch a total revolution in the
must feel the pride and commonality of his country without any clamour for power. For
cultural roots with the other people of the cause of fighting against authoritarianism,
Hindustan. corruption and injustice, he had to go to jail
93. Manabendra Nath Roy (21 March 1887 — even in the last stage of his life. Jayaprakash
26 January 1954), born Narendra Nath Narayan's political ideas underwent changes
24
from Marixian Socialism to Democratic follow a neutral policy towards the central
Socialism, from Democratic Socialism to authority. The Vijigsu primarily followed a
Sarvodaya, from Sarvodaya to Total policy that at all times created as many allies
Revolution. It is because he was not a as possible, while tolerating even the
doctrinaire. He was more a political activist neutrality of kingdoms that were at least
than a political philosopher. His objective removed through two concentric circles.
was not to give a new philosophy to the 99. John Dewey was an American philosopher,
people but to devise a political idea ensuring psychologist and educational reformer who
bread, freedom and justice. So he made stirring taught Dr. B.R. Ambedkar at Columbia and
effort to solve the problems of humanity with remained his lifelong friend. Dewey is one
any political ideology which whould give the of the primary figures associated with the
solution. Though his tone was that of a Marx philosophy of pragmatism and is considered
but he believed in the techniques of Gandhi. one of the founders of functional psychology.
Truly speaking, he was a Gandhian-Marxist. A Review of General Psychology Survey,
He had left a permanent imprint for his published in 2002, ranked Dewey as the 93rd
revolutionary role and was much acclaimed most cited psychologist of the 20th century.
for his democratic humanitarian views like A well-known public intellectual, he was also
socialism, Sarvodaya, partyless democracy a major voice of progressive education and
and total revolution. liberalism. Although Dewey is known best for
97. The idea of Swadeshi can be best attributed his publications about education, he also
to Mahatma Gandhi and Bal Gangadhar Tilak. wrote about many other topics, including
The Swadeshi Movement, part of the Indian epistemology, metaphysics, aesthetics, art,
independence movement and the developing logic, social theory and ethics. He was a major
Indian nationalism, was an economic strategy educational reformer for the 20th century.
aimed at removing the British Empire from The overriding theme of Dewey's works was
power and improving economic conditions his profound belief in democracy, be it in
in India by following the principles of politics, education or communication and
Swadeshi, which had some success. Strategies journalism. As Dewey himself stated in 1888,
of the Swadeshi movement involved while still at the University of Michigan,
boycotting British products and the revival of “Democracy and the one, ultimate, ethical
domestic products and production processes. ideal of humanity are to my mind synon-
98. Kautilya recognised the State as the primary ymous.”
source of positive law stating that the raja- 100. From the sales of ‘Stree Dharma Neeti’ book
mandala theory was not a social contract Pandita Ramabai travel to Great Britain in
theory regarding the origin of the power of order to study medicine. She wrote two books
states. The State had to function independent : ‘Stree Dharma Neeti’ in 1882 and ‘The High
of social customs and traditions and the law Caste Hindu Women’ in 1887. When she was
had to be based on political authority and 25 she travelled to England to study
legal legitimacy, the combination of which medicine. There got converted to christianity
should surpass all sectarian, communal and and got baptised in the Church of England.
ethnic considerations. The raja-mandala Three years later she travelled to the US where
essentially lays down the function and she spent two years publicising her plan to
structure of an inter-state system where the open a home for high-caste Hindu widows
middle kingdoms in the circles could also in India.
Political Science
1 (1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—1

2 l Political Science
Unit
1
Political Theory
Important Works 18. Harold Laswell : The Future of Political
1. S.M. Lipset : 1. Politics and the Social Science
Sciences 19. V. Van Dyke : Political Theory : A Philo-
2. Political Man sophical Analysis
2. Peter Laslett : Introduction to Philosophy, 20. W. Kymlicka : Contemporary Political
Politics and Society Philosophy ‘An Introduc-
3. Dante Germino : Beyond Ideology tion’
4. Bertrand Russell : 1. Philosophy of Politics 21. A. Vincent : Political Theory : Tradi-
2. Human Nature in Ethics tions and Diversity
and Politics. 22. J. Dunn : Western Political Theory in
5. Eric Vogehin : The New Science of the Face of Future
Politics 23. D. Germino : Beyond Ideology : The
6. Sheldon Wolin : Politics and Vision Revival of Political Theory
7. John Plamentz : Man and Society 24. A. Hacker : Political Theory : Philo-
8. Michael : 1. Experience and its sophy, Ideology and
Modes Science
Oakeshott 2. Political Education 25. D. Held : Political Theory and
9. Hannah Arendt : The Human Condition Modern State Political
10. G.E.G. Catlin : Systematic Politics Theory Today
11. Henry Sidgwick : The Elements of Politics 26. A. Leftwich : What is Politics? The
12. Harold Laski : 1. A Grammar of Politics Activity and its study
2. An Introduction to 27. D.D. Raphel : Problems of Political
Politics Philosophy
13. Allan Ball : Modern Politics and
Government WHAT IS POLITICAL THEORY?
14. T.D. Weldon : Vocabulary of Politics Different branches of knowledge solved light on
15. Maurice Duverger: Idea of Politics man's collective life. However, the domains of
16. Robert Daul : Modern Political Analysis political science received special impacts since
17. W.G. Runciman : Social Science and the time of Aristotle. So him, ‘‘He who is unable
Political Theory to live in society, or who has no need because he
3
is sufficient for himself, must be either a beast or Science it describes political reality without trying
God.’’ Perhaps that explains why he hailed Political to pass judgement on what is being depicted either
Science to be a ‘‘Master Science.’’ implicitly or explicitly. As Philosophy, it prescribes
Political Theory occupies a place of pre- rules of conduct which will secure the good life
eminence in the domain of political science. Its for all of society and not simply for ‘‘certain
development is closely intertwined with man's individuals or classes’’. Sabine identifies two
quest for good life. Developments in the realm of phases when political theory reached its height:
science and technology helped in establishing new 1. Ancient Greek
categories of knowledge which could stand the 2. Seventeenth Century England
test of time.
David Held : ‘‘Political Theory generally aims Other Related Terms
to explain things coming out of political life.’’ l Political Science : Political Science refers
Andrew Hacker : ‘‘Values and facts are to systematic way of studying politics.
embedded in Political Theory. They are dependent While the term ‘politics’ signifies the
on each other.’’ scope, ‘science’ refers to ‘method’. It differs
Karl Popper : ‘‘Theory is like a net with the from political theory in the sense that while
help of which one can catch the world to understand political theory deals with factual, causal
it.’’ and evaluative or valuational elements,
Political theory deals with the conditions of political science is only concerned with
collective life. It provides a system of rule to guide the former two. Moreover, in terms of
social relationship on one hand and studies the method also. While political science relies
evolution, nature, necessity and purpose of on scientific method of observation,
government, on the other hand. It tries to relate generalization, explanation and prediction
them with human perception and nature. As such of political phenomenon that could be
it tries to evolve a framework for analyzing man’s verifiable. Political theory also engage in
political concerns and evolving mechanism to logical construction which are often
solve these problems. incapable of empirical verification.
It must be noted that most of the theories l Political Thought : Political thought refers
came out in the midst of crisis. Wherein they to the thought of the whole community. It
attempted to solve the problems. However, in their is time bound. They are not organized and
quest to address immediate problems, they engage systematic in form. They can be in the
with perennial issues as well. They are not limited form of speeches or writings. It is thus as
context bound. Instead their focus is often wide Stromss says ‘‘conditioned by historical
enough to cover the world at large. context.’’ Political theory on the other hand
Thus, political theory is a generalised is work of a single individual analyzing
statement about political life. It outlines a conditions of collective life.
conceptual framework by which knowledge is l Political Ideology : Political ideology
synthesized. Different theories have different sort means a system of well comprehensive
of connection with the concepts. As such, there ideas which aim to justify or condemn an
arises difference in the kind of problem they think existing system. They are often concerned
to be of more serious nature and consequently either about change or status quo. Ideology
differences arise also in prescribing the remedies. politics, according to Frank Thakurdas is
Hence, they enjoin both empirical and ethical ‘‘doctrinaire, didatic, dogmatic, transitory,
statements. This has been best illustrated by A. prescriptive, polemical and propagandit,
Hacker, it is ‘‘dispassionate and disinterested.” As partisan, combative and destructive whose
Political Theory l 5
appeal is in the nature of religious belief.’’ 2. In its quest to address immediate issues
It is always used as an instrument for some theories light on perennial concerns as well as.
gain. Political theories are generally concer- 3. Provides insight into the rich intellectual
ned with change towards a better political heritage of the past.
order. Its vision is grounded on justificatory 4. Helps in political education and adaptation
basis which ideologies often lack. through empowerment.
l Political Philosophy : Political philosophy 5. Provides ideas that act as tool of change
deals with native and purpose of state, and transformation.
rights and liberties of people etc. It focuses 6. Supplies concept and theories that help
on the enduring elements of political life locating causes of disadvantages, discri-
and suggests best way for its realisation. mination and ways to overcoming them.
Political theory deals with explanation of 7. Helps in building new value system and
political phenomenon as well as a viable political arrangements commensurate with
alternative. It is concerned with particular those objectives.
issues or problems. 8. Helps in planning for the future.
9. Helps in maintaining peace and harmony
NATURE AND SCOPE OF POLITICAL
in the society.
THEORY
10. Helps in ascertaining the legitimacy of
Ever since its birth in ancient Greece, political political regimes.
theory primarily remained a normative enterprise, 11. Gives information about political reality.
till the mid twentieth century. According to Guild
and Palmer ‘Introduction to Politics’ it was ‘‘heavily CONTEMPORARY CONCERNS
and curiously culture-sound.’’ Its main focus was I. M. Young in her Article ‘‘Political Theory : An
as Barker echoes, ‘‘moral evaluation of the political overview hints that new theories in political theory
power.’’ However, scepticism with traditional are pluralism, feminism, post-modernism, new social
political theory started with emergence of logical movements, civil society and the liberal-
positivists at the Vienna circle. It met its Waterloo communitarian debate.
at the hands of behaviouralists in the post-1945
period. It was bought to be changed with DECLINE AND RESURGENCE
positivistic assumptions. The search for reality and OF POLITICAL THEORY
precision with paramount ground of verification
robbed the political theory of its crucial ingredients. Main Works
However, post 1970’s saw revival of political A. Cobban : The Decline of Political
theory in the monumental work of John Rawls : Theory (an article)
‘‘A Theory of Justice’’ 1971. Similarly a post- R. Dahl : Political Theory Today (an
behavioural stand sought to prepare a level playing article)
field for the new gains and past heritage. The D. Easton : The Political System : An
contemporary political theory is marked by Inquiry into the State of Political
following essential characteristics : Science.
1. Analytical 2. Explanatory The Decline of Modern Political
3. Critical 4. Prescriptive Theory (an article)
P. Laslett (ed.) : Introduction to Philosophy,
USES OF POLITICAL THEORY Politics and Society.
1. Engages itself with political problems and N. Reime : The Revival of Democratic
provides solutions. Theory
DECLINE OF POLITICAL THEORY he points out that mere use of scientific

method can not generate theories. The latter
Barely a decade after Sabine proclaimed in his
task involves identifying major variables
article ‘‘What is Political Theory’’ (1939),
and establishing a harmonious relationship
‘‘political theory has remained a subject of
between them.
perennial concern’’, that writers such as Easton
and Cobban declared it to be declining. Peter 4. Hyperfactualism : Easton accuses writers
Laslett and Robert Dahl declared it as already like Paul Bryce of using theory simply to
dead. While Reimer saw it to be in the doghouse. accumulate facts. Such tendencies, in his
The main thrust of their argument was that they opinion fail to relate themselves with the
associated political theory with political significant problems in a political system.
philosophy as Easton points out ‘‘lives parasitically He observes ‘‘theory without facts may be
on ideas a century old and what is more a well-piloted ship with an unsound keel.
discouraging, we see little prospect of the But where preoccupation with fact-
development of new political synthesis. Its genesis gathering syphons away energy from seeing
had been synthesised in the background of a the facts in their theoretical significance
school called logical positivism known as Vienna then the ultimate value of factual research
Circle. The prominent figures were, Rudolf Carnap, itself will be lost.’’
O.V. Nevrath etc. and they laid stress on experience
as a mode of knowledge construction. However, COBBAN
there is hardly any unanimity among the proponent Alfred Cobban presents a very pessimistic picture
of ‘decline’ as regards the causes.’’Major of political theory. He holds that despite being an
proponents of decline thesis are : intellectually rich tradition since the time of Plato,
there has been a dearth of such work since the 18th
EASTON century. Among the external causes for the decline
S.P. Varma in his work ‘‘Modern Political Theory’’ of political theory, he mentions increasing role of
identifies following causes for the decline of the state and bureaucratic machinery and military
political theory which have been attributed by establishment. However, political theory with
Easton. These include: which he associates political philosophy has been
1. Historicism : According to David Easton, deeply affected by growing influence of scientific
writers such as Dunning, Sabine, McIiwain, attitude and historical approach. Pointing at the
Lindsay, Carlye, are more interested in earlier phases, he observes ‘‘they wrote to condemn
describing the causes for rise of an ideology, or support existing institutions, to justify a political
system of values etc. They do not engage system or persuade their fellow citizens to change
in stimulating their own thought to find it because, in the last resort, they were concerned
solutions to contemporary social problems. with the aims, the purpose of political society can
2. Moral Relativism : Easton accuses Hume not remain insulated from the sphere of ‘values’,
and Weber of having relativistic attitude it will have to engage itself in such exercises and
towards ‘values’ and neglecting what only then can it give a sense of direction.
consequences do they have for the ‘facts.’
However, a political scientist to be sensitive GERMINO
towards social problems, construct values Despite being an advocate of decline thesis, Dante
and not transplant them. Germino is optimistic about its future. Like Cobban,
3. Confusing Science and Theory : Easton he locates the decline of political theory to the
accuses the political theorists of using growing ascendancy of Scientism. But he also
science and theory in a wrong way. In fact, brings in what he describes as ‘ideological
reductionism’ found in the works of Tracy, Comte RESURGENCE OF POLITICAL THEORY

and Marx. These writers considered ideas as a
Political Theory meets its revival in the
reflection of and determined by some deter-
monumental work of John Rawls, ‘A Theory of
minate variable, while Tracy considered sensation
Justice’ (1971). He seeks to evolve a working basis
as the source of ideas. Marx gave importance to
for social cooperation in liberal democratic society
matter.
by engaging himself in the problem of distribution
Such scepticism with the state of political of liberties, opportunities, income, wealth and
theory set pace for methodological purification bases of self-respect.
and theory building. It found its most elaborate
accommodation in the behaviouralism NEW THEMES
characterised by Germino as ‘Neo Positivism.’
The other prominent themes that have surfaced in
How Valid is the Claim of Decline the contemporary political theory are as follows.
Communitarianism : Theorists such as
Even during that time, political theory in the
Michael Walzer, Michael Sandel, Alistair
political philosophy was not dead as Berlin
MacIntyre and Charles Taylor belong to this
observes to suppose that there have been or could
school. They reject the liberal conception of
be ages without political philosophy, is like individuated self and hold that self is part of social
supposing that as there are ages of faith, so there relations in which he/she is embedded.
are or could be ages of total disbelief. But this is
Michael Sandel-Liberealism and the limits
an absurd notion : scepticism, cynicism, refusal to
of justice. MacIntyre-After vireture.
debate in abstract issues or to question values,
hard boiled opportunism, contempt for theorising, Post modernism : It got genesis in the writings
all the varieties of nihilism, are of course themselves of Jacques Derrida and Michel Focanlt. They attack
the universalistic foundations of political theory
meta-physical and ethical positions, committal
and stress on decentered, fragmented nature of
attitudes.’’ Herbert Marcuse, Leo Strawz, Michael
human experience. Identity and culture are the
Oakshott and Eric Vogelin continued to the orige
prominent aspects on which post modernists
in the traditional style. Moreover, it does not have
emphasized.
a dim future, as Berlin remarks ‘‘so long a rational
curiosity exist – a desire for justification and Michael Fohcault-power/knowledge
explanation in terms of motives and reasons and J.F. Lyotard-Postmodern Condition.
not only of cause of functional correlations or Multiculturalism : Scholars like Will
statistical probabilities, political theory will not Kymlicka, I.M. Young and Bhikhu Parekh have
wholly perish from the earth, however, many of its laid stress on the attribute of culture as context of
rivals such as sociology, philosophical analysis. experience and human well being. They blame the
Social psychology, Political science, economics contemporary political theory of being culture
jurisprudence, semantics may claim to have biased and neglecting the concerns of different
dispelled its imaginary realm.’’ cultural groups. As such they have favoured a
Jean Bloudel in his work ‘‘The Discipline of regime of group differentiated right to address
Politics’’ supports the classical version of political discrimination meted out to cultural identities as
theory speaking about behavioural approach he well as the ambit of democracy.
says that it has yielded to the political theory in Will Kymlicka-Multicultural Citizenship
modern times. However, Leo Stromss favours the Bhiku Parekh-Rethinking Multiculturalism
use of term political philosophy instead of political Feminism : The theorists of this school have
theory as former better explains the quest of attacked the alleged neutrality of public sphere.
political life. Instead, they locate structures of power that
symbolize power of men over women. It neglects justify such a transfer, it stated its principles in
the aspect of gender and results in subjugation of terms of a logic wider in theory than it was prepared
women. to admit in practice.’’
J. Chapman-Politics, Feminism and It played a crucial role in particular historical
Reformation of Gender setting. It was an ideology of the newly emerged
S.M. Okin-Justice, Gender and Family class who wanted an economic system of free trade
Environmentalism : The theorists of this based on the principle of laissez-faire in place of
school have attacked the notion of progress that mercantilism. In place of absolute monarchy and
has led to depletion of flora and fauna over the factual patronages, they sought supremacy of
years. Instead they place ecological components Parliament.
at the centre of political theory and emphasize its However, with the passage of time it moved
importance over other animate objects. from purely laissez-faire individualistic premiers
R.E. Goodin-Green Political Theory to welfare and even interventional state. It sought
to incorporate principles and principles for
LIBERALISM development of individual personalities.
David G. Smith : ‘Liberalism is the belief in
IDEA and commitment to a set of methods and policies
Liberalism comprises a set of ideas and practices that have as their common aim greater freedom for
governing collective life in any society. Liberalism individual men.
is a distinctly modern phenomenon. It emerged L.T. Hobhouse, in his Liberalism
out of the enlightenment, the Glorious Revolution Liberalism is the belief that society can safely
in England and the French Revolution. John Lock be founded on self directing power of personality,
is waived as the father of liberalism. It is closely that its only on it his foundation that a true
wedded to individualism. Its central theme is that community can be built, and that so established
the individuals are embodiment of reason who its foundations are so deep and so wide that there
know what is good and bad for them. While is no limit that we can place to the extent of the
classical liberals conceived of state as hinderance building.
of hinderances, contemporary liberals acknowledge
concerns that go beyond pure individualism. Grimes : ‘‘Liberalism represents a system of
However, it should not have been observed as a ideas that aims the realization of pluralist society,
single comprehensive doctrine, rather there have forcing diversity in politics, economy, religion
arisen a number of off shoots. and our cultural life.’’
Origin and Evolution Basic Feature

The word liberalism has latin root liber which 1. Man as the embodiment of reason.
means liberty. But as a word, first it was used to 2. Man is capable of deciding his good and
refer a political party in Spain. Perhaps the best bad.
illustration of historical role of liberalism is given 3. Primacy of procedure.
by Harold J. Laski, in his State in Theory and 4. Contract as mechanism of social relations.
Practice, has significantly observed : ‘‘The birth of
5. No incompatibility between individual
the Liberal tradition can only be explained by the
interest and social good.
shift in the residence of economic power which
accompanied it. At bottom it was a way of 6. Upholder of civil and political liberties.
justifying the transfer of political authority from a 7. Emphasis on toleration.
land-owning aristocracy to a commercial middle 8. Conceive of civil society as the arena of
class, and, like all philosophies which seek to realization of freedom.
Factors for the rise of Liberalism MODERN AND CLASSICAL LIBERALISM

Benn and Peters in their ‘‘Social Principles and Broadly, two trends can be in liberalism :
the Democratic state’’ observe that ‘‘A man's status 1. Classical liberalism
and roles which he had to play in the various 2. Modern liberalism
departments of life were prescribed by rules handed
down from time immemorial. Economic life was Classical Liberalism
static and secure, regulated by the guild system l Also called Negative Liberalism.
which blocked undue competition and self-
l Theoretical formulation in the words of
assertion. But with the growth of international
commerce in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, — Locke : Two Treatise on Civil Govt.
with the invention of printing and the improvement — Montesquien : The Spirit of Laws
of communications, a new individualistic order — Bentham : Fragments on Government
began to take shape. — Smith : Wealth of Nations
Social life became more and more — Spencer : Man versus State
characterized by acquisitiveness, the pursuit of l Market to be chief motivating force for the
power and the striving for honour.’’ pursuit of all values.
A number of factors contributed to the rise of l Politics was conceived as autonomous
Individualism which in turn affected the domain capable of rising above narrow, vested
from which these factors had originated. They are interests.
as follows : l State was a necessary evil. To Bentham
1. Economic : Demand for free trade against ‘The best Govt. was the one that governed
the merchandise policies pursued by the the least’.
state led to pulls and pressure. Its outcome l The doctrine of liberty was tied to doctrine
was a theory of laissez-faire state wherein of equality.
economy was to be governed by the law of l Claim to equality was only a political claim
supply and demand. and in other sphere it meant equality of
2. Religious : Christianity’s belief in the opportunity.
equality of human beings in the eyes of
God that was re-emphasized by the
Modern Liberalism
reformation of the 1950’s gave impetus to l Also described as positive liberalism.
individualism : Kant exposed the equality l Abandoning the policy of laissez-faire and
of human beings in terms of attribute of adopting the policy of welfare and interven-
dignity. tionist state.
3. Scientific : Pobbes's insistence on the self l Emphasised by Mill and Green and
atomised nature of social world was greatly developed by Hobshouse, Laski and
influenced by the principles of physical Tawney.
mechanics that were being recently l Sought to extend the sphere of equality to
discovered. the realm economy.
4. Political : Locke emphasises on natural l Economic equality implied a more
right made it obligatory on the part of every equitable distribution of the national
social and political institutions to preserve income through higher wages and larger
and protect them. It was characteristically social benefits and service financed by
a demand of newly emerging bourgeoisie heavy taxation on high income of
society. individuals and corporations.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—2
l They discarded the concept of free market economic activities. It forms a part of liberal
as the guarantor of economic efficiency. political theory in the sense that it regards the
l If had its economic implication in the work property right of individual as a necessary
of Keynes report of Lord Beveridge (U.K.). condition of liberty and seeks to set limit on
government to regulate the socio-economic
Types of Liberalism domain. It regards state as a necessary evil because
Different schools within the liberal tradition can it curtails freedom but can only safeguard it in
be categorised as case of its encroachment by others.
1. Individualism It was led by burghers, the tradesmen, the
2. Utilitarianism money-lenders and the small manufactures of
France and England in the eighteenth century who
3. Neo-liberalism or Libertarianism
had felt terribly restrained by the controls and
INDIVIDUALISM regulations of the mercantilist state.
It flourished as a social and political theory
Thomas Hobbes and John Locke are regarded as
form the middle of the 18th century till about the
the originator of individualism.
middle of the 19th century. It was advocated by
The political theory of the individualism the French physiocratic political economists
places high value on the individual. It regards the (Francois Quesnay and Victor de Riqueis; Marquis
human individual as an end in itself and considers de Mirabeau), the English classical political
political, economic and social institutions as mere economists (Adam Smith, David Ricardo, Thomas
means to that end. It regards the state as a necessary
Malthus and John Stuart Mill) and by Herbert
evil and limits its scope to provide security to its
Spencer. In India, the individualistic view of the
citizens.
ideology of Laissez-faire is chiefly a characteristic
According to the individualist theorists, the of early phase of capitalism (after merchantile
people have their natural or pre-political freedoms. one).
In pursuing their interests, the individuals should
Mercantilist policies were pursued by the state
not be restrained by the society or by the state
except to prevent them from invading or cheating of England, France and Germany in the 17th and
other individuals. early part of the 18th centuries. Through the
policies of mercantilism, each country sought to
The government which governs the least is
obtain a favourable balance of trade against its
considered to be the best government. The
international or foreign rivals.
individualists maintain that the state should only
perform the protective or law-and-order functions There mercantilist system was a system of state
for its citizens; beyond those functions, the state regulations and controls over the economy, aimed
should not intervene in the social and economic at increasing national power and wealth. It was
spheres. The individualists laid stress on the aspect directed not only against foreign states and their
of liberty, interpreted in terms of absence of economies, but also against the internal or domestic
restraint enjoyed primarily in the realm of civil sources of challenge. Factory replace form as unit
society. of production.
The individualists were inspired by a french The wealth accumulated in this phase gave
school of economic thought called Physiocrats rise to a new middle class, who pressed for reform
who paved the way for laissez-faire individualism. and loosening state control.
Different Views : Adam Smith, John Stuart
Laissez-faire Mill and Herbert Spencer were the major theorists
It is a French word which means ‘leave alone’. It of individualism and laissez-faire. Their theories
signified non-intervention by the state in the have been discussed as under.
Adam Smith : Adam Smith in his ‘‘An Inquiry In his view, the only legitimate functions of
into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations the state are the maintenance of order and the
(1776)’’, offered an economic argument for laissez- administration of justice, and their purpose is
faire individualism. He attacked the mercantilist ‘‘simply to defend the rural rights of man to protect
system of controls and regulations, which, he said person and property.’’ Beyond these, the state,
prevented the division of labour from yielding its says Spencer, should not interfere with the natural,
fruits. He also attacked the state's rights to grant self-adjusting laws of society. He denies to the
monopoly privileges to firms and companies which state any role in regulating currency, running the
thereby receive unfair and unproductive protection postal services, regulating trade and commerce or
from competition. He was greatly influenced by aiding the poor.
the ideas of French physiocrats. He drew a distinction between the ‘‘military
According to Smith, economic growth depends state,’’ in which the individuals are mere meant to
on exploitation of nature, division of labour, the realization of the ends of the state, and the
expansion of markets, free trade, capital ‘‘industrial state’’, in which the individuals
accumulation and economic competitor. The free constitute the supreme end of government. The
or unfettered pursuit of self-interest by the rights of the individual, he says, proceed the state
individuals under competitive conditions would, and are inalienable.
according to him lead to greater productivity and Even popular majorities would not interfere
the increase of wealth, the benefits of which would with those inalienable rights. Aim of liberalism,
get diffused throughout the society. In this way, ‘‘was that of putting a limit to the power of kings.
there would come about a ‘‘system of natural liberty The function of true Liberalism in the future will
and perfect justice.’’ The competitive market, he be that of putting limit to the powers of
said, is self-regulating and harmonious. He pins parliament.’’ States intervention in society hampers
faith in visible hand that will bring about the individual initiative and retards the progress of
harmony of individual interests through the self- society.
adjustment of the forces of supply and demand. J.S. Mill : Mill in his works; viz; ‘‘On Liberty’’
Smith espoused the political manifestation of ‘‘Principles of Political Economy’’ ‘‘Considerations
economic laissez-faire, in terms of natural liberty on Representative Government’’, ‘‘The subjugation
of individuals. Consequently, states role was of women,’’ started with defence of laissez-faire
confined to individualism but sought to remedy it with positive
— protect the nation functions of the state. In fact he was a champion
of negative liberty and positive state. While Smith
— protect the individual
and Spencer sought to promote the individualistic
— maintain certain public work departments. doctrine in instrumental terms, Mill gave it a moral
Herbert Spencer : Spencer wrote three works, orientation, this case for individual liberty was
viz, ‘‘The Proper Sphere of Government, Social conceived as an essential ingredient of qualitative
Statics’’ and ‘‘Man versus State’’ to advance an life. In particular, he emphasised on liberty of
extreme form of laissez-faire individualism, inspired thought and expression as well as liberty of
by the Darwinian notion of the survival of the conduct.
fittest and the law of natural selection, he says Mill makes a distinction between ‘self-
‘‘State exists so Long as Crime exist in Society.’’ regarding actions’ and ‘other regarding actions.’
He says that society should allow those who An individual is granted complete freedom in all
are fit and well-adjusted to survive and flourish, matters not affecting the community. However, in
while those who are unfit and maladjusted to their ‘other regarding actions’, he grants the right to the
environment should be left to perish. community.
His opposition to the interventionist state is 5. It provided ideological base to the

based on the assumption that things are better flourishing of capitalist mode of production.
done by the concerned individuals than by 6. Most derogatory aspect has been
government officials. The second reason is that comparison of social life with biological
self-governing activities by the individuals are a law of natural selection. As Mahatma
‘‘means to their own mental education a mode of Gandhi observed ‘‘Man is higher than the
strengthening their active faculties, exercising their brute in his moral instincts and moral
judgement and giving them a fair knowledge of institutions. The law of nature as applied
the subjects with which they are thus left to deal.’’ to the one is different from the law of nature
Mill argues, in other words, that we can develop and free will as it is.’’
ourselves by doing many things which we
normally leave to the Government to do for us. But, it can not be denied that individualistic
Even if certain things can be better done by the view had a major role in liberating societies from
Government than by ourselves. Mill says, we courage of religious wars in Europe, feudal
should still do them ourselves as they will have an bottlenecks and promoting democratic sentiments.
educative and developmental impact on us. It paved way for higher productivity. But it had
serious lacunae which were sought to be overcome
Elaborating upon his ethical grounds for
opposing the state's compulsion of the individual, in other versions of liberalism.
Mill writes: ‘‘A state which dwarfs its men, in
UTILITARIANISM
order that they may be docile instruments in its
hands even for beneficial purposes-will find that Utilitarianism is a theory about nature and motives
with small men no great thing can really be of human conduct and standard of moral
accomplished.’’ judgement. It is essentially an ethical theory whose
In contemporary period moral individualism founder was Jermy Bentham. J.S. Mill came to
has been emphasized by Rawls; economic (laissez- revise the basic tenets of utilitarianism. Henry
faire) individualism by Triedman, Lozick and Sidgwick is another exponent of this tradition.
Hayek; methodological individualism by Karl Bentham’s well known works are ‘‘Fragment
Popper in his theory of incremental change. on Government’’ and ‘‘Introduction to the
principles of moral and legislation’’. He conceived
Criticism of Individualism man as a sensual being who acts so as to enjoy
1. Utilitarians point out at the contradiction pleasure and avoid pain. He observes ‘‘Nature has
between individual good and aggregate placed mankind under the governance of two
good. To them aggregate good need not sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them
account for good of each individual. above to point out what we ought to do, as well
2. Laissez-faire individualism resulted in as to determine what we shall do. On the one hand
recurring economic crisis and depressions. the standard of right and wrong, on the other the
It led to retrenchment of labour and increase chain of the causes are fastened to their throne.
in unemployment. They govern us in all we say, in all we think;
3. C.B. Macpherson in his ‘‘Political Theory every effort we can make to throw off our subjection
of Possessive Individualism’’ accuses will serve but to demonstrate and confirm it.’’ As
individualists of conceiving individuals as a consequence, they insisted that all measures and
the proprietor of his own person or institutions be judged in terms of their contribution
capacities, owing nothing to the society. towards enjoyment of pleasure and avoidance of
4. It gave rise to monopolists degrading the pain. They coined hedonistic calculus to measure
status of worker and petty bourgeois pleasure and pain. The purpose to state being
classes. ‘‘Greatest happiness of greatest number’’ where
‘‘everyone was to count for one and no one to be NEO-LIBERALISM

move than one.’’ So, ‘‘a good government is one
An extreme form of laissez-faire individualism that
which governs the heart.’’
developed in the writings of Hayek, Friedman and
Criticism Nozick. They are also referred to as libertarians.
They draw on the natural rights tradition of John
1. Utilitarianism does not see qualitative Locke and champions full autonomy and freedom
difference between pleasures. This aspect of the individual. They decry welfare policies of
was overcome by J.S. Mill. He rejects the state and supports a minimal state. Some of
Benthamite premise that quantity of them even accords to market, the role to perform
pleasure being equal, pushpin is as good as the economic functions including the defence of
poetry. Rather, he holds that as a source of person and property through a private form. In
pleasure poetry is much higher than essence, they support full autonomy and freedom
pushpin or any other game. As he observes of the individual; it seeks his ‘liberation’ from all
‘‘it is better to be a human being dissatisfied institutions which tend to restrict his vision of the
than a pig satisfied: better to be a Socrates world, including the institutions of religions,
dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.’’ family and customs of social conformity apart from
political institutions. Philosophically it repudiates
2. C.B. Macpherson points at the contra-
the deterministic outlook of human life, treats man
diction in this view. There is tension as maker of his destiny. In the political sphere,
between man as a desirer of utility and man libertarianism particularly insists that man's
as enjoyer or developer of his powers. economic activity must be actively liberated from
3. John Rawls criticises it on grounds of all restrictions to enable him to achieve true
fairness. While calculating the aggregate progress and prosperity.
good, it neglects the good of the least Libertarianism holds that certain rights of the
advantaged. As a result, utilitarianism treats individual which precede his political life, are
some individual only as means towards end indefensible and these cannot be surrendered in
of others. It is incompatible with the favour of the collectivity. It particularly defends
conception of social cooperation among the right to acquire and hold property and freedom
free and equal individuals for mutual of contract. These rights are by no means product
advantage and with the idea of reciprocity of the state itself, hence the state cannot be allowed
implicit in a well ordered society. to intervene for any artificial balancing of rights.
It even condemns taxation of the rich for the benefit
4. In its practical connotation, utilitarianism
of the poor. It argues that taxation for welfare of
and its hedonistic calculus received serious
certain sections of society involves the forced
set backs. The appalling miseries and contra-
transfer of fruit of one man's labour to another,
dictions in societies saved way for welfare, which serves as a disincentive to the individual.
interventionist state as espoused by T.W. On the contrary, if all individuals are free from it.
Green and Lord Keynes.
Even though the liberal democratic societies F.A. Hayek
adopted welfare model, its effects were not very Hayek in his ‘The Road of Serfdom’ exhorts that
optimistic. Growing economic burden and political the growth of state will lead inexorably to
apathy failed to deliver results. The regulation of totalitarianism. To him, socialism, planning and
property hampered private initiative and enterprise. collectivism are a tool to curtail individual
As a result, a new school of thought emerged in freedom. He supports free market economy. It is
the liberal tradition, known as Libertarianism or not concerned with distribution. But, he advocates
Neo-Liberalism. state provision of a minimum income.
In his ‘‘Constitution of Liberty’’ Hayek defines NEW THEMES

liberty as the ‘‘State in which a man is not subject
to the coercion by the arbitrary will of another. It Isaiah Berlin
is purely a legal conception and not a political In his two concepts of liberty Berlin reconciles
one. In fact, law, liberty and property are intricately individual freedom with value pluralism. To him,
intertwined in his scheme. A liberal social order is ‘‘good life can be lived in several ways and no
necessary for its realization. idea can claim mastery over the another’’. Freedom
is the freedom to choose from an indefinite number
Robert Nozick of values. He rejects reason as an arbiter among
Nozick in his ‘‘Anarchy, State and Utopia’’ holds inherently rivalrous and incommensurable goods.
the view that the welfare state is minimal to He accepts the reality of cultural community
individual freedom. He defends the market and a memberships but sees it as being shaped by the
minimal ‘‘nightwatchman’’ state. To him, the state free play of individuality. Such comprehensive is
comes into existence for the maintenance of his scheme that John Gray remarked that ‘‘Berlin
property rights of the individuals. It has no marks a departure point for theorisation of idea of
legitimate powers beyond the functions of pluralism and freedom.
protection, justice and defence. It can not
redistribute property or income. He argues that John Rawls
inequalities at the level of production should not The works of John Rawls goes beyond the laissez-
be rectified at the level of distribution. faire principles of individualistic liberalism. In his
Milton Friedman ‘A Theory of Justice’ he tries to evolve a working
principle for social cooperation in liberal
Friedman condemns the welfare state by observing democratic societies by basing it on a justificatory
that ‘‘not all means are justified simply by reference base of reciprocal exchange. He takes cognizance
to the ends, how so ever noble they are. In his of inequalities in a market society and adequately
‘‘Capitalism and Freedom’’ he sees an inevitable responds to it. The underlying assumption of his
link between capitalism and enjoyment of freedom, theory is that if basic structures of society are fair,
consequently, he supports state intervention only most of the problem as regards the stability of a
in those sphere which can not be handled by system can be solved.
market. It has no role beyond and above sustaining In his ‘Political Liberalism’, Rawls seeks to
and supplementing a market society.
orient liberal occupation with diversity, difference
Criticism and community. He clungs to the public-private
dichotomy by responsing a public conception of
1. The Libertarians have been dubbed as justice arrived at through overlapping consensus
philosophers of the bourgeoisie interested of reasonable comprehensive doctrines.
primarily in the maintenance of status quo.
In his ‘The Laws of People’ Rawls presents a
2. The renewed emphasis is on negative procedural theory of Justice at the global level.
liberty and minimal state neglects the
egalitarian agenda which every genuine Critical Evaluation
political theory should serve.
The political theories of liberalism have received
3. It paves way for renewed emphasis on the mounting challenges. While, earlier it was believed
biological law of natural selection and that it faces fierce opposition only from the
survival of the fittest syndrome. Marxists, today there have arisen new schools of
4. It neglects the claims of disadvantaged and thought questioning liberalism on a number of
discriminated sections of society. points. These include :
1. Marxist accuse liberals of providing

MARXISM
ideological apparatus to the capitalist mode
of production, hiding inequalities and IDEA
exploitation of workers and perpetuating
Marxism comprises a set of idea and practice about
status quo.
man and society that originated in the writings of
2. Communitarians have questioned the Marx and Engles and developed by Lenin and
notion of disembodied self. They hold that Mao. Like Liberalism, it is a distinctively modern
an individual is deeply embedded in a doctrine. Surprisingly, Marxism was unknown at
social matrix which is vital part of his the time of Marx who said ‘‘All I know is that I
identity. am not a Marxist.’’ G.V. Plekhnov, a Russian
3. Postmodernists have questioned the Marxist announced that ‘‘Marxism is a world
enlightenment predicaments that liberalism view’’. Perhaps, its revolutionary tactics and
is accused of serving. They deny the unanticipatory claims remain a unique feature and
relevance of universal categories and grand continue to inspire millions of people worldwide.
theories. Instead they hold, that social There are people like David McLellan who seems
experience are contingent. There is nothing to believe in Marxism even before Marx. His three
certain and final. In essence, they emphasize volumes
fragmented nature of social world. 1. Marxism before Marx
4. Multiculturalists have attacked the 2. Karl Marx-His life and Thought
uniformity popularized by liberal 3. Marxism after Marx : An Introduction,
institutions. They question the relevance speaks for it.
of individual right allocated to the citizens Origin : Marxism originated in response to
without taking into account of his havoc which the early civilization had brought
linguistic, ethnic or other such connections. about. It continues because it contains tools to
penetrate the opaque side of capitalism. Its
5. Feminists have attacked the division of
scientific rigour, humanist hinge and optimism
social life into public and private sphere.
with communism remains as relevant as ever. As
They hold that the notion of neutral public
Harry W. Laidler in ‘‘Social Economic
sphere is biased and reflects the male Movements’’ has observed ‘‘The Communist
presuppositions. Manifesto, issued in the revolutionary year 1848
Ever since its genesis in the turmoil in Europe, at the behest of a small international workingmen's
Liberalism had suited the genesis of time. It organization, was at once an interpretation of the
replaced traditional conservation and orthodoxy role of the working class in past and future history
by modern rationalism. Perhaps because of its and a clarion call to labour to unite for the purpose
efficacy and pragmation, more and more country's of securing its emancipation and, through that
are getting lured towards liberal democratic emancipation, the freedom of all mankind. It marked
institution. The triumph of liberal democracy as a the advent of Marxian or ‘scientific’ socialism, a
final form of government may be decried in some social philosophy which has exerted such a
quarters, but as Stephen Eric Bronner argues ‘‘a powerful influence on the political, social,
replacement to liberal democratic state no longer economic, and cultural thought of the last half
exists.’’ However, it will have to be sensitive as century and which seems destined to play still
regards contradictions of economic relations in larger role in future historical developments.’’
the society. It will have to buttress itself with Main Works : By Marx and Engles
egalitarian elements of socialism and cultural — The Class Struggles in France
connectiveness of multiculturalism. — The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte
— The Civil War in France. the societies of prehistory, all historical societies
— Introduction to a Contribution to the contain basic contradictions which means that they
Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right cannot survive forever in their existing form. These
— Manifesto of the Communist Party contradictions involve the exploitation of one
social group by another. For example in feudal
— Critique of the Gotha Programme
society, lords exploit their serfs, in capitalist
— Das Capital society, employers exploit their employees. This
Lenin creates a fundamental conflict of interest between
— What is to be Done social groups since one gains at the expense of
— State and Revolution another. This conflict of interest leads to
— Imperialism : The Highest Stage of replacement of one mode of production by another
Capitalism one and transforming the superstructure as well. It
will finally usher a communist society.
CLASSICAL AND NEO-MARXISM Neo-Marxism on the other hand, seeks to
analyse the subtle aspects of the phenomenon of
The original tenets of Marxism-as a scientific
dominance, and dependence, distortions in
system of thought are identified as Classical
contemporary civilization and the possible ways
Marxism. The wider implications of Marxism,
to human emancipation. Theme of alienation is
including humanist thought of the Young Marx,
repeatedly evident in these writings. Herbert
are broadly identified as Neo-Marxism.
Marcuse is an outstanding Neo-Marxist.
Marxism begins with the simple observation
that in order to survive, man must produce food FREEDOM IN MARXIST THEORY
and material objects. In doing so he enters into
Although Marx and Engels never wrote
social relationship with other men. From the simple
systematically about the concept of freedom, its
hunting band to the complex industrial state,
implications are sound enough to attract readers.
production is a social enterprise. Production also In fact, it was seen in opposition to alienation that
involves a technical component known as the the capitalist mode of production had generated.
forces of production which includes the As Rowcke in his work ‘‘The Problem of Freedom
technology, raw materials and scientific knowledge in Marxist Thought’’ observes ‘‘The notion of
employed in the process of production. Each major freedom plays a central role in the thought of Karl
state in the development of the forces of production Marx...his notion of freedom often figures
will correspond with a particular form of the social significantly in the background which gives
relationships of production. Thus the forces of meaning to his more specific and immediate
production in a hunting economy will correspond concerns... the notion of freedom lurks behind the
with a particular set of social relationships. Taken critique of religion and the whole description of
together, the force of production and the social the forms of alienation...the theme of the freedom
relationships of production form the economic base of men has a pervasiveness and extent in the long
or infrastructure of society. The other aspects of development of his thought which marks it as one
society, known as the superstructure, are largely of those basic themes providing continuity to his
shaped by the infrastructure. Thus the political work.’’ Nevertheless, he accepts that capitalism
legal and educational institutions, the belief and was more beneficial in extending freedom than the
value systems are primarily determined by earlier modes of production because it threw career
economic factors. A major change in the open to talent and unleashed production forces of
infrastructure will, therefore, produce a greater extent.
corresponding change in the superstructure. Marx Marxist conception of freedom sees an
maintained that, with the possible exception of interdependent relationship between liberty and
equality. It means self-realization and self- division of labour in the large state there arises
determination. It is not to be confused with slave system characterised by the existence of
satisfaction of material wants. It signifies a private property in the workmen themselves. When
condition where each human being endowed with the large-scale agriculture becomes the chief mode
their creative potential can exercise them. It can of production, in the feudal period, the chief forms
not be realized in a capitalist system of production of property consist of landed property with serf
characterized by necessity. Rather, true freedom labour claimed to it. The surplus value appropriated
can be realised in a rational system of production. by the dominant class and instruments of primitive
This means the destruction of capitalism and the accumulation paved way for industrial revolution
creation of a communist society that embodies and the mechanized production pave way for the
collective control, collective individuality and capitalist system.
personal freedom. As Gellner has observed ‘‘For Under the Capitalist system, the means of
the Marxists civil society is a fraud. The idea of production are privately owned and the worker is
plurality of institutions-both opposing and forced to sell his labour power as a commodity in
balancing the state and in turn controlled and
the market. The surplus value accumulated by the
protected by the state-is, in the Marxist view,
capitalist further the exploitation of working class.
merely the provision of a facade for a hidden and
However, Marxists are optimistic with bourgeois
a malefficent domination.’’
in forms of property as it helps in creating working
PROPERTY IN MARXIST THEORY class as a class for itself. They will rebel against
the existing class relations, which justify the
One of the most distinctive feature of Marxism has bourgeois system of property.
been a scatching critique of the institution of
Marx, Engels and Lenin held the view that
private property. Perhaps it would not be incorrect
the proletarian revolution would put to an end
to say that their critique of capitalist mode of
commodity production and also private property
production is primarily based on their analysis of
in the means of production. The property in these
the institution of private property.
countries will be in the form of state property or
According to Marxists, the institution of collective property. It would finally disappear even
property did not enjoy the same status in different in the sphere of consumption with the
epoch of the history. They point out that there was establishment of a classless communist society.
no notion of private property under the primitive
communist society. It arose with changes in the STATE IN MARXIST THEORY
mode of production. There emerged different forms
of private property in different mode of production, Main Works
while in the slave society a slave was the private Antonio Gramsci : Prison Notebooks.
property of his master, feudalism was marked by Ralph Miliband : The State in Capitalist
private property in land ownership. However, it Society
became a dominant form of economic organization
Nicos Poulantzas : Political Power and Social
with the arrival of commodity production under
Classes State, Power and
Capitalism.
Society
The Marxists see division of labour as the
N. Bobbio : Which Socialism? Marxism
principal cause for the emergence of private
and Democracy
property. In the undeveloped stage of production
of the primitive communal society the people Lenin : State and Revolution
directly depend on the nature. They live by Engels : Socialism, Utopian and
hunting, fishing, cattle rearing etc. With the Scientific Origin of State,
development of productive forces and resulting Family and Private Property
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—3
Different Views Marx and Engels present a class theory of

state. So to them ‘‘History of all hitherto society
Marx is the history of class struggle’’ (with the exception
1. ‘‘An executive committee for managing the of primitive communism). In every class divided
common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie.’’ society there are two class, viz; a dominant and a
2. ‘‘National power of capital over labour.’’ dependent or oppressor and a oppressed class while
3. ‘‘An engine of class despotism.’’ the dominant class own the private property in the
means of production; the dependent classes are
4. ‘‘Political power, properly so called, is
closely clung with property relation.
merely the organised power of one class for
oppressing another.’’ Class in itself and Class for itself
Engels It expresses the historical role for the proletariat in
1. ‘‘An organization of a particular class to Marxist scheme of thing. A class in itself means
forcibly keep the exploited class in the that the working class in capitalist societies are
conditions of oppression.’’ aware of the need for co-operative effort to promote
their own interest. They work together and realize
2. ‘‘Essentially a capitalist machine.’’
that they constitute a particular segment of the
View of Marx and Engels society. They also become conscious of their
conflicting interests with that of the bourgeoisie
Karl Marx and Frederick Engels wrote extensively. or the capitalist. However, a class can become a
They developed a scientific theory of society class for itself only when it becomes aware of its
explaining how the present social order had come historic role and revolutionary potential. It realizes
about, and how it would be transformed into a that it has an additional mission of transforming
better one in the course of history. They made the present set up i.e. the capitalist mode of
attempt to discover laws of historical changes.
production through a proletarian revolution, paving
Wherein they showed that social development was
way for classless society.
inevitably moving in the direction of social
revolution which would ultimately lead to the Origin and Forms
establishment of a communist society. But, what is
most surprising is that they do not offer a clear cut Marx and Engels reject the liberal view that the
theory of state. Their ideas are sketchy. It is state is a natural institution and that it exists to
fragmented and unsystematic one. Same is true of promote the well-being of all the people. Rather,
other classical Marxists such as Lenin, Trotsky they hold that the state is a product of society at
and Gramsci. As Bob Jessop observes ‘‘Although a certain stage of its development. It is a historical
they offer various acute observations on the state entity. It emerged out of the class division of the
in general, specific historical causes and the nature society and out of the need to hold the class
of ideological domination, they do not confront antagonism in check. State has not been there in
the crucial questions of the differential forms of the primitive society, where the institutions of
the capitalist state and their adequacy to continued law, government and politics were totally absent.
accumulation in different situations.’’ Engels in his ‘‘The Origin of the Family,
Marx’s view on the state are largely determined Private Property and the State’’ remarks that ‘‘The
by his perceptions and analyses of the French State...has not existed from all eternity. There have
State, the Revolution of 1848 and Coup d’ etat of been societies that did without it, that had no idea
Napoleon III, he wrote extensively in Rheinische of the state and state power. At a certain stage of
Zetung’’ against the authoritarian state. In the economic development, which was necessarily
Eighteenth Drumaire of Louis Bonaparte, he bound up with the split of society into classes, the
denounced the bureaucratic and all powerful state. state became a necessity owing to this split.’’
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—3-II
In the early societies of primitive communal Tools were held in common ownership and
life, the relations of production were those of co- things were produced by common labour. There
operation as their material basis were largely was no surplus since men could produce only for
dependent upon hunting, fishing, fruit gathering the subsistence of each member of the community.
and cattle-grazing. Thus, societies existed prior to There was no private property and no exploitation
the state. of man by man. The common affairs were managed
They maintain that the institution of state collectively or entrusted to the elders. There was
originated for the first time as a result of the no distinction between ruler and the subjects.
dissolution of the primitive communities. It Hence, there was no need for a special apparatus
gradually evolved when certain changes took place of the state.
in the early economic forms of primitive society. The change in the material basis and the
State was actually necessitated at a particular stage development of productive forces on account of
of economic development when certain members settled agriculture led to new division of labour
of the society acquired control over the productive and gave way to new socio-economic formations.
forces. This development in the field of economic
production inevitably led to the division of society The Slave System
into classes—those who owned and controlled the It is characterised by private ownership not only
means of production and those who did not. in the means of production but even workers are
Lenin in his State and Revolution, says ‘‘The treated as property of their master. It arises with
State is product and manifestation of irreconci- the emergence of private property and division of
lability of class antagonisms. The state arises labour, is new and more complex socio-economic
where, when and insofar as class antagonisms formations. As Engels describes it, ‘‘the break up
objectively cannot be reconciled.’’ of tribal authority involves a change in the system
State thus, originated out of the class division of property, and this transformation is accompanied
between the ‘haves’ and the ‘havenots.’ It came by the rise of groups with reconciliable interests.’’
into existence in order to serve the interests of the The society split up into two antagonistic
former and continues to exist as an instrument for classes–slaves and slave owners; the former as
the exploitation of the latter. producers and the latter as non-producers who
Accordingly, different mode of production owned former's production conditions. The slaves
corresponds to a different form of state. There exists were regarded as a form of property on the ground
five different modes of production in Marxists that they belonged wholly to the master. They had
scheme of things. no social or legal existence independent of their
masters. Their own labour power was an important
Primitive Communism factor of production, but the fruits of their labour
Also referred to as Stateless Societies or prestate wholly went to the master. Thus, in the slave mode
societies. According to Marx and Engels, the of production, slaves stood in opposition to the
primitive tribal societies existed much before the slave owning classes. Subsequently, large-scale
origin of the state. The groups were organised on agriculture becomes chief mode of production,
the basis of blood relationship, common language giving way to another system.
and traditions. Though there was no established
Feudal System
authority in terms of law, some rudiments of power
did exist there. The primitive communal body In the medieval feudal society, land was the sole
generally functioned on the basis of full co- source of economic life. The landlords, therefore,
operation of its members as there was no clash or enjoyed certain special status, privileges, authority
competition among them. and political rights. The relations between the
primary producer and the landlord were such that Communism. Marx says, Socialism ‘‘is the
the former remained subordinate to the latter, and declaration of the permanence of the revolution,
the latter's superior position and authority were an the class dictatorship of the proletariat, as the
established fact of living. The society was divided necessary transition stage to the abolition of all
into the landlord and serfs. class distinctions, the abolition of all conditions
With the mechanized production Marx and of production which correspond to those condition
Engels say : ‘‘the factory system began to develop of production.’’ The bourgeoises state is still
alongside the guild structure; but the primitive retained but without bourgeoisie, as Lenin observes
factory where one man hired a dozen or so helpers ‘‘only the guns are turned to the opposite
and worked alongside them on his own premises, direction.’’ It will be governed by the principle,
was only a beginning’’. ‘‘from each according to his ability and to each
according to his work.’’
Capitalist System Marx and Engels held the view that the
It is characterized by the private ownership of the communist society is the final goal of Socialist
means of production in few hands. The society is revolution. Wherein, the State will either away.
split into two classes capitalists and workers The guiding principle of social interaction will be
(proletariat). The hallmark of this system is freedom voluntary association of individuals. The industrial
of contract, that creates impression of a free society. technology would be put to maximum use and the
However, it is marked by exploitation of workers. forces of production and the relations of production
will remain in perfect harmony.
Workers who do not own the means of
production, only sell their labour power to the Contemporary View
capitalists for wages. The means of production are
owned by the capitalists who alone regulate the Bob Jessop in his ‘‘Marxist theory of state
labour process. The labour produces surplus values identifies’’ six approaches through which classical
because the worker is paid only a part of his Marxists deal with the state :
produce as wages and the rest of the labour which Firstly, Treating state as a parasite institution
remains unpaid is wholly appropriated by the that play an important role in production and
capitalists. In such a society, the capitalists being reproduction activity. Modern State was an
the dominant economic class, influence the expression of the irreconcilable conflicts rooted in
political and social system in numerous forms. the egoism of civil society. Its officials oppress
Ralph Miliband in his Marxism and Politics, and exploit civil society on behalf of a particular
sectional group. As Marx argues that the corporate
has identified four functions of capitalist state.
organisation enables the bourgeoise and modern
1. Repressive : by maintaining law and craftsmen to defend their material interests, the
order. state becomes the private property of officials in
2. Ideological : Cultural : to secure their struggle for self advancement.
legitimacy Secondly, Treating state and state power as
3. Economic : by developing capitalism epiphenomena (i.e. simple surface reflections) of
4. International : by serving ruling classes the system of property relations and the resulting
across the borders. economic class struggles.
Thirdly, Treating state as the factor of
Socialist System cohesion in a given society. Engles views the state
This system is also referred to as crude communism. as an institution that emerges with economic
It is coterminus with the dictatorship of the exploitation. Its function is to regulate the struggle
proletariat and an interim stage of transition to between antagonistic classes through repression
and concession and thus moderate class conflict the power of the dominant classes and functions,
without undermining the continued domination of rather than working to reinforce the revolutionary
the ruling class and reproduction of the dominant movement.’’
mode of production. The debate raged between Ralph Milliband
Fourthly, Treating state as an instrument of and Nicolas Ponlantzas in 1969 brought out a
class rule. This is the most common approach. new impression of Marxist view on state. While
Fifthly, Treating state as a set of institutions Milliband concedes the classical Marxist notion
without making some general assumption about of political power as handmaiden of economic
its class character. The state is seen as a public power, Ponlantzas supports the notion of relative
power that develops at a certain stage in the autonomy of state. While Milliband sees unity
division of labour and that involves the emergence between state power and class power, Ponlantzas
of a distinct system of government which is treats state as a forum of class struggle. It performs
monopolised by officials who specialize in many functions that could not be simply relegated
administration. as class functions.
Sixthly, Treating state as a system of political
Criticism
domination with specific effects on the class
struggle. As more or less adequate to securing a 1. Contrary to assumptions of Marxists that
balance of class forces that is favourable for a there will be polarization of society into
class.’’ two class, there has emerged a powerful
The socialist state was brought into existence middle class playing significant role in the
after proletariat revolution in erstwhile Soviet political process.
Union, was guided by Lenin. He was Marxist in 2. The optimistic vision of Marxism Socialism
approach. He used state as an instrument for the has failed and ‘there is no escape’ as
suppression of bourgeois class. This change was ‘‘Fukuyama argues from liberal democracy.’’
sought to be brought about by the vanguard of the 3. The dictatorship of the proletariat has no
proletariat, the workers party. democratic institutional mechanisms. It is
Mao, dealing with a comparatively different party rule and bureaucratic centrism. This
mode of production in China, espoused a different point has been highlighted by Rosa
version of class struggle. He talked about Luxamberg.
permanent revolution so as to consolidate the gains 4. The conception of socialist state is
of socialist revolution. In his opinion the state will ambiguous and incomplete. That is why
have major cultural function and dismantle the Milovan Djlas points out Marxism does
capitalist political and ideological structure and not offer a theory of political liberty.
put in new ones.
Autonio Gramsci concedes the autonomy of Conclusion
state, politics and ideology. It explained way the Despite severe lacunae it can not be denied that
capitalist state has survived for so long in western Marxism offers a transparent analysis of capitalist
societies. In particular he emphasised on the role state. Its scientific rigour in tracing the origin and
of civil society in generating beliefs and thought evolution of state is noteworthy for social
conducive to the existence of capitalist state. He scientists. However, as a practical predisposition it
explained in terms of conception of ideological has failed to live upto expectations. Nevertheless,
hegemony. As Bob Jessop remarks ‘‘the ability its optimistic vision of classless society continues
of the power bloc to maintain its hegemony to inspire millions of people. What matters however,
depends on its success in articulating ‘popular is to devise a systematic mechanism for its
democratic struggles’ into an ideology that sustains realization that is both; democratic and legitimate.
RELEVANCE OF MARXISM Fourthly, The revolutionary tinge of Marxism

is the cause of contention. Many believe that it
A serious question mark has been raised against
destroys the achievement of history in a single
the relevance of Marxism in the contemporary
stroke of violence. Rather, peaceful transfer of
times. It has been alleged that Marxism as a
power has become an accepted norm throughout
political theory has failed. The critics have clung the world.
to demise of Soviet Union as a point of reference.
Fifthly, The rigidity and formalism inherent
In fact the rivalry between Marxism and its in Marxist predisposition render it difficult to deal
rival liberalism is not new. It has been a relatively with changes that one inherently local and
old one. But, what is new in these attacks is the expedient. High degree of centralization and control
label of triumph of liberal democracy. The creates apathy among masses.
following points have been put forth in order to
Despite, its failure and crisis Marxism
decry the relevance of Marxism. continues to inspire millions of people throughout
Firstly : It has been alleged that Marxism is the globe. The reasons are :
essentially based on class analysis. But, today there Firstly, Class analysis continues to offer the
are complex, multiple and even overlapping most viable and pragmatic tool of analysis in a
identities that demands tools and techniques highly in egalitarian social world. Perhaps none
beyond those offered by Marxism. These points can deny that the world continues to be divided
have been raised by genesis of post-structuralist/ among ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots’. Though there are
post modernist framework of political analysis. other interests and categories but any broad
They decry the ideal of universalism and categorization in the political analysis inevitably
foundationalism having a epic of history. Rather involves the issues relating to class.
they emphasize fragmentation and contingency as Secondly, The revolutionary potential of Marx
the basis of every social experience. It has been continues to inspire people who have not benefited
hinted that political theory can no longer have from capitalist ventures. The mechanism of rising
grand vision culminating in the realization of a expectations is being sought to be achieved
communist or other society but different through method devised by Marx.
arrangements may be devised by people to suit Thirdly, The highly egalitarian tinge of
their requirements. This line of thinking is accruing Marxism remains the only best alternative to
out anti-universalistic thrust advocated by post liberalism. Regimes not benefiting from the
modernists. capitalist modernization may get lured to doctrines
Secondly, Francis Fukayama points out that that they may find more viable and attractive. As
the collapse of communism in Soviet Union and such, both people and the leadership in the
move towards market economy in China marked developing world seek to interpret Marxism in
the “triumph of liberal democracy as the only their own way to suit their local milieu.
nobler form of government. It has been alleged Fourthly, The global economic integration in
that if anything, Marxism does not present a viable its longer turn is bound to produce, situations of
future in an ever changing world. Its bureaucratic scarcity and inequality wherein the deprived and
centralism has been dubbed as a form of isolated people would look to Marxism.
totalitarianism.
Thirdly, The economic determinism of
Conclusion
Marxism neglect the autonomous role of politics Failure of Marxism-Communism and its current
and culture in collective life. Perhaps it fails to crises is seriously a handicap for Marxist. But, it
show as to why people respond differently to similar is survival of capitalism in its most robust form
situations of crisis and upheaval. that makes Marxism more pronouncing. Fukayama
may say that there are no alternative to liberal A. Gramsci : talked about the ideological
democracy, but reality reveals that Marxism hegemony of the bourgeoise and explained the
continues to inspire million who feel that they are continuance of capitalist system in west.
cheated by modern capitalistic enterprises and its
ethos. As such, Marxism is bound to bounce back Components of Ideology
the moment rises of capitalism become evident. Ray and Bhattacharya in their work ‘Political
Theory’ lists following structural components of
ROLE OF IDEOLOGY Ideology
What is Ideology? 1. its linkage with a grand philosophical
system
Ideology denotes a belief system. In its political
connotation, it refers to a set of comprehensive 2. its programme content derived from its
belief about politics that seek to condemn or justify philosophy
an existing system. Generally, it is action oriented. 3. its strategy of achieving the programmatic
Mark N. Hagopian in his ‘‘Regimes, Movements goal
and Ideologies’’ characterises it as ‘‘a 4. the coverage of its following (What groups
programmatic and rhetorical application of some or how much of the population subscribes
grandiose philosophical system, which arose men to it).
to political action and may provide strategic
guidance for that action.’’ Marxism, Nazism, Functions of Ideology
Fascism are prominent political ideologies. 1. provides tools to action
Importance of Ideology 2. helps in securing legitimacy of political
regimes
Although, the importance of Ideology has always
3. evaluates and influence the political
been cause of crucial concern in the realm of
systems
political theory but the Russian Revolution (1917)
and rise of Fascism in Europe led to renewed 4. helps in exercising controlling political
interest on study of political Ideology. process
5. help in channelling collective will
Different Views on Ideology 6. helps in mobilizing masses towards
Karl Marx : Equated Ideology with ‘‘false collective goal.
consciousness’’. In his analysis of the capitalist
mode of production, he came to the conclusion End of Ideology
that every dominant class at a given stage of Most of ideologies, according to Alan R. Ball ‘‘are
production makes its use to maintain itself in mainly consequences of an interactions to the
power. French Revolution of 1789 and the industrial
Lenin : saw it in neutral terms. He grasps its revolutions that dominated the nineteenth
practicality and held that even proletariat can have century.’’ But, immediately after the end of second
an ideology. world war, a debate ‘the end of ideology’ raged
Lukacs : labelled Marxism itself as an the western intellectual circle.
ideology. The debate started with a conference on ‘‘The
K. Mannheim : Contrasted ideology with Future of Freedom’’ held in Milan, Italy (1955). A
utopia, while the former is concerned with series of work followed this conference and all of
conservation, the latter is associated with change. them emphasised on unidimensional approach to
He also labelled Marxism to be an ideology. political issues. Most noteworthy was the
association of some of the erstwhile Marxists and to other mode of politics. It has also been alleged
sharing their views. that it was aimed at marking triumph of liberalism
over revolutionary politics of Marxism. Most lucid
Important Works statement comes from MacIntyre, who observes
Edward Shils : ‘‘The End of Ideology’’ (a that ‘End of Ideology’ theorists failed to entertain
report) one crucial alternative possibility; namely, that
Daniel Bell : End of Ideology the end of ideology far from making the end of
Ralph Dawendor : Class and Class Conflict in ideology was itself a key expression of the
Industrial Society ideology of the time and place where it arose.’’
S.M. Lipset : Political Man End of History : From ‘End of Ideology’
debate we have come at a new end. In recent times,
J.K. Galbraith : The New Industrial State
Francis Fukayama in his work ‘‘The End of History
W.W. Rustow : The Stages of Economic and the last man’’ (1992) announced the triumph
Growth : A Non-communist of liberal democratic state. He was a deputy director
Manifesto. of the state department's policy planning staff and
The views outlined by these writers include former analyst at the RAND corporation, USA.
Daniel Bell : Daniel Bell argued that Theoretical Basis : Fukayama proceeds on
ideologies are exhausted and we have reached a Kojeve's interpretation of Hegel's philosophy of
post industrial society. They are prone to similar History. For Hegel, history progresses with the
developments. What ever differences and problems contest of ideas reaching its termination in the
exist between them are purely of technical nature establishment of nation state symbolized as the
and do not require remedies in the doses of ‘‘march of god on earth’’. In his opinion, the demise
ideologies. of communist Russia and liberal market economy
Ralph Dahrendorf : Ralph Dahrendorf in China has led to the universalisation of western
advocated a conception of post-capitalist society liberal democracy as the final epoch of human
where the class structure has substantially government. It provides best response to human
undergone modification. natures inbuilt struggle for individual recognition.
S.M. Lipset : S.M. Lipset described the Critical Evaluation : He meted resistance from
division between idelogies of right and left. The Piore Hassner, Gertrude Himmefard, Irving Krispol.
problems are not so profound in western J. MacCarney in his ‘‘Shaping Ends : Reflections
democracies that require existence of ideology. on Fukayama’’ serious doubts his case.
Instead, problems are such that they can be better
dealt with administrative and technical Conclusion
innovations. In conclusion, it would be worth to agree with
J.K. Galbraith : J.K. Galbraith located a David McLellan. ‘‘Ideology may be an irretrievably
bureaucratic and technocratic organization in the fallen word-but then we live in a fallen society
structures of power. They are not capitalists. and until we mind it, we will continue to the
implicated in ideology. Although in principle there
Critical Evaluation
could be an end to ideology, it is certainly no
However, these themes received reversal at the where in sight-not even on the horizon. Ideology
hands of C. Wright Mills, Macpherson, Alisdair is an aspect of every stem of signs and symbols in
MacIntyre and Richard Titnus. It has been alleged so far as they are implicated in an symmetrical
that the notion ‘End of Ideology’ itself is an distribution of power and resources, and of which
ideology and are an attempt to mark subtle closure system is this not the case.’’
INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIAL JUSTICE Smith, Herbert Spencer, Jeremy Bentham were the
fore runners of this conception. In contemporary
Concept of Justice has remained a perennial times, Issiah Berlin, Milton Friedman, Robert
concern with which political theory has been Nozick and Hayek are main proponents of
associated since the time of Plato. Consequently, individuals justice. “It has been alleged by
the term has undergone multiple construction with these theorists that if people are left free to
the passage of time. With the growing influence of themselves, individual justice can be achieved in
ideal of democracy and socialism, the concept has the society.
been thoroughly transformed. The significance of View of Locke : In his “Two Treatises On
conception of justice can be simply analyzed from Civil Government” (1689) visualizes government
the fact that almost all noble virtues and egalitarian as a trust whose function is only to secure the
claims are justified in reference to it. History speaks natural right to life, liberty and property.
volumes for the changing concept of justice from View of Adam Smith : In his “Wealth of
the interest of the stronger to evolve a social order Nations” (1776) locates a natural attributes of trade
where working basis for social cooperation is based and commerce in human beings. He believes that
on grounds of fairness. individuals self interest automatically promotes
Different Views common interest. As such, he assigns three role to
the state :
Sophists : “Justice is the interest of the stronger.” (1) Protection
Plato : “Harmonious operation of the three (2) Justice
elements of human soul (wisdom, courage and
(3) Policy decisions.
temperance).”
View of Bentham : In his “Introduction to the
Aristotle : “Justice consists in treating equals
principles of Morals and Legislation” (1789) says
equally and unequals unequally.”
that every policy must ensure “Greatest number”.
St. Augustine : “The essence of justice is the For this purpose, the Government’s main function
relation between man and God from which right is to make those laws that do not interfere in free
relation between man and man follows.” activity of individuals.
Thomas Hobbes : “Justice consists in working View of Spencer : Contrasts political life with
according to the law.” Darwinian notion of natural selection. In his
John Locke : “Justice implies right opinion, states welfare measures are an obstacles
distribution of goods.” in the social evolution to see contradiction between
Marx : “Justice is achieved with the social justice and the individual justice.
elimination of class society and establishment of View of Berlin : In his “Two Concepts of
classless society.” Liberty” holds that if justice is to be achieved in
Radbruch : “Justice is equality.” a society, the individuals should be left to their
own discretion. The availability or non-availability
Individual Justice of means is entirely the individual’s concern and
The concept of individual justice primarily that the state has no responsibility of making the
indicates a viewpoint that places individual at the required means available to him.
centre of political philosophy. As such, the remains View of Hayek : In his “Law, Legislation and
a pivotal contribution of liberal—individualism. Liberty” (1976) holds that the Conception of Social
It says stress on enabling individuals to develop Justice is meaningless. Justice implies non-
their personal faculties wherein the role of state is interference of state. As he says “individuals differ
to be of a minimal interfere. John Locke, Adam in their talents and skills, and their equality before
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—4
the law is bound to create inequality in their actual 2. Justice is the first virtue of social institution.
position in terms of their material status”. If the institutions are just, their control
View of Friedman : In his “Capitalism and would be just and thus justice in society
Freedom” holds that any society should be judged would prevail.
by the extent of freedom enjoyed by family and
individuals. The “Government should take upon Conclusion
itself, only those functions which can not be While the conception of individual justice is
tackled by the state or which incur heavy primarily directed at liberty of individual, social
expenditure”. Its work is to sustain the market and justice implies some restrain on it. The latter is
not to control it. more concerned with the aspect of equality. John
View of Nozick : In his “Anarchy, State and Rawls have evolved a novel scheme to reconcile
Utopia” (1974) bases his view on those of Lockes. the competing claims of individual and social
He says “acquisition or transfer of property without justice to ensure working basis for social
Force or Fraud is just, but not otherwise”. To him, cooperation in modern liberal democratic societies.
the inequalities of wealth and power are the product
of individual differences in talents and efforts and THEORY OF SOCIAL CHANGE
that it would not be just to remove or reduce these
Of the different theories of social change, Marxism-
inequalities by transferring property.
Leninism is the most celebrated one. Such
Social Justice celebrations are partly on account of its
revolutionary tactics and partly reflects its vision
The concept of social justice may be traced to of a classless society. While Marx and Engels
Plato’s “Republic”. But, it remained absent till the
provided theoretical impetus to the theory of
industrial revolution in the nineteenth century.
social change, Lenin helped in actualizing the
The liberal thinkers like T.M. Green and J.S. Mill
idea. He reinterpreted Marxism to suit primarily
espoused the positive functions of the state which
Russian conditions. However, in doing so, he
gave way to the welfare state in the twentieth
gave a complete conception of revolutionary
century.
organization.
As opposed to liberalism, Marxism is primarily
committed to a conception of social justice. To LENIN
Marxists, economic equality is the basis of social
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin was born on April 10, 1870
justice. Which can be achieved only in a classless
in the town of Simbirsk, situated on the banks of
society. Its vision of classless society is marked by
river Volga. The tyrannical rule of the Tsarist
common ownership of property guided by the
government and oppression of the workers and
principle “from each according to his ability and
peasants by the capitalists shaped his life.
to each according to his need”.
Consequently, Lenin dedicated himself to the cause
It will abolish the private ownership of the
of the revolution of the working class from his
means of production and establish an egalitarian
early youth. He regarded Marxism as a guide
society.
to action and accordingly shaped the future of
In recent times, John Rawls has articulated a Russia.
conception of social justice within Liberal
Lenin fully believed in the economic
framework. To him,
interpretation of history. In his opinion capitalism
1. The problem of justice is the right had not collapsed because it was still in the highest
distribution of public good, viz., income, stage. He observed that ‘‘Imperialism is capitalism
wealth, rights, basis of self-respect etc. at that stage of development at which the
dominance of monopolies and finance capital is proletariat’’ as the most important ingredient of
established; in which the export of capital has Marxist thought. ‘‘The State and Revolution’’ deals
acquired pronounced importance, in which the with his revolutionary transformation. He devised
division of the world among the international trusts the institution of the Vanguard party or the workers
has begun; in which the division of all territories party to lead the revolution. It was to seize power
of the globe among the biggest capitalist powers and build a government. The members of the party
has been completed.’’ In his work ‘‘Imperialism : would be trained in the art of revolutionary tactics.
The Highest Stage of Capitalism,’’ he held the They would form the core of revolutionaries. His
view that it was the last stage of capitalism. This justification for a single party is observed in the
stage is characterised by a monopoly and finance following lines ‘‘in the U.S.S.R, there are only two
phase of capitalism. The capital itself becomes a classes, workers and peasants, whose interests far
commodity of export and two world becomes from being hostile–are, on the contrary, friendly.
enslaved to a few financiers. On this basis, he Hence, there is no ground in the U.S.S.R. for the
characterised first world war as war between existence of serveral parties, and consequently, for
financial groups for control of colonies. freedom for those parties.’’
Lenin puts faith in revolution and observes According to Lenin, the new state brought
‘‘The Proletariat needs state power, the centralized about by the revolution will be used for oppressing
organization of force, the organization of violence, and dismantling vestiges of capitalism. It will either
both for the purpose of crushing the resistance of way only when communism is established.
the exploiters and for the purpose of guiding the Meanwhile, the party would create conditions for
great mass of the population... in the work of the realization of communism. It was entrusted to
organizing the Socialist economy. By educating a reinterpret the Marxist-Leninist theory in its
worker’s party. Marxism educated the vanguard of organization. It was not accountable to anyone
the proletariat capable of directing and organizing and could not be questioned for its acts of
the new order, or being a teacher, guide and leader omission or commission. He opposed
of all toiling and exploited in the task of building decentralization as a principle for organization of
up their social life without the bourgeoisie and party. Rather, we favoured a hierarchical
against the bourgeoisie.’’ organization with strict centralized machinery.
However, Lenin saw in these changes a new These tenets of Lenin’s theory have been
epoch of national liberation movements in colonial popularized under the notion of ‘‘democratic
countries led by the oppressed and dependent centralism.’’ Representative system and
peoples and the proletariat of the capitalist parliamentary institutions were completely opposed
countries themselves. It was in this context, in his scheme of things.
Lenin welcomed the defeat of his own nation under
Stay.
Criticism
Lenin conceived capitalist expansion in its 1. Katsky and Bernstein does not favour
global manifestations. But, the nations can have Lenin’s democratic centralism or rule by
social change without being fully developed party. In particular, Katsky favours
capitalist economy. However, his theory has Parliamentary institutions and democratic
implication mainly in the context of Soviet Union. procedure of elections.
For his programme and policies were instrumental 2. Rosa Luxemburg is apprehensive of Lenin’s
in Soviet conditions. Vanguard party. Instead she believes that it
Lenin had complete faith in theory of class, will become handmaiden of the central
struggle and regarded ‘‘dictatorship of the committee geared to serve their interests.
3. Leo Trotsky says that minority revolution 4. Autonomy of Political Will : Mao did not
led by the Vanguard party is against the believe that only economic conditions can
basic premises of Marxism. bring about a leap from one mode of
Conclusion : In conclusion, it may be observed production to another. Rather he believed
that Lenin was leader of his own style. He showed that a political will is necessary for social
the courage and wisdom to translate Marxian change.
vision into a reality. Though, he failed in this task, 5. Emphasis on War : Mao was convinced
his theory combined with practice has innumerable that only through a war that capitalist
implications. It has influenced new theories of structures could be dismantled and
social change. communism could be installed. Perhaps, he
However, its lacunae must be kept in mind favoured war to peace because he saw the
while outlining its instrumentalities. latter as the continuation of present system
of capitalism.
MAO-TSE-TUNG 6. Transform Society : For Mao revolution is
Mao played a vital role in propagating communism not an instrument of power but to transform
in China. He combined Marxism-Leninism with the society. It would change both; the
the socio-economic structure of China. While Marx feudal and capitalist structures and install
had predicted socialist revolution in capitalist a socialist system.
societies, Mao brought it in a predominantly 7. Collaboration among peasant, worker,
agrarian society. It showed that class need not petty bourgeoisie and national
always be the crucial element of revolutionary bourgeoisie:
change. Mao thought that complete social change
Mao was a member of the Chinese Communist could not be achieved without the joint efforts of
Party. He was deeply displeased by the conditions the different segments of society.
of the peasants. To guide the socialist revolution Consequently, he favours role of workers,
is relied on following tactics. peasants, petty bourgeoisie and national
1. Armed Struggle and Guerilla Tactics : bourgeoisie.
Mao held that no revolution could be Permanent Revolution : Mao believed that
brought about without armed struggle and the socialist revolution was to be an ongoing affair.
guerilla activities. The revolutionaries will It was to last as long as there remained differences
have to be trained in these arts and the and distinction. Its motto was to abolish all class
peasants have a major role to play in it. divisions.
2. Workers Leadership : Even though Mao
emphasized on the role of peasantry, he Conclusion
was convinced that only the workers could It thus, turns out that the social change espoused
provide effective leadership. by Mao is context specific. However, it has wider
3. Role of Village and Peasants : Since the implications in the sense that it does not emphasize
revolutionaries predominantly living in any deterministic outlook.
villages were weak, Mao laid stress on them. It has underlined the importance of will and
As regards the role of peasants, he observed commitment on the part of people to transform
‘‘The gigantic struggles of the peasants— their society. Perhaps, the continuity of change
the peasants uprisings and wars–alone brought by Mao's theory and practice is unique in
formed the real motive force of historical many ways. It still stands as a refutation to right
development in China’s feudal society.’’ wing advocates of social change.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Match the ideas on the relationship between 3. Man as an individual is the centre of the
ethics and politics given in List-I with their study of politics. Each individual
progenitors given in List-II and mark the becomes a member of society to further
correct answer from the codes given below his own interests. Different individuals
the Lists seek their interests as members of
List-I List-II different groups.
A. Politicsis a sub- 1. Catlin 4. Politics is essentially an instrument of
division of ethics conflict – resolution.
B. Ethics prescribes 2. Merriam, Lasswell Which of the above – encapsulate the liberal
as to which among and Margen view of politics?
the serveral courses (a) Only 3 (b) 1 and 2
are desirable while (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3, and 4
politics prescribes 4. “The ultimate cause of all social changes
which among the and political revolutions are to be sought
several are feasible not in the minds of men, in their increasing
C. Politics need to be 3. Plato insight in to eternal truth and Justice but in
freed of all ethical changes in the mode of production and
considerations. exchange”–
Codes: Engels.
A B C The above statement reflects:
(a) 3 2 1 (a) Disjunction between political science
(b) 1 2 3 and economics.
(c) 1 3 2 (b) Harmony between psychology and
(d) 3 1 2 political science.
(c) Complementary nature of relationship
2. Aristotle is rightly regarded as ‘the father of between political science and
political science’ because: economics.
(a) Prior to him, political thinking was (d) Contradiction between political science
virtually absent in the world. and psychology.
(b) He combined the ‘practical’ and
‘theoretical’ facets of politics 5. Consider the following statement:
“ .......... the notion of politics does not come
(c) It was he who first brought to bear on
from heaven. It does not come Oak trees. It
political phenomena the patient analysis
is not a gift of any angel. It is a human
and unbiased research which are the
venture centred in man and created by man”.
proper marks and virtues of scientific
The above statement is made by:
inquiry. (a) Ramsay Mcdonald
(d) It was he who made the first effort to (b) Heinz Eulau
grant political science the shape of a (c) Robert A. Dahl
separate academic discipline. (d) Aristotle
3. Consider the following statements: 6. Political science first began with the Greeks.
1. Politics must promote individual and Which of the following are true in this
common well – being context?
2. State exists for the people and not the 1. The term ‘politics’ is derived from the
people for the state. Greek term ‘Polis’ which mean the
‘city-state’ and political science in 8. Who among the following emphasised the
Greece was treated as the Science of the element of ‘power’ in the study of politics?
city state. (a) Machiavelli, Locke and Bentham
2. Greeks were highly politically conscious (b) Machiavelli, Hobbes and Max Weber
compared to the people of other (c) Hobbes, Rousseau and Hegel
contemporary civilizations. So they were (d) Hobbes, Rousseau and Mortan Kaplan
the first to generate knowledge on
9. In the course of the growth of political
politics.
science, American scholars have focussed
3. Although Greece was a small country it
their attention on:
was a land of enlightenment in ancient
(a) Modelling political science after the
Europe. Almost all branches of
knowledge originated in Greece. fashion of physical sciences
4. Politics in ancient Greece emerged as an (b) Replacing the social content of political
instrument to serve as a moral guide to science with mathematical tools
the ruling section of the society. (c) Search for more comprehensive scope,
Select the correct answer from below: for realism, for precision and for
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1,3 and 4 intellectual order
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3 (d) Breaking, the integrity of political
science as a discipline into several sub-
7. Which of the following are valid in the disciplines like political geography etc
context of the growth of political science as
a discipline? 10. According to Marx, Politics is:
1. The traditional understanding of (a) a devise to enhance class contradictions
political science, as the study of state (b) an instrument of class domination
and government, remained valid until (c) a mode of ensuring social harmony
the dawn of the twentieth century. (d) a process aimed at welfare of the
2. New researches and employment of new dominant class
methodologies made the traditional 11. Consider the following statements:
understanding of politics completely 1. Political institutions and activities are
redundant. an outgrowth of the prevailing economic
3. By the beginning of the twentieth system.
century, other social sciences began to 2. The conflicting economic interests are
flourish on their own, whereas political the motive force behind all politics.
science which was described as master 3. So long as society is divided into two
science by Aristotle remained confined classes, state and politics will continue
to the study of government with a heavy to be used as the tools of the dominant
thrust on legal aspects. class for the suppression of the
4. In view of the intellectual stagnation in dependent class.
political science new academic 4. There are many groups in society which
beginnings were sought to be made by seek to protect the interests of their
political scientists led by George Catlin, members against the conflicting interests
Charles Merraim, Almond, Powell, of the competing groups.
G. Bingham and others in the early Which of the above statements encapsulate
twentieth century. the Marxist view of politics? Select the
Select the correct answer from the following: correct answer from below:
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (a) 1 and 3 (b) 1, 3, and 4
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4
12. Assertion (A): According to Marx political of the means of production to safeguard their
institutions and activities are an outgrowth interests.
of the prevailing economic system, especially Reason (R): The liberal and Marxian views
the mode of production. of politics supplement one another.
Reason (R): The conflicting economic (a) Both A and R are true and R is the
interests are the motive force behind all correct explanation of A.
politics. (b) Both A and R are true but R is not a
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
correct explanation of A (c) A is true but R is false.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a (d) A is false but R is true.
correct explanation of A 16. “Politics is that part of social science which
(c) A is true but R is false treats the foundations of state and the
(d) A is false but R is true principles of government.” Who made this
13. Assertion (A): Politics cannot be divorced statement?
from ethics. (a) Willoughby (b) Seeley
Reason (R): No government can do anything (c) Paul Janet (d) S. L. Wasby
which is against the fundamentals of the 17. Who among the following was the first writer
moral standards of the people. If it does, it’d in the western world who sharply separated
cease to get obedience from them. politics from ethics?
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the (a) Plato (b) Heymans
correct explanation of A. (c) Machiavelli (d) Foy
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a 18. According to Augustus Comte, the principal
correct explanation of A. methods by which political phenomena can
(c) A is true but R is false. be collected and classified include
(d) A is false but R is true. (a) Observation (b) Experiment
14. Assertion (A): According to Robert A. Dahl, (c) Comparison (d) All of the above
an individual is unlikely to get involved in 19. Match List - I with List-II and select the
politics if he places a low valuation on the correct answer using the codes given below
rewards to be gained from political the lists:
involvement relative to the rewards expected List-I List-II
from other kinds of human activity. A. Hegel 1. Juridical
Reason (R): Man is by nature an opportunist B. Austin 2. Sociological
and is only occasionally politically C. Maclver 3. Descriptive
conscious. D. Garner 4. Meta physical
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the Codes:
correct explanation of A. A B C D
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a (a) 1 2 3 4
correct explanation of A. (b) 4 1 2 3
(c) A is true but R is false. (c) 4 3 2 1
(d) A is false but R is true. (d) 4 1 3 2
15. Assertion (A): While liberals say that the 20. Out of the given statements according to Sir
aim of politics is to resolve conflicts, John Seely which best describe the relation
maintain order, serve the common good and between political science and history.
safeguard the right and liberties of the (a) History without political science has no
individual, the Marxists say that politics fruit and political science without
reflects class struggle. It is used by the owners history has no root
(b) History without political science is a 24. According to Kautilya, the principles of
study incomplete, turn cated, as on the morality
other hand, political science without (a) should not be taken into consideration
history is hollow and baseless in politics
(c) Politics is vulgar when not liberalised (b) should be taken into consideration in
by history and history fades in to mere politics
literature when it loses sight of its relation (c) are the quintessence of politics
to politics (d) none of the above
(d) All of the above 25. The following definition “State is territorial
21. Which of the following theories of the origin society divided into government and subjects
of the State was accepted by liberalism? claiming within its allotted physical area, a
(a) Pluralist Theory supremacy over all other institutions” was
(b) Marxist Theory given by
(a) Prof. Holland (b) Prof. Laski
(c) Historical Theory
(c) Plato (d) Maclver
(d) Institutional Theory
26. The essential attributes of the State are
22. “ It is not the consciousness of man which
(a) Population, Territory, Sea, Government.
determines the material conditions of life (b) President, Sovereignty, Political Parties,
but it is material conditions of life which Territory.
determine their consciousness” - This (c) Economic Resources, Population,
statement is given by Government and Sovereignty.
(a) Gettell (b) Karl Marx (d) Territory, Population, Government and
(c) Galbraith (d) Catlin Sovereignty.
23. Consider the following important points of 27. Plato believed that the population of an ideal
distinction between political science and state should be
ethics and choose the correct answer using (a) 5040 (b) 4050
the codes given below: (c) 5400 (d) 4500
1. The subject-matter of politics is the 28. Which of the following statements are
political behaviour of man but ethics is correct?
concerned with his ethical behaviour. 1. By virtue of its sovereign authority, the
2. Political Science is normative, practical modern state claims supremacy in
and descriptive but ethics is mainly internal matters and freedom from
normative and theoretical. control of external governments.
3. Political Science is concerned with ‘is’ 2. An economically weak state ought to
and ‘ought’, but ethics is primarily obey the economically strong states thus
concerned with ‘ought’. dispossessing its external sovereignty.
4. Political Science is concerned with man 3. Sovereignty of a state is decided by a
as a moral being but ethics deals with world organisation.
man as a citizen. 4. Every state is legally equal to other states
5. Political Science is concerned primarily irrespective of military power or
with the external aspect of man but ethics economic strength.
is concerned with the inner development (a) 1 and 4 (b) 1 and 3
of human beings. (c) 4 and 2 (d) 2 and 3
Codes: 29. Who gave the Organic Theory of the State?
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (a) Plato (b) Hobbes
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1, 3 and 4 (c) J. S. Mill (d) Marx
30. Which one of the following statement is (a) It is a sort of a protest movement against
associated with Aristotle? the inadequacies of conventional
(a) A State is an association of the families political science
and their common possessions, (b) It has made the individual the centre of
governed by a supreme power and by attention in the study of political
reason. phenomena
(b) A State is a union of families and villages (c) It lays emphasis on traditional outlook
having a perfect and self sufficient life. (d) It is pragmatic, catholic and eclectic
(c) A State is a particular portion of mankind 36. Who among the following defines political
viewed as an organised unit. science as the study of “the act of human
(d) A State is a particular organised and social control” or the “study of control
community with a definite territory. relationship of wills”?
31. Find the correct statement. (a) Robson (b) Pollock
(a) Nationality and nation are synonyms. (c) Maitland (d) Catlin
(b) Nationality, nation and the state are
37. ------- is the parent science of all the social
synonyms.
sciences.
(c) A nation is a nationality which has
(a) Sociology (b) History
organised itself into a political body
(c) Philosophy (d) None of the above
either independent or desiring to be
independent. 38. Which of the following deals with morality
(d) Nationality, nation and society are and formulates rules which should influence
synonyms. the behaviour of man while living in
society?
32. According to .......... and ......... “A state is that
(a) Philosophy (b) Ethics
agency in a society that is authorised to
(c) Sociology (d) None of the above
exercise control within a territory.”
(a) Maclver, Laski 39. Ethics is concerned with man as a man and
(b) Hegel, Kant as such, it is prior to :
(c) Anderson, Parker (a) Society (b) Science
(d) Bradley, Lindsay (c) Political Science (d) History
33. Choose the most appropriate word or state- 40. Who among the following prominent writers
ment, synonym with the term ‘Nationality.’ has given psychological explanations of
(a) A group of people bounded within a almost all the political problems?
territory having the same religion. (a) Le Bon (b) Baldwin
(b) A State. (c) Graham Wallas (d) All of the above
(c) A group of people having the same 41. Political scientists have borrowed such ideas
religion as ‘cultural relativism’, ‘social evolution’,
(d) A group of people who are united by ‘cultural diffusion’ from :
identity of origin, race, language or by (a) Anthropology (b) Sociology
common traditions or history (c) Philosophy (d) Economics
34. Who propounded the view that the state is 42. Who among the following said that politics
“The actualisation of the ethical idea”? has its roots, psychologically, in the study
(a) Barker (b) James Mill of mental habits and vocational activities of
(c) Hegel (d) J. S. Mill mankind?
35. Which of the following is not correct (a) Barker (b) Plato
regarding Behaviouralism? (c) Bryce (d) Wallas
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—5
43. Ivor Brown points out that economics deals 51. Kautilya wrote his Arthasastra on the subject
mainly with ------- and politics is concerned of :
with -------- (a) History (b) Practical politics
(a) Wealth, Government (c) Religion (d) Science
(b) Business, State 52. Lord James Bryce is considered to be the
(c) Commodities, Human beings best advocate of the :
(d) Production, Administration
(a) Experimental method
44. Which of the following views believes that (b) Historical method
the state originated with class division and (c) Observational method
class struggle in society? (d) Comparative method
(a) Liberal view (b) Marxist view
53. The English word ‘politics’ originates from
(c) Pluralist view (d) Traditional view
three Greek words like :
45. Guild and Palmer strongly pleaded that the (a) Polis, Polity, Politico
subject of politics should be : (b) Polis, Polity, Politeia
(a) The political parties (c) Polity, Political, Polis
(b) To secure obedience (d) Politeia, Pol, Polis
(c) Negative
(d) Power instead of the state 54. Buckle said, one of “in the present state of
knowledge, politics, far from being a science,
46. The Father of modern sociology, A. Comte, is one of the most -------- of all arts”.
portrayed society as a potentially harmonious (a) Forward (b) Efficient
and ordered structure in which all social (c) Backward (d) Obedient
classes.
(a) worked for social change 55. Leacock says that without at least an
(b) worked for the common good unconscious political science, ------ will lose
(c) worked for the individual its main significance.
(d) worked for capitalists (a) Geography (b) Economics
(c) Sociology (d) History
47. Socialist states are based on Marxian
ideology and are known as the : 56. Who conceived sociology as the all-inclusive
(a) Blue world (b) Green world Social Science?
(c) Red world (d) Yellow world (a) Lenin (b) Augustus Comte
(c) Lipson (d) Garner
48. According to Easton, which discpline does
the given statement fit with “we must 57. W.H.R. Rivers in his psychology and politics
recognise---- that ulitimately all social life is and Harold Lasswell in his psychopathology
interdependent and as a result, that it is and politics present a study of politics based
artificial to isolate any set of ---- relations on :
from the whole for special attention.” (a) Political premises
(a) Economic (b) Political (b) Economic premises
(c) Psychological (d) Social (c) Psychological premises
49. Who has used the concept of “Hegemony”? (d) Social premises
(a) Laski (b) MacIver 58. Who among the following appreciated the
(c) Gramsci (d) Marx normative aspect of man’s life in politics?
50. MacIver writes, “force always disrupts unless (a) Kant, Hegel, Green
it is made subservient to ---- will ----” (b) Garner, Joad, Bryce
(a) Political (b) Social (c) Barker, Catlin, Wilson
(c) Common (d) Partial (d) Seeley, Garner, Lipset
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—5-II
59. In Sociology the unit of investigation is 68. Lasswell defined political science as “an
the: empirical discipline, as the study of the
(a) Conscious (b) Socius shaping and sharing of power” in his book
(c) Ardous (d) Data (a) Modern Democracies
60. Charles Merriam, Lasswell and Morgenthau (b) Power and Society
have preferred to make politics free from all (c) Politics and the Social Sciences
------ considerations (d) Elements of Politics
(a) Social (b) Ethical 69. Who among the following applied the
(c) Political (d) Psychological concept of culture to the study of social
systems and presented the famous four fold
61. Plato and modern idealists have accepted
functional analysis of the social systems?
the state as a/an ------ institution.
(a) Giddings
(a) Social (b) Economic
(b) Talcott Parsons
(c) Ethical (d) Political
(c) Lipset
62. According to traditional view, political (d) Max Weber
science is a study of the ------ in its past,
70. According to --------, “the application of the
present and future aspects.
psychological clue to the reddles of human
(a) Government (b) Society
activity has indeed become the fashion of
(c) State (d) Power
the day. If our forefathers thought
63. Lord Bryce claims that “Political Science biologically, we think psychologically”.
stands midway between -------- and -------- (a) Wallas (b) Woodworth
between the past and the present”. (c) Bryce (d) Ernest Barker
(a) Sociology, History
71. Who among the following sociologists has
(b) History, Politics
made influential contributions in the field of
(c) History, Geography
political science?
(d) Sociology, Psychology
(a) Durkheim (b) Parsons
64. According to Weber, -------- actions are
(c) Merton (d) All of the above
motivated by the desire to acquire more and
more ------ 72. Which of the following is the study and
(a) Political, rights (b) Human, power story of man’s march towards political growth
(c) Social, freedom (d) Economic, power and development of social, economic and
cultural institutions and organisations?
65. Plato considered politics a sub-division of
(a) Sociology (b) Philosophy
(a) Political Science (b) Sociology
(c) Ethics (d) History (c) History (d) Anthropology
66. A study of psychology, particularly of ------ 73. President Lowell considered politics ‘a/an -
psychology, is of inestimable value to the -- and not an experimental science’.
student of Political Science. (a) Moral (b) Observational
(a) Ethical (b) Social (c) Social (d) All of the above
(c) Economic (d) Historical 74. Who among the following regarded political
67. Who among the following said that “True science a sub-division of Ethics and the
politics cannot take a single step forward function of the State was to produce virtuous
unless it has first done homage to morals”? people?
(a) Acton (b) Lasswell (a) Aristotle (b) Socrates
(c) Kant (d) Gettell (c) Plato (d) Garner
75. Who among the following emphasized the 80. Match List I (Definitions) with List II
sociological evolution of the state and (Authors) and select the correct answer using
political institutions? the codes given below the lists :
(a) Henry (b) Morgan List I List II
(c) Laski (d) Both (A) and (B) A. Politics is both a 1. David Easton
science and an art
76. The present sociological impact on the study B. Politics is the 2. Lasswell and
of political science can be traced back to - authoritative Kaplan
--- whose ideas influenced areas such as allocation of values
administrative theory and political analysis. that are binding on
(a) Max Weber (b) Giddings the society
(c) Lipset (d) Talcott Parsons C. Politics is the study 3. Michael Curtis
of the shaping and
77. In which of the following, the Departments sharing of power
of Political Science and Economics are D. Politics is organised 4. Treitschke
combined together? dispute about power
(a) London School of Economics and and its use
Political Science Codes :
(b) Canadian School of Economics and A B C D
Political Science (a) 1 3 4 2
(c) American School of Economics and (b) 4 1 2 3
Political Science (c) 4 1 3 2
(d) Both (a) and (b) (d) 3 4 1 2
81. What Philosophy is to the mental sciences,
78. “The art of looking for trouble, finding it
Sociology is to the social sciences?
whether it exists or not, diagnosing it wrongly
1. Both possess an all embracing character
and applying the wrong remedy”. Who 2. Philosophy and sociology are sister
among the following gave the above subjects
definition of the politics? 3. Sociology and philosophy are inversely
(a) Ernest Barker (b) Ernest Benn related to mental sciences and social
(c) Frederick Pollock (d) David Easton sciences respectively
79. Which of the following pairs are correct? 4. While philosophy is the ‘mother’
Select the correct answer from the codes given discipline with respect to mental
below: sciences, sociology is the same with
1. Jellinek : Political Science and regard to social sciences.
Government Which of the following are correct?
2. Gilchrist : Principles of Political (a) 1 and 4 (b) 3 and 4
Science (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
3. Pollock : An Introduction to the 82. Who among the following pioneered the
History of the science of integration of the study of Political Science
Politics with Psychology?
4. Francis : Games Nations Play (a) S.M Lipset (b) Walter Bagehot
Fukuyama (c) Eric Voeglin (d) Harold Laski
Codes : 83. Who among the following advocated that
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 the central idea of the Political Science is
(c) Only 1 (d) 1, 2 and 3 power?
(a) David Apter (b) Amos 89. Which of the following pairs are not
(c) Max Weber (d) Runciman Correctly matched?
84. “I am not a part of a great symphony in 1. Introduction to : David E. Apter
which I realise myself only as an incident in Political Analysis
the motif of the whole. I am unique. I am 2. Systematic Politics : G.E.G. Catlin
separate. I am myself.” 3. In Defence of Politics : Bernard Crick
The above statement is made by : 4. The idea of Politics : Carl J. Friedrich
(a) MacIver (b) Austin Select the correct answer from below :
(c) Bryce (d) Laski (a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 4
85. Match List I (Works) with List II (Authors) (c) Only 4 (d) 1, 2 and 4
and select the correct answer using the codes 90. Harold Lasswell’s “Politics : Who Gets, What,
given below it : When and How” discusses :
List I List II (a) Distributive justice
(Works) (Authors) (b) Scientific method and Value-relativism
A. The social and 1. Robert Dahl (c) Social implications of Capitalist Politics
Political thought (d) Fundamentals of Political-participation
of Karl Marx
B. An Introduction to 2. Milton Friedman 91. “To teach the theory of the state to men who
comparative have not learned the first principles of
Government sociology is like teaching astronomy or
C. Who Governs? 3. Shlomo Avineri thermodynamics to men who have not learned
D. Capitalism and 4. Jean Blondel the Newtonian Laws of motion”.
Freedom The above statement is made by :
Codes : (a) Giddings in “Principles of Sociology”
A B C D (b) Stuart Rice in ‘Quantitative Methods in
(a) 4 3 1 2 Politics’
(b) 3 4 2 1 (c) Kaplan in ‘Power and Society’
(c) 3 4 1 2 (d) Arnold Brecht in ‘Political Theory’
(d) 4 3 2 1
92. The work ‘Power and Society’ is co-authored
86. Who has termed the modern state as an by :
“Industrial State”? (a) Greenstein, Polsby and Nelson
(a) W.A. Robson (b) S.M. Lipset (b) Rieselbach and Balds
(c) H.D. Lasswell (d) J.K. Galbraith (c) Girth and Mills
87. Which of the following pairs is not correctly (d) Harold Lasswell and Abraham Kaplan
matched?
93. The two remarks – “Political science is the
(a) New Deal Programme : Roosevelt
science of state” and “Political science begins
(b) Black Shirt Movement : Mussolini
(c) Partyless Democracy : and ends with the state” have, respectively
Jayaprakash been made by :
Narayan (a) Garner and Gilchrist
(d) Glasnost and Perestroika : (b) Laski and Gilchrist
Borisyeltsin (c) Gettel and Laski
(d) Gettel and Garner
88. Who among the following employed a
biological method in the study of Politics? 94. The Keynote of liberalism is –
(a) Lord Acton (b) Milton (a) Individual
(c) T.H. Green (d) Herbert Spencer (b) Liberty
(c) Liberty of the individual 98. The institution common to Nepal, Saudi
(d) Personality Arabia and Sweden is :
95. The work ‘Marxism and Politics’ is authored (a) Ombudsman
by : (b) Monarchy
(a) N. Poulantzas (c) Election commission
(b) C. Wright Mills (d) Local JudiciaryA
(c) Ralph Miliband 99. Who among the following considers the state
(d) Antonio Gramsci as the sole source of the right to use
96. Who held the view that society is federal in Violence?
character? (a) Marx (b) Weber
(a) MacIver (b) Laski (c) Kant (d) Hegel
(c) Bentham (d) Hannah Arendt 100. A Scientific Sociological evolution of the
97. Who made the statement that, “in the present state has been discussed by :
state of knowledge, politics far from being a (a) MacIver in The Modern State
science is one of the most backward of all (b) Engels in Anti-Duhring
arts”? (c) MacIver in the Web of Government
(a) Henry Maine (b) Roucek (d) Engels in the Origin of the Family,
(c) Buckle (d) Maitland Private Property and the State
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(d) (c) (d) (c) (d) (b) (c) (b) (c) (b)
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
(c) (b) (a) (c) (c) (c) (c) (d) (b) (d)
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
(c) (b) (a) (a) (b) (d) (a) (a) (a) (b)
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
(c) (c) (d) (c) (c) (d) (a) (b) (c) (d)
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
(a) (c) (c) (b) (d) (b) (c) (d) (c) (c)
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
(b) (c) (b) (c) (d) (b) (c) (a) (b) (b)
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
(c) (c) (b) (b) (c) (c) (b) (c) (b) (b)
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
(d) (d) (c) (b) (c) (d) (a) (b) (b) (b)
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
(b) (b) (c) (d) (c) (d) (d) (d) (b) (d)
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
(a) (d) (d) (b) (c) (b) (c) (b) (b) (d)
lll
Unit
2
Political Thought
PLATO Nature of Greek Society

Greek society was plagued by violence and
Life and Time selfishness among the ignorant and incompetent
According to Ernest Barker, “Political thought politicians. The fierce spirit of factionalism often
begins with the Greeks. Its origin is connected created instability of government in the city state.
with the clear and calm rationalism of Greek mind”. Such conditions in Plato’s opinion, were due to
They were the first to challenge supremacy of discrepancy between economic interests between
religion and curious to know everything. owners and non-owners of property.
Plato, the disciple of Socrates and the teacher Society exhibited high degree of conservatism.
of Aristotle is one of the greatest political thinkers There was hardly any consideration for reason.
produced by ancient Greece. He adopted the Citizenship was confined to rich make population.
method of dialogues (dialectic) and lectures to Slaves were an important component of Greek
propound his philosophy. economy. The belief in the superiority of race
Plato was born in 427 B.C. in a noble Athenian influenced the thought of the period.
family, some four years after the outbreak of the In the political realm, lottery was used to
Peloponnesian war and just over a year after the political office. Politics was used for economic
death of Perides. gain. The state itself was divided as Plato says “in
His period (427 B.C. to 347 B.C.) was an era every state there were two separate states”.
of great historical importance. The important
developments of his life time were the defeat of IMPACTS
Athens in wars against Spartas, the establishment Schools Prior to Plato : Prior to Plato, there
of tyrannical rule of reactionaries, execution of existed some school of thought which had
his master (Socrate) by reactionaries. The prevailing profound impact on Plato’s thinking.
condition in the society was inhuman and
unsatisfactory. The Sophists
He grew up in a city at war: “The They were a group of teachers who gave practical
Peloponnesian war”, which began just before his education and left a deep impact on the history
birth and lasted untill he was twenty three. It ended and thought of the Greeks. They believed in the
in defeat and humiliation of Athens and in the selfishness of man and considered state as an
break up of the confederation. artificial contrivance. They completely ignored the
39
moral considerations. They held that force was the imbibed the spirit of mathematic as a philosophic
basis of all political authority and the political discipline.
authority was justified in being selfish and even Thus, the prevailing state of anarchy in
tyrannical. Athenian society had profound impact on Plato.
Similarly, teaching of sophists and his meeting
Socrates
with pythagorian thinkers influenced his outlook.
Plato’s association with Socrates was the But, it was Plato’s association with Socrates and
outstanding fact of his life. It was from Socrates execution of his master that substantially moulded
that Plato derived what remained the central focus his life. Perhaps it won’t be unfair to say that in
of his thought—the idea that virtue is knowledge. essence many of stances are Socratic. Barker
He saw a close relationship between ethics and acknowledges ‘‘the image of his teacher never
politics. faded from his mind and he actually represents the
Socrates sentence to death at the age of 70 on greatest legacy bequeathed by Socrates to
the charge of corrupting the youth was turning mankind”.
point in Plato’s life. The family took decision to Plato’s Works : The Republic, The Statesman,
abandon a political career that was most suited to The Laws.
him.
Socrates deductive and dialectical reason THEORY OF JUSTICE
together with following three doctrines were
Like many other concepts in political science, the
adopted by Plato.
concept of justice has been one greatest
1. Socrates dictum that virtue is knowledge contribution of ancient Greece. Plato, one of the
2. His theory of Reality greatest political philosopher has made a significant
3. His theory of knowledge contribution to the development of notion of
From his theory of knowledge, Plato built up justice. His work ‘Republic’ has been titled as “on
his whole structure of rule of philosophy, his ideal concerning justice”. The impact of his work is
state and philosopher king. From Socrates doctrine such that most often scholars aims to imbibe the
of reality came the concept of “idealism” in spirit of this classic in developing their own notion
philosophy and political thought. The outwardly of justice.
things are merely the superficial appearance of To Plato : “Justice is having and doing what
things. They are not real and permanent but is one’s own”, and
ephesmal and phenomenal in nature. According to
“A just man is a man just in the right place
Socrates, ‘Beauty exists without a beautiful thing—
doing his best and giving full equivalent of what
its outward manifestation.’ From Socrates idea, he
thinks of an ideal state “city in Heaven”. By the he receives”.
theory of knowledge Socrates meant real Critique of Prevailing Theories
knowledge, i.e. permanent, scientific, mathe-
matically true and based on reason. For Plato, it is To develop his own theory of justice, Plato
the philosophers, the embodiment of real discusses the prevailing theories of justice. Three
knowledge and not the slaves of opinions and of them are :
superstitions, who have the commanding position 1. Theory of Cephalus: Traditional:
in his ideal state. Cephalus considers justice as speaking the
truth and paying what was due to gods and
Pythagoras
men. This discussion assumes that justice
Plato’s visit (388-387 B.C.) to Italy proved to be is an art which gives good to friends and
a factor of crucial importance. From him, Plato evil to enemies instead.
Political Thought l 41
Plato holds that true justice means “doing remark “this triplicity of the soul, whatever its
good to all and harm to none”. Furthermore source is the foundation of much of the republic”.
he says that it is not always possible to
distinguish between the enemies and the How it can be Achieved
friends. Plato argues that theory of Cephalus Justice for the society can be realised if each group
treats justice individualistic, rather than a performs the function, it is best suited to perform
social concept. Instead, concept of justice without interfering in the affairs of others. Thus
should have an universal application. By justice implies a sort of specialisation and the
treating justice as an art, it is made an principle of non-interference and harmony. Justice
instrument of those wielding power. is the bond which holds a society together, a
2. Theory of Thrasymachus: Radical: harmonious union of individuals, each of whom
Thrasymachus represents the outlook of has found his life work in accordance with his
radical sophists. According to him, natural fitness and his training. It is both a Public
“Justice is the interest of stronger”. and Private virtue because the highest good both
at the state and its members is hereby conserved.
It believes in the prince, “might is right”.
Plato rejects it outrightly and holds that Basic principle of theory of Justice
justice can never be the interest of stronger.
1. It means functional specialisation. In it each
The government is an art and it aims at
component of the state performs the
perfection of only act. Moreover, justice is
functions, it is best suited to perform, justice
always better than injustice and a just man
can be ensured in the society.
is wiser, stronger and happier than an unjust
2. It implies non-interference. Only when no
man because he also knows his limitations.
component of the state interferes with the
3. Theory of Glaucon: Pragmatic : He treats sphere of other’s duty that unity can be
justice as an artificial thing—a product of ensured. Moreover, only by doing so a
social convention. This theory is the society can benefit from the work of an
precursor of the social contract theory. In individual.
the state of nature there was no justice, or
3. It implies a principle of harmony. Three
state. Many weaknesses combined together
human virtue, viz., wisdom, courage and
and created the state. Justice is the child of
temperance representing three classes are
fear and is based on the necessity of the harmonised by the justice.
weaker and not the interest of the stronger.
Plato criticises it on the ground that it Criticism
considers justice as something external or
1. Based on moral principles, but lacks legal
an importation. He holds that justice is
sanction.
rooted in human mind. Though it is located
in both, the individual and the state, but 2. Three-fold, clear-cut division of classes is
encompasses it in larger quantity and in impractical.
visible form. 3. Neglects the producing classes concerns in
participation of government.
Plato’s Theory of Justice 4. Is a case for absolutism.
As a perfect dialectician, Plato contrasts the three 5. For Popper “Open society and its enemies”,
elements of state, viz., rulers, soldiers and farmers Platonic justice gives rise to totalitarianism
with three elements of human mind, viz., reason, and ignores humanitarian principles like
spirit and appetite. Each representing the three liberty, equality etc.
attributes of human mind. This led Prof. Barker to 6. Individuals are made a means to an end.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—6
Conclusion Athenian system of education, guardian parents

were left entirely to give education to their children
Despite limitations one can not refuse to appreciate
in the manner they liked. The females were not
platonic eyesight into philosophical questions. If
allowed to have the education which the males
we take cognizance of his time, many of Plato’s
had. The Spartan system was controlled by the
criticism would fall flat, the greatest contribution
state. The children were separated from their parents
is that he visualised a prospect for peace and order
at the age of four and were placed under the care
in a society where some form of political crisis was
of perfects. The state provided them education in
the order of the day.
harmony with social conditions. Females were also
THEORY OF EDUCATION given the same education. Plato made an attempt
to combine these two systems of education with
Plato is known for his concept of justice not only some changes in higher education.
because he outlined a novel philosophical scheme
of justice but, he also envisaged a comprehensive FEATURES OF PLATONIC EDUCATION
scheme by which ends of justice can be achieved.
1. State controlled system of compulsory
He advocated two kinds of means—positive and
education : He does not favour the idea of
spiritual method of education and temporal
leaving education in the hands of parents.
method of communism of property and wives.
He considered education as positive means
However, of the two, he attaches more importance
by which the ruler could mould the character
to education.
of the people and promote spirit of unselfish
In the words of Barker, it is “an attempt to devotion towards their duties. By making
cure a mental malady by mental medicine”. Plato it compulsory, he thought that all citizens
felt that the various evils playing in the society would develop their mental faculties and
could be rooted out by proper education and become valuable unit of state.
regards it as spiritual remedy. The importance
2. Favour education, both for men and
which Plato attached to education in his ideal
women : He was in favour women holding
state is evident from the fact that he devoted a
public offices like men. It is for this step of
good portion of the second book of Republic to
his, that he is regarded as a revolutionary.
this topic. Rousseau remarked that “Republic is
hardly a political work at all, but is finest treatise 3. Meant for artisans as well as peasants :
on education that ever was written.” Commenting Though Plato does not make a clear
on the importance of Plato’s theory of Education, mention in this regard, it is quite implied
Sabine says, “So striking is the part played in from his statement that “Men of copper can
Plato’s ideal state by education that some consider be made into men of silver and even of
it to be the chief topic of Republic.” gold, if they possess their attributes.”
It is closely interlinked with his concept of 4. Strict censorship of all literary and artistic
justice, to him, there are two dimensions of works : He wanted any right type of
education. Individual and Social. While on the literature should reach the hands of the
one hand it helps individual realise “virtue is youth. The ultimate authority to judge the
knowledge’ on the other hand it infused unity in righteous or otherwise of the literature was
society by enabling the individuals to perform the the ruler imbued with wisdom.
duties of their respective stations. 5. Aimed at moral as well as physical
development of the child : He held that a
Method of Education healthy mind could reside only in a healthy
Existing Systems : Plato witnessed two systems of body and it was essential that education
education operating in Sparta and Athens in the should develop both these faculties.
6. Produce philosopher king : It was the chief — Second stage covers the period of age 30
objective of his scheme of education. The years to 35 years to selected few. Emphasis
philosophers were expected to govern the was laid on dialectics because according
masses only through rigorous programme to Plato dialectic was the only system of
of education. knowledge through which highest reality
could be achieved. The stage was
EDUCATIONAL CURRICULUM essentially meant to create the philosopher
Comprised two stages—Elementary stage and king.
Higher stage. This scheme is comprehensive one. — Third stage ends at age of 50 years. At
age of 35 years philosophers start ruling
Elementary Stage and continue upto 50 yrs. at which they
Further divided into three sub-stages : retire and resume study in the
contemplation of God. Such a study they
— First stage lasted from birth to age of 6
continue upto the end of their life. Hence
years. At this stage, both girls and boys
Plato’s education is a life long process for
were to be given education in language,
the philosopher king.
basic facts of religion and religious
institutions, truth and morality. Criticism
— Second stage lasted from 7 years to age of
1. Some allege that Plato’s scheme of
18 years. At this stage education was
imparted in music, gymnastics and education is meant for the guardian class
elementary mathematics. Plato held that alone and the bulk of population consisting
music was essential for the development of peasants and artisans are not covered by
of the soul and gymnastics was for healthy it. Sabine highlights this point.
body. 2. Plato’s scheme of education is a lifelong
— Third stage extended from 18 to 20 years process. After devoting major part of his
of age. At this stage, both the men and life to education alone, the rulers are hardly
women were given compulsory military left with any time to devote for other
education to create qualities, courage, pursuits, neglect of which may endanger
endurance and discipline. their life prospects.
3. Plato’s plea for censorship of artistic and
Higher Stage poetic works is highly objectionable. Art
At the age of 20 there was to be a test and those and literature can never flourish under state
showing aptitude for science and philosophy were censorship. It has inherent danger of
to be given further education. The scheme of higher totalitarianism.
education was to make the recipient wise and 4. Plato’s scheme of education is far removed
practically trained. This scheme was described by from reality. It can only create academic
Sabine as “Most original as well as most theorists who are incapable of dealing with
characteristic proposal of the Republic”. It was the hard realities of life.
sub divided as 5. There is no relationship between one stage
— First stage covers the period of 21 years and the other stage. During first stage, he
to 30 years. During this phase the selected insists on study of music and gymnastics
students were given knowledge in the which are hardly capable of developing
field of logic Metaphysics, higher thinking capacities among the youngsters.
mathematics and special studies of warfare The second stage implies use of reasoning
and Public Administration. abilities. It is difficult to understand how
the recipients who have not developed sustenance the guardians should depend on the
thinking capacities during first stage shall peasant class. Thirdly, he believes that the most
be able to adjust in second stage. significant factor that leads to corruption and
6. There is no provision imparting education degradation in a state is the combination of
in the art of administration. The philosopher economic power with political power. Therefore,
king trained in music, gymnastics and he pleads that those who exercise political power
dialectics may not be able to deal with real should have no economic motives and those who
problems of administration in day to day are engaged in economic activities should have
life. no share in political power. According to Barker,
7. Plato’s uniform pattern of education is “Plato starts from practical considerations and in
contrary to human psychology. He makes this sense his communism is the most practical
no provision for technical and vocational feature of his ideal state”.
education. Such a scheme is tantamount to Plato’s purpose in envisaging communism is
the notion of diversity and growth that to produce the greatest degree of unity in the state.
enriches a society. Private property was a stumbling block in the way
of such unity. Hence, Plato would like to abolish
Conclusion the property itself. Plato’s communism of property
In the end it can not be denied that Plato’s scheme is only a secondary method of bringing about
of education was an improvement on the prevailing unity in the state. The primary method is his
system of education. He includes good point of scheme of education.
those systems. Though, his life long process of Plato feared that the possession of private
education is unrealistic but he certainly deserves property would give rise to selfish considerations
applaud for highlighting that education must and deviate the attention of the philosopher rulers
include moral as well as psychological from public service. He, therefore, deprived the
development. two ruling classes of the right to property. In the
words of Sabine, Plato felt that “To cure the greed
COMMUNISM OF PROPERTY of rulers there is no way short of denying them the
Communism essentially means a systematic right to call anything their own”. For Plato the
rulers should live in barracks and have meals at a
arrangement wherein society controls the
production and distribution. The classes are related common table. They should not possess private
with their economic conditions. Both in Athens property because it was bound to undermine the
and Sparta some sort of communism existed in the value of virtue, which was the most important
form of state controlled private property and the ingredient of the ruling class. He repeatedly insists
produce was put to common use by the community. that his communism is meant only for the guardian
But Plato deserves the credit for communism of class. Thus, says Barker “Platonic communism is
wives and property. He does so on these grounds. ascetic and just for that reason it is also
Firstly, he assumes that the existence of three aristocratic.” It is imposed on the best and only
classes in his ideal state i.e. philosophers, soldiers the best.
and farmers. Now, Justice according to Plato is Criticism
fulfilment of its specific duties by each class.
Secondly, if the philosophers and soldiers are to Plato’s theory of communism of property has been
act according to justice they must have nothing to subjected to severe criticism especially by his
do with ‘Property’ which is the outward disciple Aristotle on the following grounds :
manifestation of “Appetite” which in turn is the 1. Acquisition or ownership is natural instinct
element assigned to the farmer class. For their of man and an effort on the part of Plato to
deprive his guardian class of right to he pleads that those who exercise political power
property is contrary to this basic human should have no economic motive and those who
nature. are engaged in economic activities should not
2. Plato’s scheme of communism is meant only have any share in political power. According to
for the ruling classes and excludes the Prof. Barker “Plato starts from practical
workers, peasants etc., who form the considerations and in this sense his communism is
majority of society. the most practical feature of his ideal state”.
3. Plato’s communism destroys the institution Plato’s concept of communism of wives is a
of private property which is a symbol of step ahead in his scheme of communism of property.
civilization. By abolishing it, as Aristotle In his opinion the abolition of the institution of
points out later on, it will destroy the private property without the abolition of the family
sentiments of charity and benevolence the would result in the failure of his scheme. Hence,
essentials of healthy society. Plato laid greater emphasis on communism of wives.
4. It is likely to create excessive unity and Barker says rightly. “The abolition of family life
sacrifice the liberty and equality at the cost among the Guardians is thus inevitable corollary
of the state and ultimately lead to of their renunciation of private property. Plato
totalitarianism. The individual is recognises that property and the family are
interdependent facts”.
completely subordinated to the state.
5. According to Aristotle experience of life is Features of Plato’s Communism of
against communism. He points out that Wives
there has been no such example of
communism in history. Firstly, Communism of wives applies only to the
guardian class i.e. the rulers and the soldiers; not
6. Plato is also criticised because he
to producing class.
completely neglects the slaves who formed
almost half of the population of Greek Secondly, The family life is serious and
society and played an important part in powerful rival to loyalty to the state. Communism
Greek economy. of wives was aimed to curb the sentiments of
selfishness and emancipate the woman to enable
Conclusion them to devote to the service of state.
Thirdly, No system of permanent wedding.
Taking cognizance of his time and philosophical
All the women are to be common to all men of
predicament, none can deny that Platonic
guardian class.
communism of property is very logical, practical
and pragmatic. Greatly disturbed by the political Fourthly, All guardians; (both men and
turmoil in Greek society, he rightly emphasised women) are to live together in common barracks
that the combination of economic and political managed by state.
power in the same hands was bound to give rise Fifthly, State is to arrange a temporary mating
to corruption. To tackle such menace, he proposes between the best of men and best women for one
rule of philosopher kind that would have collapsed year keeping in mind the population of the city
without communism of private property. state.
Sixthly, The responsibility for rearing of
COMMUNISM OF WIVES children was to be entrusted to state nurses.
According to Plato, justice implies fulfilment of Seventhly, Common ownership of women by
specific duties by each class. If the philosophers the guardian class. Unlike it, the communism of
and soldiers are to act according to justice, they property which insisted on common renunciation
must have nothing to do with ‘property’. Therefore, of property by the guardian class.
Reasons for Communism of Wives 5. He wrongly treats the institution of marriage

as a mechanical process. Marriage is a social
Plato suggests communism of wives in order to
institution and its successful working
fulfil three purposes.
depends on the proper understanding
1. Major aim of Plato is to create Unity in the
between husband and wife.
State. To him, family was the stumbling
block in this attainment because family 6. The abolition of the institution of family is
affection was a patent rival of loyalty to likely to give serious set back to the
the state. As Prof. Barker points out “he sentiments like love, charity, generosity and
may be said to wish to import the family mercy.
into the state. He would make the state— 7. The relation of mother and child is also the
or rather the rulers of the state—a family matter of a life time. The fondling of mother
and the family a state”. is greatest education.
2. He wants to emancipate the Athenian 8. Barker has said “he makes the individual a
women from bondage of family. Plato mere means and that in respect of a side of
wanted that talents of women should be life in which he most naturally claims to be
utilised for the benefit of society. end to himself”.
3. He was convinced that by introducing this 9. It is difficult to understand how a happy
system a better and more intelligent race state can exist without happy families.
could be raised. The best among women
within a certain age limit should be united Conclusion
to the best among men within a certain age
In spite of criticism, we cannot deny that Plato
limit for one year. Sabine has said Plato
seems to be quite logical in emphasising its need,
held that “the improvement of race
but the theory is highly unrealistic and devoid of
demands a more controlled and more
selective type of union”. hard realities. Barker says “By abolishing family
Plato destroys that institution by which an
Criticism individual can be known as an individual.”
Aristotle’s Criticism : PHILOSOPHER KING
1. Plato wrongly treats the state as merely an
Plato’s concept of ideal state depicted a model of
enlarged version of family. State is not a
unity, instead it is a plurality containing what state ought to be. The elements which
different ways of life. constituted his ideal state are identified as Justice,
Education, Philosopher king and Communism of
2. Communism of wife is bound to lead to
wives and property.
confusion in social order. It is contrary to
principle of harmony. Plato’s concept of Philosopher rulers is the
3. Children common to all, bound to be direct result of his basic assumptions with which
neglected. “Everybody’s responsibility is he starts.
nobody’s responsibility”. Such children Firstly, He contrasts three elements of state
shall have only dwarfed personalities and viz., rulers, auxiliaries and peasants with three
bound to be stumbling block to promote elements of human mind viz., reason, spirit and
the cause of justice. appetite.
4. It demands too much sacrifice from Secondly, Socratic dictum “Virtue is
Guardian class and tended to make them knowledge”. According to Plato virtuous are wise
unhappy leaving the majority of producing people. He held that the affairs of the state could
class free to marry. be set right only if wise people, after getting due
training ruled. His dictum is “The wise shall rule l should keep the size of the state
and the ignorant shall follow”. Plato’s thinking is consistent with the unity and self
pragmatic as he tries to remedy the then practices sufficiency.
in all city-states. He believed that only competent, l must ensure due performance of allotted
wise and efficient people should have the right to duties by each citizen.
govern.
l must ensure that no change is made in
Features of Philosopher King the education system.
The concept is described by Prof. Foster as “the Criticism

most profoundly original conception in the entire
1. Leads to tyrannical government and
political thought of Plato” has some distinct
runs counter to the notion of democratic
feature.
government.
1. Plato denounced democratic system as a
2. His view that knowledge is the prerogative
government of ignorant. Instead suggested
of a few is against modern notion of
some novel and unprecedented institution
equality. His disbelief in the capacity of
which resembled almost tyranny. So, he
the democracy.
thought of a unlimited government of a
philosopher Ruler for his ideal state. 3. His concept completely rules out direct and
2. He favoured the concept of government by indirect democracies that is celebrated in
elite. Those who possess the capacity should all quarters.
rule over those many who do not. 4. The scheme of education for philosophers
3. Plato’s conception of Philosopher is one is highly defective. He imparts no
who is the lover of wisdom and passionate education in finance, law or military
seeker of truth. So, he is in a better position tactics which have practical administrative
to determine what is in the interest of the value.
community than an ordinary person. 5. Plato’s philosopher ruler may promote his
4. Plato’s philosopher ruler’s are the product selfish interest at the cost of interest of
of comprehensive and rigorous training and other citizens. This clearly leaves sufficient
education. scope for the establishment of totalitarian
5. Philosopher rulers are assigned absolute rule.
powers. They are not accountable to public 6. Prof. Popper says Plato advocated the
opinion or bound by customs or written concept with a selfish motive of becoming
laws. According to Plato, since philosophers ruler of Athens.
are the embodiment of virtue and 7. This concept is highly Utopian. His
knowledge, there is no logic for Public philosopher King has never ruled any
control over their actions. The Philosopher territory at any point of time.
rulers through the use of their wisdom can
give to every person what he deserves, no Conclusion
short, it is expedient to have the It cannot be denied that his concept is one of the
government of philosopher rulers. most profoundly original conceptions of entire
6. Plato imposes a restraint on their power by political thought. He rightly emphasises that only
insisting that they competent person should rule. The only defect in
l must watch against the excessive inflow his philosophy is that he failed to provide practical
of property and wealth in the state. training to his philosopher rulers.
PLATO’S COMMUNISM AND MARX’S B.C. But, Modern communism is the result
COMMUNISM : A COMPARISON of the most complex conditions arising due
to the industrial revolution in the
Modern Communism as practised in erstwhile Nineteenth Century Europe.
Soviet Union and China has been a collective
philosophical predicament expounded by Karl 2. Plato’s communism does not want total
Marx and modified by Lenin and Stalin in Soviet transformation of society. The producing
Union and Mao in China. Historically it owes its class remains intact. It is applied only to
genesis to the ill-effects of nineteenth century the Guardian class. But, Marxist
industrial revolution. communism is mainly concerned with
alteration of economic structure of the
In essence, Communists hold a materialist
society. It aims at abolition of private
view of history. Whosoever controls the means of
production controls the whole society. Thus, ownership of the means of production. All
society is divided into two classes, ‘haves’ and economic resources are centralised by the
‘have nots’. To Marx, “History of all hitherto machinery of communist party.
society is the History of class struggle”. They This led Barker to remark that “Plato’s
believe that final goal of class struggle will communism was aristocratic; it is a way of
overthrow the capitalist system and establish the surrender; and it is a surrender imposed on
dictatorship of the proletariat. In course of time, a the best. It exists for the sake of the whole
classless society will emerge and the state will society, but not for the whole society.”
wither away. 3. While Plato’s communism concerned
A comparison between Platonic Communism prohibition of things that enabled
and Modern Communism reveals more dissimi- Guardians to discharge their function,
larities than similarities. modern communism is concerned with
common ownership of the means of
Similarities production.
1. Both make the individual good as inter- 4. Plato’s scheme of communism covered
dependent on common good. both; communism of property as well as
2. Both are against the institution of private wives. On the contrary, modern communism
property, modern communism applies to is concerned only with means of production.
all the sections of society. But, for Plato 5. Plato’s communism aimed at making the
only guardians are debarred from holding Greek city state, a self sufficient properly
property. governed unit. But, modern communism
3. Both believe in division of society into espoused a global vision to bring about a
classes while Plato thinks of three classes, world revolution to usher in a communist
viz., rulers, warriors and peasants, Marx society.
espouses the existence of only two classes 6. While Plato’s communism was aristocratic;
the haves and havenots. modern one is ‘Proletarian’.
4. Both intend to build unity and solidarity 7. Plato’s communism had high degree of
by removing causes of stress and tension. abstraction with great philosophical rigour.
5. Both want to evolve a society organized Modern communism is more realistic
on the basis of social service. combined with scientific rigour.
Differences Evaluation
1. Plato’s communism is the outcome of A brief survey of two kinds of communism reveals
conditions of Athens in the 4th century more differences than similarities. Thus, the
attempts to equate Platonic communism with 3. Both have no faith in democracy. Plato
modern communism are partly a manifestation of denounces democracy as the rule of
confusion over the term communism and partly a ignorant people. The fascist denounce
manifestation of lack of historical insight. That is democracy, as a stupid, corrupt, slow
why Prof. Barker calls Plato’s communism “half moving, impractical and inefficient form of
communism, in so far it applies only to a small Government.
fraction of the total population and unlike the 4. Both Platonism and Fascism views
modern communism does not affect the entire dictatorship of one man as best form. Plato
population of the state”. thinks of a philosopher king in whom all
the powers of government are concentrated.
PLATO AND FASCISM TOTALITARIA- For the Fascists, it is Fuehrer who is
NISM: A COMPARISON omnipotent and omnicompetent.
Plato entitled “Republic” to be “an Justice”, but 5. Both make the individual as means to an
in subsequent centuries fascist theorists claimed end. The state is made an end.
that Plato was a fascist : the rule of philosopher 6. Both deny the importance of public opinion
king, communism of wives and property and and people’s right to change the
submission of individual to the state resemble government. The government is based not
fascism of 20th century. But many other theorists, on the consent of the governed but some
particularly C.E.M. Joad in his “Guide to over arching good of society championed
Philosophy of Morals and Politics” refuses to accept by elite.
such claims in total.
7. They are more interesting in laying
There are similarities as well as differences emphasis on duties rather than on rights.
between Fascists and Plato.
Differences between Plato and Fascists
Resemblances between Plato and
Fascists 1. Contextually, the two are different.
Moreover there is a gap of more than 2,300
1. Both subordinate the individual to at the years between them while Platonism was a
outer of state. Plato’s communism is best
response to the prevailing state of anarchy
manifestation of totalitarianism. For, even
in small city state of ancient Greece, Fascism
purely private affairs like marriage and
is a modern doctrine linked with the idea
mating is brought within the purview of
of nation state.
state. Similarly, Mussolini is saying,
“Everything within the state, nothing 2. Plato’s ideas comprise complete philo-
against the state, nothing outside the state” sophy, based on certain basic assumptions
denies distinction between private and on the other hand, fascists ideas are scattered
public domain. and unorganized. In fact, ideas of Nietzsche,
2. Both believe in the natural inequality Hegel, Mussolini and Hitler are exhorted
among human beings. According to them to justify Fascist state. Thus says Sabine,
nature ordains that superior shall rule over “It is a body of ideas taken from various
inferiors. To the Nazi’s “out of all races, sources and put together to fit the
the Aryan race is superior, out of the Aryan exigencies of the situation”.
race, the Germans are superior out of them 3. The tendency of Platonic Republic and
elite are superior and out of elite the Fascist glamour for war are poles apart
Fuehrer (the leader) is the superior most”. while Plato intended to make “polis” a self
Similarly, Plato championed Greek sufficient unit, fascists exhort that
superiority. “expansion is the sign of life”.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—7
4. Platonism represents political idealism Aristotle studied under Plato for 20 years from
because Plato’s state never came into the age of 17 to 37. This association was “the
experience. Fascism stands for political factor most important in the shaping of his
realism because it was in operation for philosophy-political and other.” Prof. Roster says
more than 2 decades and was a factor of “Aristotle is the greatest of all Platonists. He is
crucial significance for the outbreak of permeated by Platonism to a degree in which
second world war. perhaps no great philosopher besides him has been
5. While Plato prefers ethics over politics, the permeated by the thought of another”.
fascists subordinates ethics to politics.
As C.E.M. Joad points out, “the end for which Influences
government is exercised in Platonic state is the Aristotle was influenced by Plato in his following
well being of the community as a whole through ideas :
the medium of justice on the other hand the object 1. Social nature of human beings
for which rule is exercised in the Fascist state is
enhancement of the power of the few, many being 2. State as a natural institution
regarded merely as the raw material over which the 3. Aristocratic nature of government
power of the few is exercised and the means 4. Denouncing democracy
through which it is achieved. 5. Idealized the city state
Conclusion 6. Commensurability of interests between
individual and state.
The statement that “Plato is the first Fascist in
7. Interdependence between ethics and
history” or “Plato is a fore-runner of Fascists” does
politics.
not hold truth. The two doctrines originating at
different times, in different conditions and are In addition to it, Aristotle was greatly
characterized by different views regarding the influenced by
individual and state. Hence, the claim of the Fascist 1. His father who was a biologist, this led
that Plato is the First Fascist is unjustifiable and Aristotle to compare state with organism
biased with some hidden agenda. and individuals with organs.
2. The turbulent state of affairs led Aristotle
ARISTOTLE to believe that rulers were idealist. If
Life and Time political actualities could be examined, the
prevailing state of affairs could be
Aristotle was born at Stagira on the Aegean Sea in improved.
384 B.C. 3. Personal experience of a happy married life.
His father was a physician to the King of
4. Preconceived Greek notions and myth of
Macedon. This gave him an opportunity to acquire
Greek superiority. His justification of
first-hand information about the royal court. It
slavery and notion of citizenship confirms
also gave him understanding of the working of the
his biases.
state. It helped Aristotle to develop an analytical
and scientific bent of mind. He came to Athens at Position of Aristotle
the age of eighteen and joined Plato’s academy
where he stayed for twenty years till the death of Aristotle, the ablest of Plato’s disciple is novel in
Plato in 347 B.C. In 342 B.C. he was called to many respect. Unlike his master, Aristotle devotes
Macedonia to become the tutor of young his attention to political realities and can be rightly
Alexander. After the death of Alexander he fled to hailed as father of science of politics.
Chalcis and died the same year. Aristotle’s Work : The Politics
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—7-II
STATE AS A NATURAL INSTITUTION Unlike the individualists who insist on

protection of individual rights, Aristotle wants
Aristotle, a disciple of Plato imbibed a few teaching
state to create essential conditions for moral, mental
of his master. One such similarity in the political
philosophy of the two thinkers is to treat state as and physical development of the people. It is not
a natural institution, possessing moral authority. a mere Kinonia for war and trade.
The state aims at moral perfection of men who can Conclusion
achieve self sufficiently only in the state.
Natural character of the state is justified by Aristotle was child of his time. He could not ignore
Aristotle on following grounds : the fact that the city state catered to almost all the
affairs of its inhabitants. By entrusting a moral
Firstly, Aristotle insists that the two primary
ethical responsibility upon the state, he attempts
instincts of reproduction and self preservation force
the men to associate with family is the first step in to make a harmonious social order. For, societies
such direction and state is the union of several in which state does not articulate some moral
villages which is a union of several families. responsibility may degenerate into primordial
social forms.
Secondly, According to Aristotle, state
exemplifies the real character of man. They can IDEAL STATE
realize themselves only in the state. Being a
rational creature man can develop their rational Aristotle widely regarded as a realist, outlined his
faculties only through membership of state. ideal state in book II, III, VIII of his “Politics”. A
Thirdly, Aristotle stresses that the state is an comparison between idealism of Plato and Aristotle
organism and individuals are its part. is best illustrated by Sabine, “What Aristotle calls
the ideal state is always Plato’s second best”. While
Fourthly, Aristotle’s dictum “man is political
Plato hails his ideal state to be good for all times
animal” and “state is natural” reinforces each other.
to come, Aristotle accepts limitations of his ideal
Conclusion state. Moreover, Aristotle like his master prefers
monarchy. But, he insists on the primacy of law
The ideas of politics has been enriched enormously not a philosopher king.
by Aristotle’s view that the state is a natural
institution. As Ross points out “Aristotle did a Features of the Ideal State
good service to political thought by insisting that
the state does not exist merely by convention but Following features can be outlined about
is rooted in human nature”. By doing so, he paved Aristotle’s ideal state.
the way for collective political life for common 1. There is supremacy of law in his ideal state.
good of the citizenship. He favours impersonal rule of law which
represents the wisdom of community since
FUNCTIONS OF THE STATE the ages.
The state, for Aristotle is a plurality, where people 2. It is an ethical institution to develop the
associate for the satisfaction of their common needs moral qualities of the citizens to promote
by exchange of goods and services. To him, “The good and happy life of everyone.
state is the union of families and villages in a 3. Private ownership but common use of
perfect and self-sufficing life”. Whereas, the family property.
and village exist essentially for the preservation of 4. Aristotle’s ideal state is marked by division
life and the comforts of companionship, “the state of labour where slaves are engaged in
exists for the good life and not for the sake of life agriculture residents in commerce and
only”. citizens in political activities.
5. Aristotle’s ideal state is the city state of the 3. The middle class should at least be larger
moderate size. Population should be than either the extremely rich or the
manageable. extremely poor.
6. It should be self-sufficient, without any 4. A state with predominant middle class
aggressive design against foreign countries. population remain safe from revolutions.
7. There should be six classes, viz., agriculture, 5. Polity is a golden mean, a mixed
artisans, a war like class, leisured class, constitution that combines the elements of
priests and administrators. Only the later both; democracy and oligarchy avoiding
four are entitled for citizenship. their extremes.
8. There is a predominance of middle class
that provide stability because it possess Conclusion
twin qualities of obedience and command. Aristotle’s foresight to visualize the role of the
middle class has stood the test of time. Actual
Conclusion political experiences confirm Aristotle’s contention
These features clearly signify that Aristotle’s ideal that most of the stable, durable and well
state is more pragmatic than Plato’s. It is typically administered states have been under the control of
Greek State realisable on this earth. middle class. If anything, this trend has
strengthened all over the world.
Best Attainable State or Polity
A great realist, as Aristotle was realised limitation JUSTIFICATION OF SLAVERY
of his ideal state. This leads him to outline a best Aristotle hailed as the realist philosopher, wanted
attainable state. It avoids the extremes of democracy to take things as they are. Perhaps his justification
and oligarchy, described as Polity. It represents of slavery is most accurate account of realism. For,
the “golden mean”. it was expedient in the prevailing context of time.
According to Aristotle, there are mainly two According to Aristotle slave is the living
kinds of state, viz., Democracy and Oligarchy that possession of the family, necessary for its smooth
are in operation. But, they are themselves plagued functioning. He justifies slavery on the grounds of
by certain drawbacks. While, in oligarchy power is being natural institution, usefulness and
either concentrated in few hand or a single person, expediency.
democratic rule is marked by rule of money. The
real problem is that the oligarchs oppress the Natural Ground
majority and democratic means fail to provide Unlike the Sophists, who espoused the natural
intelligible administration. This leads Aristotle to equality of human beings, Aristotle argues that
favour a middle class rule. nature itself has ordained slavery. For, different
Aristotle’s favour for polity is based on persons are endowed with different attributes and
following assumptions : qualities. So, superior should rule over the inferior.
1. Neither extremely rich nor extremely poor Those persons who are endowed with a higher
persons are competent to rule. While the degree of reason and capacity for virtue must
former only knows how to rule, the latter command and direct those who possess little or no
do not know how to rule. such capacity. Thus, all round development of
2. A middle class knows how to rule and be society can take place only if the slaves meet the
ruled in turn. It is an embodiment of material needs of the master and provides him
attributes that shed the attributes of necessary leisure for exercising virtue, with which
extremely rich and extremely poor. they are endowed.
On Ground of Usefulness Conclusion

According to Aristotle slavery is not only useful Despite severe limitations, it can not be denied
to the master but also to the slaves. It is only by that judged in the context of his time, Aristotle’s
serving his master that the slaves is able to share justification of slavery was essential in so far as it
the virtue of his master. Moreover, if the master’s provided stability to the city state. It was necessary
material worries are taken care by the slaves, they to restore peace where some form of crisis was
may be able to devote themselves to the public order of the day.
affairs.
CITIZENSHIP
On Ground of Expediency
Aristotle’s views on citizenship are coloured by
Aristotle was fully aware of the slavery being an his conservative stance. He wanted to rationalize
essential part of Greek Society. In fact the society the situation in Athens and was opposed to radical
mainly consisted of two groups, out of which slaves transformation.
constituted the majority. Moreover they were Citizens in the “polis” were privileged class
mainly non-Greeks. Being a political conservative of people who enjoyed complete monopoly in
and a realist, Aristotle was shrewd enough to realise political affairs. Property was an important
that its denouncement would result in chaos. qualification for being a citizen. It was based on
Although Aristotle offers very sound ground heredity. The bulk of the population comprising
for justification of slavery, his case is by no means the slaves, metics (resident aliens) and women were
absolute. He justified slavery with certain debarred from citizenship status.
conditions :
1. No forcible conversion of prisoners of war Who is a Citizen?
as slaves. According to Aristotle, a citizen is a person who
2. Enslavement of mentally deficient persons. participates in the administration of justice and in
3. Emancipation of slaves, it showed good legislation, as a member of the deliberative
conduct and capacity for reasoning and Assembly. A person can not claim status of
virtue. citizenship exclusively on following grounds :
4. Proper treatment of slaves. l Residence in a particular place.
l Enjoyment on legal rights.

Criticism
l Descent from a citizen.
1. Aristotle’s justification of slavery is
contrary to notions of human equality and Criteria for Citizenship
brotherhood. These three aspects could be considered for
2. His assumptions are biased and contain citizenship only if a person participates in
traits and racial prejudice. administration of justice and legislation. In other
3. Aristotle completely sobordinates words, a citizen must possess the essential attribute
everything to nature. Birth can never be of ruling and being ruled, at the same time. In his
criteria of good or bad, virtue and vice. scheme, “leisure” remains an essential condition
Individual qualities are nourished, shaped of citizenship because without it none can cultivate
and transformed by their social virtue and devote themselves to the affairs of the
environment. state.
4. His theory of slavery is contrary to modern Aristotle excludes women, old people and
notion of social justice which inevitably children from the category of citizens because they
addresses itself to different forms of are intellectually inferior; physically unfit and
disadvantages and discriminations. politically immature.
Criticism General causes of revolution includes the desire

of the people to be treated as equal. The states
1. Property qualification is exaggerated so as
which are marked by greater extent of equality
to neglect the poor and working classes.
will be more stable. This explains the reason behind
2. Aristotelian citizenship is extremely limited Aristotle’s favour for a state in which middle class
to privileged few. predominates. Thus, to Aristotle, lesser the
3. By making leisure an essential criteria for inequality lesser will be chances of revolution.
citizenship, he neglects the manual working The general causes of Revolution, in
class-people. Aristotle’s opinion can be tackled by
4. It is contrary to modern notion of
1. Inculcating habit of law abidingness among
Democracy premised on political equality.
citizens.
5. His notion of citizenship is impracticable
2. Treating various classes with consideration.
in modern states where status of power and
privileges often criss-cross. 3. Educating the citizens in spirit of
constitution.
6. It is conservative and not progressive. It is
more interested in conserving the prevailing 4. Awarding political offices on temporary
state of affairs rather than change them. basis.
5. Ensuring dispersal of political power in
Conclusion more individuals.
Despite several shortcomings, one can not deny 6. Rewarding people as much as possible.
that it was a first systematic effort to outline a 7. Limiting foreigners from holding public
scheme for establishing a relationship between the offices.
political community and its members. He offered Aristotle also diagnoses the revolution in
a theory of citizenship which was primarily particular kind of state and outlines remedies to
intended for the city state. check them.
REVOLUTION Conclusion
Aristotle after his study of 158 constitutions comes The specificity with which Aristotle deals with the
out with a detailed analysis of causes of revolution causes and remedies of revolution illustrates the
and ways to prevent them. Perhaps, his concept of political insight of the theorist. This remains one
Revolution is most potent testimony of his of the greatest contributions of Aristotle in the
scientific rigour and empirical enquiry. realm of political science, where political realism
Aristotle, in Part V of ‘Politics’, offers two- is at its high water mark.
fold meaning of revolution.
Firstly, A revolution means any major or minor CONTRIBUTION OF ARISTOTLE
change in the constitution. Aristotle, one of the great disciples of Plato has
Secondly, A revolution is also said to have been hailed as father of political science. His ideas
occurred if ruling power has been transferred, even on politics, viz., social nature of man, rule of law,
if the constitution remains the same. revolution, citizenship and constitutionalism have
remained a matter of considerable significance to
Causes of Revolution
political scientists. For, he made the first systematic
Aristotle attempts a detailed analysis of the causes attempt to base his conclusions on facts, figures
of revolution which can be broadly classified as and data.
1. General causes. The contribution of Aristotle can be studied
2. Revolutions in a particular kind of state. under following heads.
1. Comparative Method : Though the reason why he is hailed as more pragmatic political
comparative approach to politics is of scientist.
recent origin, it was greatness of Aristotle
to use it to study 158 constitutions. PLATO AND ARISTOTLE : A
2. Primacy of Law : According to Prof. COMPARISON
Ebenstein, “The concept of rule of law and Though Aristotle is influenced by his master Plato,
the constitutional state is perhaps the most under whom he spent some crucial period of his
important legacy. Aristotle has bequeathed life, yet he is not a blind follower of Plato. He
to posterity”. The significance of criticizes Plato on a number of points. The
impersonal nature of law and its efficacy to significant points of differences between Plato and
resolve political conflicts is as pragmatic Aristotle are as follows :
as ever. In this aspect he greatly influenced Firstly, while Plato is an idealist and radical,
Aquinas, Hooker and Locke. Aristotle is realist and conservative. Aristotle stood
3. Theory of Origin of State : Aristotle for the idea of “individual self-sufficiency, unlike
dictum that “Man is a political animal” the philosophical absolution of Plato. Greatly
and his view of natural origin of state have influenced by scientific profession of his father
been widely acclaimed to be scientific. Aristotle remains the first scientist.
4. Positive Functions of the State : By saying Secondly, Aristotle dubs Plato’s scheme of
“state exists not only for the sake of life ideal state and rule by philosopher king as
but also for the sake of good life”, Aristotle neglecting the common experience of changes.
wants the state to take care of material as While Plato wanted to build new institutions,
well as moral development of individual. Aristotle was interested in retaining the existing
Such view is novel in the sense that even institutions.
in today’s world states are entrusted with Thirdly, Against the Platonic predisposition
almost the same task. with the ideal of unity in the society, Aristotle
5. Conservative Thinker : Aristotle’s favour hints that there exists diversity in society. He is
for retaining the existing institutions against Plato’s scheme of functional specialisation
continues to influence conservatives. and holds that instead of creating unity, it would
6. Role of Middle Class : Aristotle’s analysis lead to disunity.
of role of the middle class in sustaining Fourthly, Plato’s envision a scheme of com-
political issues in contemporary period. munism to achieve the idea of justice. But,
Aristotle is against communism of wives and
7. Private Property : Aristotle’s plea for
property. Instead he believes that it is natural for
private ownership but common use has
human beings to own property and marry. More-
come to be accepted as most viable solution
over, they are essential for fullest development of
to problem of social justice.
human being.
8. Autonomy of Politics : Aristotle remains
Fifthly, Aristotle does not pin faith in the rule
the first to make an attempt to separate
of philosopher king. Rather, he upholds the
politics from ethics by use of scientific
primacy of law.
methods to analyze political issue.
Sixthly, Aristotle’s study of 158 constitutions
Conclusion was a pragmatic one. Through it he outlined a
scheme for classification of government and
Unlike his master and predecessors, Aristotle sketched the relation between ruler and ruled. But,
engaged himself in analyzing a wide variety of Plato leaves the administration entirely in the
political issues. What was more significant was his hands of philosopher king without defining the
use of scientific method. Perhaps this explains the relation between rulers and the ruled.
Conclusion values brought man at the centre of political

life. God was relegated to the background.
Aristotle, the ablest of Plato’s disciples, is the
It is with such an spirit and outlook
fierce critic of his own teacher. However, in some
Machiavelli proceeded in his ‘Prince’. His
of his criticisms, Aristotle mistakenly understands
individualism is direct descendent of
Plato. For, every theorists philosophical predi- Renaissance.
caments are influenced by the assumption with
5. Political Thinkers : Apart from
which he starts and the kind of problems that he
contemporary situation, Machiavelli was
thinks for intellectual enquiry.
greatly influenced by people like Aristotle
and Marsilio of Padna. From Aristotle, he
MACHIAVELLI
imbibed empirical outlook and Marsilio
An Epitome of His Time influenced him in his secular ideas. His
works include Prince and Discourses.
Although it is difficult to draw a clear line of
demarcation between medieval and modern period, Method
Niccolo Machiavelli has been hailed as father of
Though Machiavelli was influenced by some of
modern political theory. The period of events that
the eminent political thinkers of the preceding
occurred in Europe between fourteenth to sixteenth
period, his method is original in its rigour and
centuries influenced him to a great extent.
content. Morley says “Machiavelli’s merit in the
Machiavelli was born in Florence (Italy) in history of political literature is his method”.
1469 and studied under his father who was a jurist. Similarly, Allen remarks, “What was most new and
He produced ‘Prince’ (1513), ‘Discourses’ (1521) original in the work of Machiavelli was perhaps
and his life reflects that he was more a practical his method of his manner of approaching problems
politician than a political philosopher. There of politics”.
are significant factors that influenced his
thinking. Conclusion
1. Contemporary Situation in Italy : Divided Like Plato, his method was inductive (from general
Italian principalities and constant situation to particular) rather than deductive (from particular
of war amongst them greatly affected to general). Moreover, he borrowed historical
Machiavelli. He was led to convince that method from Aristotle. But, Dunning says that his
unless unity was restored, nothing fruitful method was historical more in appearance than in
can be done. reality.
2. Association with Cesare Borgia : Cesare
Borgia, Duke of Valentine, the superbly ‘FATHER OF MODERN POLITICAL
endowed son of Pope Alexander VI was a THOUGHT’
decisive factor in shaping his thought. Niccolo Machiavelli has been an enigma
3. Political Turmoil and Upheavals : throughout the ages. Whatever he wrote on politics
Machiavelli’s sentence for life on charges are in the form of pamphlets and scattered. But,
of plotting against Medici family, political later on it was discovered, mainly by Quentin
corruption and undue interference of Pope Skinner that he made tremendous contribution to
affected him. It was because of such state the growth of political thought. He was original in
of affairs that his age was called age of many of his ideas and laid the foundations of
‘Bardards and Adventurers’. modern political thought.
4. Renaissance : This movement which stood 1. Machiavelli’s discussion of a territorial,
for revival of ancient art, cultures and national and sovereign state is the hallmark
of modern period. He was the first to use SEPARATION OF ETHICS AND

the term state in modern connotation which POLITICS
becomes the main topic of discussion in
the hands of subsequent writers. Despite an attempt by Aristotle, politics remained
a hand maid of ethics from Greek period onwards.
2. Machiavelli’s separation of politics from
It was Machiavelli who attempted this task with a
ethics and assigning it an autonomous
commitment. To him, politics and ethics were two
sphere is another contribution. Prior to him
different sciences whose dominions were altogether
politics was considered the hand maid of
separate. While politics deals with rules of conduct
ethics.
of state; ethics deals with rules of conduct of
3. Machiavelli is the first to bring the aspect individuals. Not only this, he even placed politics
of realism in politics. Prior to him above the ethics.
normativism dominated the political
Influenced by the state of affairs of his native
thinking.
state and intellectual cross currents of his time,
4. Machiavelli’s advocacy of power politics Machiavelli advocates that ‘end justifies the
is another contribution that has been means’. In his own words, “When the safety of our
followed widely in the realm of country is absolutely at stake, there need be no
international relations. Perhaps no nation question of what is just or unjust, merciful or
can afford to rely exclusively on idealism. cruel, praiseworthy or disgraceful; but all other
5. Machiavelli’s method of history combined considerations set aside, that course alone is to be
with commonsense observation has taken which may save our country and maintain
remained pragmatic till now. its liberty”. But, it is not to be followed by
6. Machiavelli’s denouncement of Church individuals in private realm. Only state can opt for
and its interference in the state places him such a strategy because it acts for all. The rulers
as the first secular thinker. are allowed to break promises and violate
7. Machiavelli’s analysis of role of the state principles if it is at the stake of state.
to offer security of its citizens remains Machiavelli thought of the state as a morally
pragmatic as ever. isolated being whose main aim is to acquire and
8. Machiavelli’s republican spirit (service to maintain power. He is neither moralist nor immoral
the nation) has been celebrated by but unmoral and acts as a physician of the state to
nationalists of all ranks. diagnose the ills and provide remedies.
9. Machiavelli’s suggestion to the prince
Criticism
signifies an eyesight of political
psychologist. Every theorist in modern time 1. He subsumes collective interests to cover
seeks to base his argument on the basis of the interest of state but fails to realise that
motivation and orientation of human beings under disguise, politicians may promote
towards political objects. personal interests.
2. His obsession with ‘end justifies the means”
Conclusion goes directly against the spirit of peace
Under this background one can not refuse to agree and non-violence.
with Prof. Dunning that “Machiavelli was the first 3. Prof. Allen remarks “his judgement of
modern political philosopher”. He was indeed an human nature was surely profoundly at
intellectual manifesting the cross currents of fault. May it not be said that he lacked
Renaissance and Reformation and Scientific understanding of just what the most of all
outlook. needed to know”.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—8
Conclusion abidingness, trustworthiness in the

performance of public duties.
Though, Machiavelli’s separation of ethics and
politics condemned for a long time has been 6. Machiavelli puts faith in the reality of
accepted by people in recent times. For, state and power politics. For him, there remains an
individual need not to have the same course. inherent tendency in states to expand and
Moreover, contemporary trends in most of the continue. To quote him, “All free
modern state are practical manifestation of his governments have two principal ends—one
theoretical predicaments. However, state can not of which is to preserve their liberties and
afford to be exclusive in its sphere. It is influenced the other to enlarge their dominions”.
by its environment and need to be sensitive to it. 7. Machiavelli is in favour of maintaining a
national army without which a state can
STATECRAFT OF MACHIAVELLI not survive for longer period, so he
Machiavelli was a practical politician who was advocates military training for citizens
greatly disturbed by the conditions of his native between the age of 17 and 40.
state. He never claimed to be political philosopher. 8. Though, Machiavelli considered force and
His ‘Prince’ contains the tips given to the fictional fear as important ingredient in
prince. The ‘Prince’ as mainly a handbook on the administration, he does not relegate the
art of ruling and maintaining oneself in power. In significance of law. He regards it as an
his advice; he is mainly concerned with the actual important aspect in inculcating ‘virtue’
state of his time without bothering about its origin, among citizens.
nature, functions etc. Allen says, “The Prince was
written of a Prince, for a Prince and for no one SUGGESTIONS TO THE PRINCE
else”? From above, one can come to the conclusion that
However, in subsequent period, his ideas were Machiavelli is more concerned with instrumental
concretized to develop a systematic whole. The dimension of the state, than with its origin,
following are the various ideas of Machiavelli on evolution or development. His works, Prince and
state that can be said to have formed into a Discourse are essentially a work on the art of
systematic political theory. government, rather than a theory of the state. It
1. For Machiavelli, state has its origin in the was intended to help the prince in his day-to-day
calculating self interest on the part of administrative work and to keep himself in power.
individuals. For, human beings are selfish, They are as follows :
egoistic and ambitious, but weak and fickle. 1. Most important advise to the prince is to
2. The state for Machiavelli is an artificial ‘use the force ruthlessly’ to maintain and
creation. strengthen his authority.
3. Machiavelli identifies three kinds of state, 2. Machiavelli advises the Prince to use the
viz., monarchy, aristocracy and republic. methods of propaganda and religion and
He neglected aristocracy, hailed republic act as both; fox and lion. For, force can not
as best but favoured monarchy in Italy only bring the fruitful result.
which was plagued by many problems. 3. In his opinion, a prince should be competent
4. State exists only on account of interplay of enough to take firm decisions because
material interests. Likewise, he makes the loosing initiative and delay are more
Church subservient to the state. dangerous than doing wrong.
5. Machiavelli supports the constitution of 4. He wants the rulers to maintain a well
state by citizens with spirit of probity, law trained, regular national army of his own
soldiers to defend the state and make it 17. In a newly conquered territory, a ruler
powerful. should destroy liberty because people
5. For Machiavelli, a prince should be well accustomed to freedom can never be
versed in the art of war and maintain arms reconciled the loss of it.
and ammunition of best quality.
Conclusion
6. Machiavelli exhorts that “a Prince should
retain the affection of his people, otherwise A brief list of Machiavellian guidelines to the
in any crisis, he has no remedy. Prince illustrates the tactical eyesight that he
7. According to Machiavelli, a prince should had. Many of his suggestions hold good even
be better feared than loved, but should not today. It was his method that inevitably led to
be hated. the unification of Italy by people like Cavour,
Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel. Irony of
8. He warns the ruler not to intervene in the
Machiavelli is that perhaps every administrator
property and conjugal relations of its
imbibes the spirit of ‘Prince’ without acknow-
subjects, “A person will more readily
ledging.
forgive the murder of his father than the
confiscation of his patrimony”.
HOBBES
9. Machiavelli urges the rulers to create public
spirit and virtue among the subjects by the Life and Time
means of education, religion and
Thomas Hobbes was born in the family of an
propaganda.
Anglican Clergyman in 1581. He was educated at
10. In dealing with administration, the ruler Malmesbusy and at Oxford. Later, he was appointed
should try to maintain utmost secrecy. as a tutor to heir of William Cavendish and
Otherwise, his orders will become maintained a life long connection with this
ineffective and may endanger the security
distinguished family. Came into personal contact
of state.
with great minds like Ben Jonson, Baccon and
11. For Machiavelli ‘end justifies the means’. Galileo. He was a witness to the civil war in
He advises the ruler to act as fox and lion England between the supporters of monarchy and
to achieve the end. republicanism and sided with the king. Charles I
12. A ruler in Machiavelli’s opinion, should was beheaded and monarchy was abolished.
be an opportunist because there are no
permanent friends or foes. Influences on Hobbes
13. A ruler should show and present himself as Like any thinker, Hobbes was influenced by
kind hearted, generous, sincere, humane, contemporary situation in England and intellectual
brave etc.; even though he is not exactly cross currents of his time. In particular:
so. 1. Civil war in England convinced him of
14. A ruler should possess virtue i.e. brutish nature of human beings that can be
combination of will and intelligence that only tackled by a strong and stable
sees things as they are. government. He favoured monarchy
15. A ruler must embark on expansionist policy because he believed that the state of war
because failure to expand the state shall can be transformed into a civilized life only
lead to stagnation and ultimate decline of through it.
the state. 2. He was influenced by Plato and Hobbes in
16. A ruler should avoid flatters and form his his idea of social contract that is acknow-
opinion on his own. ledged in all quarters.
3. His concept of sovereignty was borrowed HOBBES ON HUMAN NATURE

from Bodin. But, he developed it further
Rightly said “all political philosophers have begun
with improvement.
the study of state with the study of man”, but this
4. Galileo’s mechanics influenced Hobbes to is more true of Hobbes. In his scheme of thing, it
accept the mechanical nature of world. is the individual around which the whole edifice
5. He applied the study of geometry to the of his thinking revolves.
realm of politics under the influence of Hobbes’s concept of human nature is closely
Euclid. intertwined with his mechanistic outlook. For him,
6. He was influenced by Machiavelli in his motion of particles creates sensation in human
views on human nature. mind. Sensations give rise to perception,
Works : Leviathan, De Corpse and Dechive imagination, memory, prudence and reason.
For Hobbes, reason is artificial creation of
Methodology of Hobbes human mind. But, emotion and passion are natural
Hobbesian method was the geometrical method, and inborn attribute of human mind.
the only scientific method in his opinion. It is Further, he holds that emotion can be good or
a deductive method where conclusions are bad. The movement of mind which accompanies
derived from assumptions or already established good is called pleasure and the movement of mind
truths. which accompanies bad or evil or aversion is called
Hobbes believed in the mechanical nature of pain.
the world. To him, everything in the universe, In his own words “the end of every man is
even man and political institutions is a movement continued success in obtaining those things which
of particles. “Whatever phenomenon takes place he desires”, in life there exists a perpetual and
in the world is the result of motion of particles’’. restless desire of power because it helps in getting
It underlined following ideas. pleasure and avoiding pain.
1. There is nothing such a spirit or soul but Since all men desire more or less the same
everything is the resultant of motion of thing and are roughly equal in strength and
particles. cunning, there is bound to be what, he calls “war
2. Materialist methodology rejected medieval of every man against every man”. Thus, man is
apprehensions with the state and essentially selfish, altruistic, non-rational,
emphasised that it was a step forward. For impulsive and self-centred. Such a nature is
it free men from endless struggles. transformed while entering into contract and
3. The individual remains the pivot round forming a state.
which his methodology revolves. In this
way became the forerunners of middle class
Criticism
liberalism. However, there have been serious objections
However, following criticism are levelled levelled against his views on human nature.
against him. 1. His view of equal mental and physical
1. Prof. Jones pointed out “Hobbes utterly strengths of all individual is contrary to
failed to deduce either his psychological experience.
theory or his sociological theory from the 2. His political psychology deduced from
laws of motion as he proposed to do”. mechanics is ambiguous.
2. His deductive method can not hold good 3. Prof. Vaughan points at a dilemma in
in all cases. Political life is full of Hobbesian human nature. He holds that in
contingencies and complexities. the state of nature individual are nasty,
brutish and self-centered but become Fourthly, There is no place for “industry,
rational after contract. He questions how because the fruit thereof is uncertain”, and
could there be an overnight transformation consequently no culture of the earth, no navigation,
of human nature. nor use of the commodities that may be imported
by sea, no commodious building, knowledge of
HOBBES ON STATE OF NATURE the face of earth, no account of time, no letters, no
Hobbes’s concept of state of nature denotes a society”.
period preceding the formation of Leviathan. In
essence, it is a conceptual device to denote a pre HOBBES ON LAWS OF NATURE
political period after which state is created through Laws of nature or ‘dictates of reason’, borrowed
a contract. from Grotius plays a crucial role in establishing a
Hobbes’s view on state of Nature is a natural Leviathan. It shows the individuals, a way out of
outgrowth of his views on human nature. The state of nature characterised by war of everyman
existence of numerous self-interested, egoistic against everyman. In essence, laws of nature “lex
individual makes them psychologically isolated naturales” are a sort of restriction on the power of
but physically surrounded by his fellow beings individuals in the state of nature to inhibit the
who are also his competitors. exercise of natural rights”.
The competition becomes essential not only Contrary to subsequent writers like Locke who
accidental. Equality of powers coupled with thinks of law of nature as instrumental in exercise
equality of fear and equality of hope will induce of natural rights, Hobbes links it to limit the natural
every man to endeavour to outwit his fellow rights.
beings. The result is an open conflict the war of all There are several ingredients in law of nature.
against all. The hand of each is at every others 1. It is a logical outcome of Hobbesian
throat. Men in the state of nature of the concept mechanistic psychology. For, condition
of Hobbes live in a condition of perpetual fear, of prevailing in state of nature can not bring
cut-throat competition and war. Unless there is a peace and harmony.
common sovereign power to regulate the behaviour 2. It provides a common yardstick in the form
of individuals, says Hobbes, they are all in “that of Leviathan to regulate the political life
condition which is called Warse : and such a warse of individuals. For, in the absence of an all
is of every man against every man. Life of man is powerful sovereign authority, anti-social
solitary, poor, hasty, brutish and short. impulses can not be kept in check.
From above, the chief characteristics of 3. Reason has a regulative, not a emotive force
Hobbesian state of nature can be discerned as as it does not give any motive force to
follows : human minds. It enlightens the narrow
Firstly, It is governed by no rules or laws. selfishness to form a civilized society.
Men are engaged in fierce but ceaseless battle for The important laws of nature laid down by
blind passions. Which can not be judged by any Hobbes are as follow :
standards. 1. Aristotle of peace or laws of nature hints
Secondly, Every individual has natural right that men should seek and observe peace.
to everything that can be obtained by power in The state of nature is not conducive to
competition with fellow beings. achievement of self preservation. They
Thirdly, There is no conception of justice or should follow the laws that abandon the
injustice because justice for Hobbes is by-product war like situation and strive to live in peace
of law. with his fellow-beings.
2. Every individual should abandon his Firstly, Hobbes relegates the humanistic tinge
natural right to all things. This accorded to the law of nature by entrusting it to
abandonment should be general and hinder the exercise of natural rights.
reciprocal. It is at this stage that individuals By doing so he makes an individuals natural
enters into a compact i.e. the “mutual right as scapegoat at the hands of mighty
transfer of rights” more commonly known Leviathan.
as contract. It is by this dictate of reason
Secondly, Prof. Vaughan attacks Hobbes for
that the artificial person, the state, the Great
irreconcilable between his concept of state of nature
Leviathan, that mortal God on Earth, to
and law of nature. For, self-interested individuals
whom the individuals owe their liberty in
society and peace in life, is created. engaged in fierce battle with one another can not
be overnightly transformed from savage to
3. Men should abide by the terms and
civilized.
conditions of the contract made among
themselves. The very fact that individuals Thirdly, Hobbes’s conception of natural right
are not disciplined, the creation of all is both fictitious and ambiguous. For, there can be
powerful sovereign with all means of absolute natural right to life.
coercion at his command is absolutely
Conclusion
necessary.
4. One should have a sense of gratitude so Despite serious lacunae, Hobbes remain
that the benefactors does not have foremost in envisaging a mechanical role for
“reasonable cause to repent him on his the state. The individuals obey the state because
goodwill”. it is an embodiment of dictates of reason
5. “Every man strive to accommodate himself entrusted with the task of security of its members.
to the rest”. This makes him a great individualist in his own
6. Men should pardon the offices of the style.
repentant fellow-being.
SOCIAL CONTRACT OF HOBBES
7. No man by deed, word, countenance or
gesture, declare hatred or contempt of Hobbes in his political philosophy mainly
another. proceeds on the essential wickedness of human
8. At the entrance into conditions of peace, nature. Even though the law of nature shows the
no man requires to reserve to himself any way out of state of nature, it does not ensure
sight, which he is not content should be harmony. To ward off such apprehension, he
reserved to everyone of the rest. supports an all powerful sovereign authority to
9. If man be trusted to judge between man enforce the laws of nature. For “‘covenants’ without
and man, it is a precept of law of nature sword are butt words” and of no strength to secure
that he deals equally between them. a man at all.
10. Such things as can not be divided, be To end the state of nature, every individual
enjoyed in common if it can be; and if the enter into, what Hobbes calls ‘contract’ with each
quality of the thing permits, without stinct. individual. Through contract :
11. They that are controversy, submit their right individuals undertake not “to will their own
to the judgement of an Arbitrator. will”
individuals “accept to undertake limitation
Criticism on their will”
There have been severe criticism of Hobbes’s they “submit the wills of all to the will of
concept of law of nature on following grounds : one”.
Social contract is the basis of Hobbes’s state Criticism

whereby individuals of their own impulse, unite
Hobbes’s attempt, though novel in many respect
and execute a contract among themselves without
has been subjected to following criticism :
the ruler or sovereign being party to it. The origin
of state lies in the transfer of all the natural rights 1. Enslave the individuals at the hands of
of individuals (except the right to life). The sovereign whose intentions are far from
clear.
individuals agree to institute a third party—a
common recipient—who himself is not a party has 2. It is ironical as to how individuals guided
to protect the right to life. The contract creates one by dictates of reason choose to create an
common superior out of the equally placed all powerful authority with irrevocable
individuals. It represents the sum total of all the powers.
powers of individuals. 3. Hobbes Leviathan is more of a coercive
agency than a democratic artifice.
Features of Contract 4. Fails to distinguish and differentiate
Chief features of contract are : between state, society and government
Firstly, individuals are the basis of contract. which are distinct institution with varied
competence.
They are endowed with equal natural rights in the
state of nature. It is neither a contract among 5. The notion of permanent and irrevocable
groups, nor is a contract among unequals. contract is questionable. Indeed, it was, as
Moreover, it is a contract resulting from the Vaughan points out “intended to support a
prudential calculations of individuals and not from particular system of government i.e.
fear. absolute monarchy”.
Secondly, the sovereign is not a part but apart Conclusion
from and above the participants. However, it can
never make a breach of the contract. Despite serious shortcomings and inherent biases,
one can not refuse to acknowledge that Hobbes
Sovereign can not be unjust because ‘justice
heralded a new era. His notion of contract as a
lies in adherence to the contract’.
basis of state is hailed in all liberal capitalist orders.
Thirdly, the contract is irrevocable and finite. But, an impersonal, artificial, all powerful sovereign
The individuals have no right without the consent has been with scepticism.
of the sovereign.
Fourthly, the minority has no right to object HOBBES’ CONCEPTION OF
to the dictates of the majority in selecting a SOVEREIGNTY
sovereign. Sovereignty is the unrestrained power of the state
Fifthly, although sovereign may be one backed by coercive force over all individuals and
person, two or many, but his preference is for institutions lying within its allotted physical area.
monarchy. Sovereignty in the modern sense of the term may
Sixthly, the main motto of the contract is be defined as the unrestricted and supreme authority
protection of life of individuals. Though the of the state of frame and administer law with all
sovereign is supreme in all aspects, he can not the coercive force behind it. State power and
encroach upon lives of individuals. sovereignty are considered identical terms.
Seventhly, there is no distinction between state Even though the credit for initiation of the
and society and between state and government. term ‘sovereignty’ goes to Jean Bodin, it was
For, it is the sovereign power which creates civilized Hobbes who properly laid the foundation of modern
political society out primitive state of nature. sovereign states.
Hobbes’s sovereign is created by a contract Criticism

among individuals with one another. The
underlying idea was that the state of nature Despite an exhaustive analysis of the concept of
exhibited a state of war with maximum uncertainty, sovereignty, Hobbes conception has been subjected
particularly with respect to life. to the following criticism.
Desire for self preservation (the greatest of Firstly, Hobbes proceeds with the assumption
all) suggests men to follow the dictates of reason that ‘might is right’, but force alone can not secure
to constitute an impartial sovereign. It is to be success to government. Legitimacy has a vital role
noted, that, sovereign is the representative of each in political life and it can not be overridden by
individual, distinct from the natural person. force.
According to Hobbes, the “essence of Secondly, Hobbes’s allowance of right to resist
sovereignty lies in the power to determine on the sovereign only in case when it endangers the
behalf of the entire community. What should be life, goes against democratic norms. For, there can
done to maintain peace and order”. It implies that be issues of vital concern wherein citizen can
sovereignty lies in the power to make laws binding question or even overthrow the government.
on all the subjects. Thirdly, It is ironical as to how, rational
human beings will choose to live under absolute
Characteristics of Sovereign
sovereign of Hobbesian kind.
1. Sovereign enjoys the absolute power to Fourthly, Prof. Vaughan dubs his theory as
make laws. He is not only the chief source pernicious and impossible. It is pernicious as it
of all laws but also their sole interpreter. heads to despotism and gives no right to
2. Sovereign is the sole source of distinction individuals to defend themselves.
between right and wrong, good and bad, Similarly, it is impossible because the sole
moral and immoral. For, there did not exist bond of union between members of the Leviathan
any such agency in state of nature where
is common terror.
every man was at war with every another.
Fifthly, Rousseau criticised Hobbes’s theory
3. Sovereign is the source of all powers;
of sovereignty as self contradictory. He argues that
executive, judicial, legislate and can declare
the gifts of nature like life and liberty can never
war and peace. There is no notion of
separation of power in Hobbes’s scheme. be renounced for any supposed benefit.
4. Sovereign is endowed with indivisible, Conclusion
inseparable, absolute powers. Moreover, he
is neither accountable, nor can be replaced To sum up Hobbes’s view on sovereignty it would
by another. However, it lasts as long as life be worth to agree with Sabine that it was the most
of the subjects is not threatened. revolutionary theory at the time of its inception.
5. Sovereign is entrusted with duty to be In fact, Hobbes has continued to influence theorists
successful so as to prove its worth. It should seeking to explore the dynamics of state
make laws that are equitable and commen- sovereignty. For all states have remained
surate with prospects for peace. Hobbes’s empowered with the attribute of sovereignty so as
Leviathan is a policeman, not an instructor to protect itself. In fact it is this aspect that has
because it is concerned only with been able to protect the identity of state.
preservation of natural right to life.
WAS HOBBES INDIVIDUALIST OR
6. Sovereign is the creator of both; the state
and the society.
ABSOLUTIST?
7. Hobbes has preference for a monarch as An overview of Hobbes’s theory of sovereignty
sovereign. put forward in his work, ‘Leviathan’ might suggest
to be a case for absolutism, but this is not the case. Conclusion

Hobbes starts up with the individual and ends up
A brief list of individualistic stance of Hobbes
with the individual. Individual’s security is the
reminds us of Wayper’s observation “Hobbes so
pivot round which call his other political ideas
frequently portrayed as the great absolutist, is
revolve. Sharing the similar concern Prof. Sabine
perhaps the greatest individualist in the history of
says, “The absolute power of the sovereign—a
political thought”. Perhaps, his government can
theory with which Hobbes’s name is mere generally
be said to be the government of the individual,
associated—was really the necessary component
for the individual and by the individual.
of his individualism. In the same tone, Prof. Wayper
says “the Leviathan is not merely a forceful
LOCKE
enunciation of the doctrine of sovereignty... it is
also a powerful statement of individualism”. Life and Time
Hobbes accords a prominent position to the
John Locke, one of the eminent political thinker
individual. He allows his individual the right to
of England was born in 1632. His father was a
resist the sovereign if the latter attacks his life. In
lawyer. He was a physician by profession.
fact, the contract was finalised for the protection
of right to self-preservation of the individuals. Work : Treatise on Civil Government.
Individuals are allowed to refuse to serve as soldier On Toleration.
if it endangers their lives. Moreover, individuals Essays Concerning Human Understanding.
could refuse to obey the sovereign, if he is
incapable of protecting the lives of individuals. Influences on Locke
Perhaps the assigned absolute powers to his 1. Association with Lord Ashley as physician
sovereign as it was warranted by logic, not to and confidential secretary.
destroy the individual. 2. Witness of Glorious Revolution (1688) that
Firstly, The prevalent state of affairs in led to replacement of absolute monarchy
England and belief in cruel human nature by responsible government.
necessitated the creation of an absolute power. 3. Philosophers like Filmer and Hobbes.
But, even it was based on belief of securing
4. Sydney whose “Discourses Concerning
protection of individual lives.
Government” emphasised sovereignty of the
Secondly, He holds that “The state is not the people.
end of the individual, but the individual is most
5. From Hobbes, Locke borrowed the theory
certainly the end of the state”.
of consent and contract.
Thirdly, The absolute power is derived from
the consent of the individuals; not arbitrarily. HUMAN NATURE
Fourthly, Individuals retain the right to resist Locke’s concept of human nature is expounded in
the sovereign in case the latter fails to give his “Essays Concerning Human Understanding”,
sufficient protection to individuals life or in case but is not as systematic as Hobbes. In this opinion,
the sovereign himself tries to kill him or places human beings are social creatures, decent and have
him in such conditions where his life is endangered. attributes of ruling themselves. They are moral
Fifthly, According to Prof. Oakeshott, the and rational. They are equal in the sense that they
Leviathan has not been created with the purpose possess the tool of reason. They enjoy the natural
of the destruction of the individual. right to life, liberty and property by virtue of
Sixthly, Even after contract, individuals retain being human. Locke explains the motive. Force
the liberty of thought, belief, education, art, behind all human action in terms of pleasure and
literature, etc. pain. According to him “the object of all human
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—9
action is to substitute pleasure for pain”. Moreover of nature and remains in operation even after civil
“What has an aptness to produce pleasure, is called state comes into existence.
good and what is apt to produce pain is called Locke explains the reason of contract with
evil”. respect to some inconsistencies in the law of nature.
He says that even though there is peace and order
Conclusion
in the state of nature, individuals enter into
Locke’s understanding of human nature is opposite contract.
of Hobbes. Unlike Hobbes, who was witness to the l Towards off confusion and uncertainty
civil war in England; Locke witnessed Bloodless arising out of nature, content and interpreter
Revolution (1688) and believed in goodness of of the law of nature.
human nature. But, his theory lacked a scientific l To establish a common agency for
basis as Hobbes. Moreover, he wrongly integrates interpreting and executing the laws of
individuals good with collective good. nature.
Locke on State of Nature While in Hobbes, individuals enter into
contract as it was prime necessity to pressure their
Locke, being a contractarian conceives of a lives, Locke’s individuals enter into contract to
situation prior to the formation of state. But his tide over certain difficulties in the state of nature.
views are opposite to his predecessor Hobbes.
Though Locke fails to provide a convincing
Firstly, While Hobbes state of nature is a argument as regards his basic assumptions, he
pre-social phenomenon, Locke conceives of it as lucidly fit together a number of political ideas. His
a pre-political rather than presocial phenomenon. concept of human nature, law of nature and reason
Secondly, While Hobbes’s state of nature is went a long way in ushering individualism.
marked by fear, fraud and constant anarchy,
Locke’s state of nature is an organized society in PROPERTY
which peace and reason prevail.
Locke’s views on property are coloured by his
According to Locke, even prior to the individuals stance. According to him, there was
formation of state, there existed an organised common ownership of property in the state of
society. For reason teaches men to live in a spirit Nature. Apart from it, every individual possesses
of brotherhood. The individuals enjoy their natural the property of labour. A person by mixing his
rights. labour with an object makes it his own private
property. He does not put any limitation on the
LAW OF NATURE
amount of property an individual could
According to Locke, law of nature is in the form accumulate.
of prescription. It does not describe how men
behave, but as to how they ought to behave. It is STATE
concerned with conducts of men. Locke’s view on state are outcome of his concept
The basic interpreter of Law of nature is the of human nature. According to Prof. Vaughan
tool of ‘reason’ held equally by everyone. It follows “everything in Locke’s system revolves round the
that if there occurs a violation of law of nature a individual; everything is disposed so as to ensure
man can punish the transgressor by the instru- the sovereignty of the individual”. He expounds a
mentality of reason. mechanical state whose prime raison-de-etre is to
While Hobbes’s Law of nature is significant protect the natural rights to life, liberty and
only for transference of state of nature into civil property. In fact the state is secondary and natural
society, Locke’s Law of nature operate in the state rights are of primary importance in his scheme.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—9-II
INDIVIDUALIST 4. By conceiving mechanical nature of state,

he becomes the forerunner of liberal
Locke, a great individualist advocated a negative thought. He passed the government on the
conception of the state. Its role is limited to prevent consent of people who are endowed with
the subjects from infringing one another’s rights. reason and are best judge of themselves. It
The moment it fails to live upto its expectations, owed existence as long as it served its
it forfeit the right to rule and can be legitimately purpose.
over thrown. The state is limited to no more than
5. Locke helped in development of the idea
a limited liability company.
of a democratic state based on popular
According to Locke, law of nature has primacy institutions and constitutional government.
over laws of state. In fact all laws made by the The principle of majority that underlines
state must commensurate with law of nature. the democratic mechanisms are Locke’s
Locke’s government is based on the consent contribution.
of individual. In its absence, the government may 6. Locke reacted against divine right theory
become absolute and people may not obey the and linked state with the world by affairs.
state laws. He makes division of power so as to
7. Locke laid great emphasis on the principle
ensure that it fulfils the paramount requirement of
of toleration and secularism.
preservation of individual freedom.
Conclusion
Conclusion
Sabine remarks Locke’s works as dependent on
Locke’s love for individual makes him to forward
other who joins them or fit them together in his
a theory of minimal state. The true sovereign is
own philosophy. But, it is his greatness that he has
individual who can throw up the Yoke of state if
exercised continued influence on the subsequent
it did not live up to their expectations.
political thought.
CONTRIBUTION OF LOCKE SOCIAL CONTRACT OF LOCKE
John Locke, one of the outstanding figures in the Locke’s love for private property leads him to
realm of politics was the perpetrator of American envisage a scheme of social contract. His
and French Revolutions. Perhaps his influence has individuals enter into the contract to preserve their
been so immense that all liberals hail him as property, which includes three natural rights, viz.;
godfather. The contribution of Locke can be life, liberty and property. To him, “The chief aim
studied under following heads. of man’s uniting into commonwealth is the
1. One of major contributions of Locke has preservation of their property”.
been the principle of Limited Government. Property which includes three natural rights
He drew distinction between state, society are of primary importance and are prior to state
and government. While society is primary, and government. These rights are “attributes of the
state comes into existence only for some individual person born with him, and hence
convenience. Government is agency of indefeasible claims upon both; society and
state to exercise powers as its trustee. government”. The salient features of his contract
2. Locke’s conception of natural right to life, are:
liberty and property has remained a doctrine 1. Political, not Social : By Lockean contract
of preeminence. Perhaps, it was for the first only state is created, not the society or
time that so much moral sanctity was government.
attached to the natural rights of individuals.
2. Limited and Specific : Commonwealth is
3. Locke’s view on right to revolt inspired created for protection of three natural rights.
the revolutionaries influence and America. Individual retain substantial power.
3. Consent : Lockean commonwealth is 3. In their scheme, reason plays a vital role.

created not out of fear but based on consent While for Hobbes laws of nature are
of everyone for better life. ‘dictates of reason, for Locke it interprets
4. Irrevocable : Similar to Hobbes, Locke the law of nature.
makes contract irrevocable. 4. Generally speaking, both of them
5. Law of Nature : Even after contract, Law emphasize on permanent nature of contract.
of nature is retained.
6. Trust : Commonwealth is handed over Differences
power and rights to discharge its functions 1. The approach of two thinkers is different.
properly. By doing so, both; the individual While Hobbes bases his philosophy on
and community benefits. mechanics, Locke is no where clear in his
Criticism approach. He compiles different ideas into
a coherent whole.
1. Locke places minority at the hands of 2. In their concept of human nature, there is
majority and fails to realise that majority striking difference between the two thinkers.
could also be tyrannical.
Hobbes believes that human beings are
2. Locke has no care for common values, egoistic, selfish and quarrelsome. Locke,
culture and traditions which are part and on the other hand, believes that they are
partial of civilized existence. selfless, peace loving and good creature.
3. Locke is so obsessed with his love for
3. While Hobbesian state of nature is a state
private property that he fails to see whether
of war of every man with every other, state
poor could benefit from his contract.
of nature in Locke is a state of peace,
Conclusion goodwill and mutual assistance.
Lockean scheme revolves around individual. It 4. As regards the nature of contract there are
sought to make men measure of all things. But, he differences. While Hobbes creates an all
failed to see whether a disadvantaged group could powerful, inalienable sovereign, Locke
adequately be addressed in his commonwealth. limits the power of sovereign only to
interpret and enforce the law of nature for
HOBBES AND LOCKE : A COMPARISON protection of natural rights.
Among the earliest political philosopher-thinkers 5. There is no right to rebel in Hobbes’s
of England, Hobbes and Locke are prominent ones. scheme, but Locke grants this right to the
While Hobbes was witness of Civil War, Locke saw individual. The government is a trust which
the Glorious Revolution (1688). These instances can be overthrown the moment it violates
greatly moulded their character and evident in their trust.
their thinking. Although Locke was influenced by
his predecessor, Hobbes; but he leaves no stone Conclusion
unearthed to refute the claim of his master. There A comparison between the two thinkers not only
are very few similarities between them. shows their philosophical differences but also
signify their time and problems that were more
Similarities
damaging. Hobbes witness to civil war and
1. To them, contract is the source of state and beheading of a Prince convinced him of badness
is based on consent of individual. of human nature. But, his greatness lies in logical
2. Both conceive of a minimal-negative state approach. Locke, on the other hand was more
concerned with maintenance of individual practical than logical and continue to influence
rights. the liberals even today.
evil in human nature. Much it, his thoughts were

ROUSSEAU
unnatural and human inventions.
Life and Time
Works of Rousseau
J.J. Rousseau stands as one of the most famous
1. Discourses on the Moral Effects of Arts and
contractualist of the modern times. But, the most
Sciences.
contrasting aspect of his thought has been his
opposition to enlightenment and notion of popular 2. Discourses on the Origin of Inequality.
sovereignty. His view became a more potent factor 3. An Introduction to Political Economy.
in preparing the way for the great French 4. The New Heloise
Revolution. Taken in the context of his time, he 5. The Social Contract.
paved the way for a new democratic order. 6. Emile.
According to Gettell “History of Political
Thought”, “He is more dogmatic than Hobbes and Methodology of Rousseau
more popular and eloquent than Locke, this work According to Maxey “Rousseau’s methodology is
inspite of its inaccuracies and inconsistencies, one of great thinking and he uses facts only to
exerted a tremendous influence upon the period prove his philosophical assumptions”. Though
following its appearance”. Rousseau was greatly inspired by other thinkers
Rousseau was born in 1712 in Geneva. His but much of his thinking is original in content and
father was a watchmaker and mother died while spirit. His ability to see contradictions of science
giving birth. At the age of 10, his father left Geneva and art in an age where these were hailed as the
leaving Rousseau in the case of a person. For a paramount virtue, eloquently testifies to it.
long time he roamed as a vagabond and failed to
make friends due to his egoism and bad manners. Different views on Rousseau
In the year 1749, he wrote thesis on contribution 1. According to C.L. Wayper, “Like Hobbes,
of Science and Arts. In later years he went to Rousseau is an absolutist, but is more
England and came into contact of Burke and democratic than Locke”.
Hume. But, the friendships could not last long on 2. According to Jones, “Rousseau’s concept
account of his sceptical attitude. of human nature is certainly similar to those
of Plato and Aristotle”.
Influences on Rousseau 3. According to C.L. Wayper, “Rousseau has
Firstly, Rousseau was greatly influenced by the left moral influences on politics, education,
Republican heritage of Geneva. As Watkin observes religion and literature”.
“As an obscure but enfranchised member of a 4. According to Maxey, “By combining the
sovereign community he had been brought up in theory of social contract of Hobbes and
the tradition of a society where active participation Locke’s, Rousseau gives a theory that could
in politics was the right of all free men. At a time be dubbed wrong on the basis of logic, but
when most intellectuals were willing to regard can not be sidelined.”
themselves as the loyal and obedient subjects of 5. According to M.J. Harmon, “Rousseau’s
absolute monarchs, Rousseau was never able to contract is not a contract but a way to
accept the idea that men should be anything less overcome contract. It is a gift of society to
than active and responsible members of a sovereign the individuals”.
political community.” 6. According to McDonald, “Freedom was the
Secondly, Rousseau’s family life convinced main aim of Rousseau”.
him of the bad social institutions. His experience 7. According to Jones, “Sovereignty of
at the hands of guardians convinced him of the common will is a utopia”.
ROUSSEAU’S IDEA OF NATURE LIBERTY IN ROUSSEAU’S THOUGHT

According to Rousseau “Man is born free, and According to Rousseau liberty is natural to man.
everywhere he is in chains. Many a one believes But, the liberty which men enjoy in the civic state
himself the master of others, and yet he is a greater is very different from the liberty as independence,
slave than they. Consequently, he aims at devising they possess in the hypothetical pre-civic state.
principles of social and political life that will A higher form of liberty i.e. moral one can be
enable people to enjoy the fruits of freedom. realised only when they acquire such control
In Rousseau’s opinion, the development of art over personal desire that only one desire is left;
and science have severed people’s ties with the namely, the desire to be one with reason. It can be
nature. He therefore pleaded for abandonment of realised only when men submit themselves to the
these things as it obstructed the fulfilment of men’s nature.
true nature.
Unlike Hobbes, Rousseau held that the man is KARL MARX
inherently good. Consequently, the role of right
art should be to promote the goodness of every Life and Time
human being. The evil, corruption and wickedness Karl Marx was born in 1818 in Tier (Rheinish
were nothing but creations of social institutions. province of Prussia). His father, Heinrich Marx was
Rousseau locates two instinct in men with a lawyer. During his student years at the University
which they are originally endowed. The first one of Bonn and later at Berlin, Karl Marx made a
is self-love or the instinct of self-presentation. The profound study of history, literature, philosophy
second is sympathy on the gregarious instinct, or and law. In 1842, he became a editor of ‘Rheinische
instinct of mutual aid. However, they are not evenly Zetung’. But soon after went to France, when the
balanced and may come into conflict. newspaper was banned. In 1847, he organized
Consequently a new instinct of conscience comes Communist League in London. He lived in
out to reconcile the two instincts. He attaches Germany for some time and died in England.
more importance to conscience than to reason Works : The Philosophy of Poverty (1847)
because it is not nature and simply guides
The Communist Manifesto (1848)
individuals and does not enable him to do things.
As Wayper observes “he sees safety only in a The Critique of Political Economy
perfect union in which sentiment and reason Civil War in France
mutually check and control each other—in which Das Capital
sentiment urges reasons to the right path and
in which reason leads us along it towards Influences
perfection. 1. German Idealist particularly Hegel’s logic
According to Rousseau the problem arises of Dialectic provided basis for his entire
when men allow self-love to be trumped by pride. philosophy.
Pride signifies quest for things that is not natural.
2. The Classical British Political Economists,
As Wright observes “we can give up pride we can
particularly Adam Smith provided basis for
cease from all comparison with other men and
labour theory and theory of surplus value.
simply go about our destiny. We can renounce a
host of imaginary desires and hold fast to the 3. French socialists influenced his theory of
true things needful, cast away a world of illusion state and revolution.
and rediscover our own self. We can be meek 4. Marx’s association with his life-long friend
and inherit our soul. In a word, we can return to and a collaborator had immense impact on
nature? his philosophy.
Main Contribution changes are qualitative till a certain point

after which its form is changed. For
Main contribution of Marx are as under :
example, capitalism to socialism.
1. Dialectical Materialism
2. The law of unity of opposites : It implies
2. Historical Materialism that everything within itself contains
3. Theory of Surplus Value contradictory but interdependent elements.
4. Theory of Revolution For example, Capitalism contains both,
5. Alienation Theory bourgeoisie and proletariats.
6. Class Struggle 3. The law of negation of negation : Thesis,
antithesis and synthesis are connected in a
DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM chain which develops by negating other.
Marx’s concept of dialectical materialism Through this process, Marx explains the
constitutes the foundation on which entire Marxist history from primitive communism to world
thought is based. He borrowed the concept communism.
“Dialectic” from Hegel and gave it a materialist Criticism
twist.
According to Issac Kramnic and F.M. Watkins 1. Sabine and Wayper accuse Marx of failing
“the word dialectical originally referred to the to outline the details of his dialectical
process whereby ideas are formed and clarified in materialism.
the course of debate”. Hegel used it as a 2. Prof. Hunt does not accept the scientific
philosophy of history. To him, ideas are basic to claim of dialectical materialism. For, one
all human activity which develops in a zig-zag can not be sure as to what constitutes a
manner following the formula of thesis, antithesis thesis, antithesis and synthesis.
and synthesis. The social institutions are merely 3. John Plamentz dubs it as a preliminary
manifestation of ideas. He conceived of nation model to prepare for historical materialism.
state as highest stage of social evolution.
Conclusion
Karl Marx appreciated Hegelian conception
but he replaced dialectical idealism with dialectical Unlike the methodology of predecessors, Marx
materialism. Unlike Hegel, he believed that the introduces dialectical materialism as a tool to
social institutions are shaped by material analyse change. But, its complete dependence on
conditions of life, which are determined by the economy leaves it exclusivist character. Changes
economic mode of production. are multidimensional wherein culture, ideology,
According to Marx, the world by its very value system may have dominant role.
nature is material and the various phenomenon of
the world constitute different forms of matter in HISTORICAL MATERIALISM
motion. In his own words, “it is not the Historical materialism or the materialist inter-
consciousness of men that determines their being, pretation of history implies that all phenomenon
but on the contrary their social being that of history are dependent on economic factors.
determines their consciousness”. According to Marx, production is the most
fundamental of all human activities. Society is the
Three Laws of Dialectics
outcome of men’s cooperation to produce for the
Dialectical method is based on three laws which satisfaction of human needs. But, changing needs,
are as follows : defective mode of production and limited
1. The law of transformation of quantity into knowledge continue to put strain on any given
quality and vice versa : It means that system of production.
Marx in his “Preface of the contribution to the autonomy of politics and impact of culture,
Critique of Political Economy” holds that “In the ideology etc. in mushrooming politics and
social production of their life men enter into institution. Moreover, his vision of communist
definite relations that are indispensable and society as perfect one has failed to live upto
independent of their will; relations of production expectations.
which correspond to a definite stage of
development of their material productive forces. MARX’S CONCEPTION OF CLASS
The sum total of these relations of production STRUGGLE
constitutes the economic structure, the real basis
Marx’s theory of class struggle is a logical corollary
on which rises a legal and political structure”.
of his concept of historical materialism. The
Marx adds that, “at a certain stage of their opening line of the Communist Manifesto says
development, the material productive forces of “The history of all hitherto existing society is the
society comes into conflict with existing relations history of class struggle”. It results in the
of production. Every society contains the seeds of elimination of the existing class structure and its
its own destruction. The contradictions between replacement by a new one, corresponding to the
forces of production and relations of production new mode of production.
lead to breakdown of the existing mode of
According to Marx except the primitive
production and its superstructure.’’
communist society, all the societies have been
SUPERSTRUCTURE characterized by clear cut class divisions. Freeman
Law, moral, religion etc. and Slave, Lord and Serf, bourgeoisie and
proletariat; in a word, oppressor and oppressed,
haves and havenots stood in constant opposition
Base to each other. Those who owns the means of
mode of production production, control not only the economic life but
Forces and Relation of Production also the political life. Those who possess economic
power also possess political power.
Base Superstructure Model
In his analysis of the capitalist society, Marx
Stages of Historical Development says “of all the classes, the proletariat alone is a
really revolutionary class”. He observed that under
It is through this logic that Marx identified five capitalism society as a whole is splitting into two
stages in historical development: hostile camps directly facing each other. The prole-
(1) Primitive Communism (2) Ancient Society tarian revolution would bring the final
(3) Feudal Society (4) Capitalist Society (5) emancipation of mankind because there is no class
Communist Society. below the proletariat which could be subjected to
The communist society is the final epoch in exploitation.
historical development. It would be a society
without distinctions of social class and a true Criticism
beginning of history as a record of full human self- 1. Marx uses the term class in ambiguous way.
realization. It no where mentions the amount of wealth
or capital as a determinant of a particular
Conclusion class.
Marx’s analysis is noteworthy for highlighting the 2. Marx’s contention that proletarian
role of economic factors in shaping other aspects, revolution represents the final epoch of
mainly politics. But, he has been accused of crude man’s struggle for emancipation from
economic determinism. For, he neglects the exploitation has not lived upto expectation.
In fact, in erstwhile Soviet Union it resulted Under the socialist system the value of labour
in new form of bureaucratic centralism and would be paid to the worker. Moreover, Marx
exploitation. emphasizes that “He who does not work, neither
3. Contrary to Marx’s expectation of shall eat”.
emergence of two classes, a new middle
class has emerged. If, anything it has come Criticism
to play significant role in industrial 1. Marx neglects the efficacy of capital and
enterprises. entrepreneurship skill in production
4. Marx’s optimism with proletariat revolution process.
is questionable. As Laski observed “The 2. Marx is interested in egalitarian principles
breakdown of capitalism might result not than growth.
in communism but in anarchy from which 3. Even his socialist utopia has failed to
there might emerge some dictatorship remedy the disease that he thought to
unrelated in principle of communist ideals”. diagnose very correctly.
Conclusion 4. His remedy through revolution is
questionable. For, there may be more
Despite limitations, the philosophical soundness adequate peaceful methods to deal with
of Marx’s theory of class struggle can not be exploitation.
neglected. It has hopes for million of unskilled,
unemployed, illiterate masses being made a cog in Conclusion
wheel in modern capitalist enterprises. If it failed,
Despite limitations, Marxist conception of surplus
it was not due to its intellectual limitations but
value is noteworthy for highlighting the intricate
rigidity and parochialism on the part of elites which
and complex exploitative character of capitalist
Marx would have never wanted.
system of production. Perhaps this led to revision
MARX’S THEORY OF SURPLUS VALUE and rethinking within the liberal paradigm. The
positive, welfare state was nothing out of a plea
The theory of surplus value is one of the significant to remedy the ill plight of weak and poor sections.
contribution of Karl Marx to political science. It
is discussed in his monument work “Das Capital” MARX’S VIEW ON REVOLUTION
which showed the opaque side of capitalism and
is ample testimony of worker’s exploitation in Karl Marx, one of the great revolutionaries and
capitalist society. His theory is based upon the political philosopher held that “the philosophers
labour theory of value as Sabine remarks “the have always interpreted the world. What matters
theory of surplus value was professedly an however is to change”. His commitment to change
extension of the labour theory of value already led him to synthesize the political and economic
stated by Ricardo and the classical economists”. outcome of the French and Industrial revolutions
According to Marx, of the four elements of and create a coherent system of thought that led
production viz., land, labour, capital and to revolutions after his death. Speaking about the
organization; only labour is the source of value. relevance of Marxist concept of revolution
Every commodity was exchange value represented Lawrence Kaplan says “because Marxism does not
by price. However, workers get much less than merely interpret the world but also seeks to change
what he produces. Much of it is appropriated by it, almost every revolution in the twentieth century
the capitalist. This difference between the has been carried out in his name”. It is concentrated
exchange value of the manufactured commodity expression of his view of historical development.
and the price paid to the worker for his labour is According to Marx revolution means seizure
called surplus value. of political power by the oppressed class by use of
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—10
force. They are inevitable in class divided societies. 3. Contrary to Marx’s optimistic vision of
To him, “In the social production of their life, men polarization of classes under capitalism,
enter into definite relations that are indispensable there has occurred a split. Many of hitherto
and independent of their will, correspond to a working classes have shown upward
definite stage of development of their material mobility in the social hierarchy. The middle
productive forces.... At a certain stage of class has grown in number, strength and
development, the material forces of production in influence.
the society come into conflict with the existing
relations of production leading to a new mode of Conclusion
production”. Marx’s concept of revolution is noteworthy for
Marx notes that while revolutions in the past showing his commitment to change. It helped in
were accomplished by a minority, proletarian enlightening the minds of downtrodden,
revolution would be a revolution of the majority. underprivileged, exploited lot of the industrial
Moreover, its aim is not to win power exploiting capitalism. But, under finance capitalism of today
another class. Rather, its aim is to end the system his theory has limitations. It needs to take
of exploitation itself. Although he believes that cognizance of the role of transnational corporations
“of all the instruments of production, the greatest of supernational agencies in building revolutionary
productive force is the revolutionary class itself”, strategies.
but he advises them to become a “class for itself”
by developing class consciousness. CONCEPT OF ALIENATION IN
According to Marx, Proletarian revolution MARX’S THOUGHT
would be the final revolution in the history of Marx’s concept of Alienation has been a relatively
mankind. It will replace capitalism by socialism new entrant in the domain of politics. For, it is
and establish dictatorship of the proletariat in the compiled in “Economic and Philosophic
intervening period between socialism and Manuscripts” (1844) that were published in 1932.
communism. State is retained but with difference. It contains humanist elements in Marxism evident
It is a state majority of propertyless for the in the writings of young Marx. This aspect has
liquidation of private property along with its received, considerable attention in the writings of
ideology and culture. Slowly and gradually there neo-Marxists. Marx’s concept of alienation is
will emerge a classless society and withering away dependent on his analysis of capitalism, mainly
of the state. for its dehumanizing effects.
According to Marx, alienation is a material
Criticism
process by which man creates things out of nature
1. Engaged in crude economic determinism. and comes to be dominated by those creations.
It fails to see the multidimension role of The creative potential is fundamental to human
state and neglects the aspect of culture, beings. They continually create the world. But,
ethics and ideology on social linkages. they lose control of their own creations and become
2. It sees proletariat revolution as the final subject to them. It is externalization of human
revolution in the history of mankind. It creativity into forms which not only obscured but
will give way for communism. Which won’t denied their human, creative origin.
require revolution, because there does not The chief cause of alienation is the institution
exist any exploitation. But, Mao Tse Tung of private property. Marx would ask “If I wish to
saw revolution as a perpetual and play tennis or golf do I need to own to court and
continuing process undergoing even under so exclude others before I can pursue that objective”,
communism. he identifies four told alienation.
Alienation from product Influences

This happens in two ways : Firstly, a product does 1. Dialectic method of Plato used in his
not belong to a person who creates it. Secondly, masterpiece Republic.
the profit from his product goes on to increase the 2. Benthamite Utilitarianism laying stress on
capital investment and increase the control of pleasure-pain theory.
capital over labour.
3. Philosophers like Coleridge and
Alienation from labour Wordsworth also influenced Mill.
4. His wife Mrs. Taylor who was part of all his
It is the major form of alienation whereby the
discussion on political issues.
worker is alienated from his own nature. It can be
illustrated by the saying “the worker works in Works : On Liberty
order to live, he does not see his work as fulfilling Considerations on Representative
his life, but simply as something to be got through Government
in order to live”. Principles of Political Economy
Alienation from other men MODIFICATION OF UTILITARIANISM
The competitive character of economic system is Being son of James Mill, it was natural for J.S.
subject to the laws of supply and demand without Mill to imbibe the spirit of utilitarianism. At the
considering the human consequences. Some are age of 16, he founded the utilitarian society and
thrown out, some are made to work for long hours. sought to propagate Benthamite Principle of
Alienation from himself Utility. However, in view of scathing critiques, he
started writing in defence of utilitarianism.
The three forms of alienation reduces himself to Knowingly or unknowingly as Wayper says, “in
the level of an animal existence where he has no his doctrine to safeguard utilitarianism from the
interest for art, literature, music, etc. reapproaches levelled against it, Mill goes towards
overthrowing the whole utilitarian position”.
Conclusion
His defence of utilitarianism marked following
Marx’s concept of alienation reflects his moral changes in Benthamite utilitarianism:
criticism of contemporary capitalist society. It
1. For Bentham man is a pleasure seeking
shows the dehumanizing effects of capitalist system
being devoid of moral responsibilities.
of production. The unabashed, unrestrained and
Being devoid of moral responsibilities will
ruthless form of market based capitalism needs to
replace self interest with self sacrifice.
take cognizance of this aspect. For, its neglect
may force Marx to rise from the ashes and vindicate 2. Mill made qualitative difference between
the claims of liberal egalitarianisms. different kinds of pleasures. He modifies
Bentham’s thesis on quantity being more
J.S. MILL important and holds that poetry is superior
and preferable to pushpin or any other
Life and Time game.
John Stuart Mill, one of the respected figures in 3. He abandoned the hedonistic “felicitous
British political circle was the eldest son of James calculus”. To him, pleasure or pain is only
Mill, a close associate of Bentham. From his a subjective sensation that can not be
childhood he was subjected to rigorous training objectively measured.
with books. He studied Greek, French and Latin 4. Instead of pleasure, he makes dignity as
languages. He was the last of the utilitarians and final end of human life. To him, a sense of
foremost of the individualists. dignity is natural for human beings.
5. He envisaged a positive function for the 1. A scheme of individual rights which

state while Bentham outlines states role to adequately safeguard the minorities against
increase pleasure and decrease pain, will the will of elected majority.
want it to promote virtue among the 2. Universal education to enable the citizens
individuals. to become aware of their rights and
6. While Bentham subordinates liberty to the obligations.
utility, Mill acknowledges liberty as amend 3. Active, self helping character of the
in itself. citizenry.
7. In place of Bentham’s theory of “Everyone 4. Proportional representation (Hare system)
to count for one and no one for more than to ensure minorities representation in
one”, Mill supports plural voting. In fact, proportion to their strength.
he recognizes the concerns of minority
groups also. 5. Voting by open of public ballot.
6. Equal voting right for all irrespective of
Conclusion sex or colour. In “Subjection of Women”
Mill in his quest to defend utilitarianism attempts he analyzes reasons for giving suffrage to
to reform it. But, what emerges from it is women.
characteristically novel in many respects. His 7. Indirect election.
concerns have been widely acknowledged and 8. State funding of election.
appreciated. His concept of positive functions of 9. Institution of second chamber to safeguard
the state and defence of liberty are monumental in the interests of those sections which would
its own way. otherwise not be adequately represented in
the popular assembly.
DEMOCRACY
10. No voting rights to moral deviants, legally
Even though J.S. Mill started as a defender of bankrupts and those unable to pay local
utilitarianism, his attempt to reform it outlined taxes.
many novel features. One such feature was positive
functions of the state. In his “considerations on Conclusion
Representative Government”, Mill is mainly
Mills analysis of representative democracy contains
concerned with institutional reform in the
government so as to make it a responsible and both; conservative as well as innovative elements.
representative institution. So, impressive is his view His plea to preserve and protect the existing
that even some of the contemporary theorists of institutions are mark of his conservative stance.
Democracy, like C.B. Macpherson and Carole He is innovative in the sense that he supports
Pateman claim to imbibe Mills spirit. voting rights for women. But ultimately he has
been hailed as a great democrat whose suggestions
According to Mill the best form of government
and reforms have been widely appreciated,
is the representative government. It safeguards
freedom, right of self-determination. It encourages particularly in the second half of the twentieth
free discussion which is necessary for the emergence century.
of truth. It reconciles the individual freedom with
MILL’S THOUGHT ON INDIVIDUAL
political equality.
LIBERTY
Conditions for Success J.S. Mill was a staunch proponent of individual
In view of his optimism with representative liberty. His essay “On Liberty” remains one of the
democracy, Mill lays down several conditions for finest treatises ever written on the idea of freedom.
its success. Liberty for him is the life breath of society.
Kinds of Liberty It is not necessary for its instrumentality in

ensuring effective government, but is good for its
Mill identifies two kinds of liberty : negative and
intrinsic worth. Moreover, it helps in establishing
positive. In its negative sense, liberty imply non-
the truth.
restriction in the activities of the individual.
Positively it implies area within which individuals Criticism
can use their energies for creative activities and
self-development. 1. Mill offers an elitist conception of liberty.
For, people enslaved to customs are not
Self-Regarding and Other-Regarding free.
Actions 2. Barker labels Mill as “a prophet of an empty
According to Mill, in case of a clash between an liberty and an abstract individual”.
individual’s opinion with that of the community, 3. As an ardent liberal he is more concerned
the individual will be the ultimate judge unless with protecting individual’s private sphere
the community can convince him without threat than with common good as people like
to violence or coercion. Moreover, he makes Green envisaged.
differentiation between self-regarding and other- 4. Mill’s conception of liberty fails to
regarding actions. complement it with claims of peace and
He favoured complete freedom of conduct for order in society.
the individual in the sphere of self-regarding
actions unless it was dangerous to himself. With Conclusion
respect to ‘other-regarding actions’ Mill conceded The doctrine of liberty that has become an integral
the right of the community to coerce the part of every theory on politics is incomplete with
individual if his conduct was contrary to its J.S. Mill. In fact, he has remained of the reference
welfare. point for new theorisation on the idea of liberty.
For, he acknowledges its universal as well as
Threats to Liberty
developmental aspect.
Mill identifies threat to liberty mainly from two
sources one, state laws that could restrict freedom MOHANDAS KARAMCHAND GANDHI
and two, society which expresses the general but
unorganized opinion. But, he accepts reasonable M.K. Gandhi, popularly known as Mahatma Gandhi
interference to individual liberty to prevent harm was born on 2 October, 1869 at a place, Porbandar
to other people. in Gujarat. His father Karam Chand Gandhi was a
Dewan of the State. His mother was a religious
Kinds of Liberty minded lady who influenced the Mahatma, more
Mill discusses liberty broadly under three heads. than his father. He was married at the age of twelve.
They are as follow : At the age of 19 years, he was sent to England.
Soon after his return from England in 1891, he
Firstly, The liberty to thought and expression.
went to Abdullah, a Gujarati merchant. He was
Secondly, Liberty of tastes and pursuits. deeply displeased by the ill treatment meted out
Thirdly, Freedom of Association. to Indians. From 1904 to 1914, he launched
Mill’s discussion of the liberty of thought and Satyagraha. Soon after, he returned to India and
expression is the most classic part of his essay ‘on played a major role in India’s freedom struggle. He
liberty’. It is essential not only for the development died on January 30, 1948 from an injury caused
of the individual personality but also for the health by bullet fired from close range by Nathu Ram
and vigour of the society. Godse.
Activities in India — Gandhi was also influenced by Rousseau’s

dictum “back to the nature”. In fact his
— established Sabarmati Ashram on May 25,
view on Panchayat was greatly influenced
1916
by Rousseau.
— joined Indian National Congress in 1916 — Teaching of Lao Tse and Confucianism
— started Non-Cooperation Movement in also influenced Gandhiji.
1921
— started Civil Disobedience Movement in NON-VIOLENCE
1930 “Gandhi was neither a politician nor a political
— attended Second Round Table Conference thinker”, says Prof. S.P. Verma “he was a seeker
in 1931 after truth”. He saw a close relation between means
— revived Civil Disobedience Movement in and end. So, Gandhi came to accept that truth
1932 could be realized only through ahimsa. He saw
— launched Quit India Movement in 1942 truth and non-violence “as the two sides of the
same coin”. He considered it be “not a mere
Main works philosophical principle, it is the rule and breath of
my life.... It is a matter not of the intellect but of
— Hind Swaraj
the heart.”
— Young India
Gandhi used non-violence in broader terms. It
— Harijan is not used in negative sense of non-killing of
— Uses of Truth human or animal life. Rather, it was something
positive in action and deed. He observed “Non-
Influences on Gandhi violence is the law of our species as violence is
— Jesus Christ’s message of love and non- the law of brute. The spirit lies dormant in the
violence brute and he knows no law but that of physical
— John Ruskins views about goodness of force. The dignity of men requires obedience to
human nature. His work ‘Unto This Last’ a higher law—the struggle of the spirit. Non-
gave respect for manual labour. violence is a perfect state. It is the goal towards
which all mankind moves naturally, though
— Thought of British political philosopher
unconsciously”.
T.H. Green.
Gandhi’s technique of non-violence was aimed
— Like Plato and Aristotle considered
at promoting social change. He opined that “It is
state as an enlarged embodiment of
a soul force or truth force or truth-seeking force. It
individual.
is in short satyagraha which means resistance to
— Like Thorean, Gandhi considered state as evil with the moral and spiritual force or firmness
essentially based on violence, Civil in the indication of Truth”.
Disobedience and non-payment of taxes.
However, Gandhi did not foreclose the option
— Work of Leo Tolstoy, viz., The Kingdom of violence. If one is caught in between inflicting
of the God is within you, the Gospel in violence and acting in cowardly manner, Gandhi
Brief, The letter to a Hindu. favoured the use of violence. To him “It is better
— Like Tolstoy, Gandhi was a philosophical to be a soldier than to be a coward”. He also
anarchist. In particular, he was influenced cautioned that non-violence was to be used only
by Tolstoy’s path of non-violence. His by those who were capable of using violence
famous “Kingdom of God is within you” effectively but they deliberately restrained from
led Gandhi in non-cooperation. doing so.
CRITIQUE OF MODERN CIVILIZATION Different Views on Aurobindo

Gandhi’s “Hind Swaraj” written in a discursive To Romain Rolland, He was the highest synthesis
format presents an alternative to the challenging of the genius of the east and the west and the
sway of science and technology in human life. He prince among the Indian thinkers.
analyzes the practical questions confronting Indian Dr. Radhakrishnan hailed him as the most
society and presents a moral solutions to them. accomplished of modern Indian political thinker.
According to Gandhi, much of the appalling Rabindranath Tagore (a nobel laureate) was
conditions of contemporary times are product of so impressed by his abilities that he is the one who
European enlightenment. The crude materialism can propagate the message of India.
as standard of life and prevalence of immorality in Fredrics, an American educationist saw him as
the name of morality have been brought about by the ‘guiding star of our earth and prophet of our
modern civilization. To him, British parliament is age’.
a “sterile woman” and party politics is pity politics
Aurobindo remained in England for fourteen
which aims at securing individual interest at the
years and studied Greek and Latin classics and
cost of social or general interest.
works of great European thinkers. It was in England
Civilization to Gandhi, is a mode of conduct that he took pledge to liberate his motherland
which gives them a sense of duty. Duty is from the imperial yoke. He began by organizing a
inseparably dependent on morality. He points out secret society called ‘Lotus and Dagger’ for the
how our criteria of judgement get confined to our uplift of his nation. Despite being qualified for
own notion of good. For “good to be of universal I.C.S., he could not make it due to riding test. This
significance must be backed by morality”. further accentuated hatred against the British rule.
Gandhi denounces the way of modern means Soon afterwards, his father who was at once
of communication like railways and reluctant to inculcate Indian ethos in his son
professionalization of occupation as crippling injected national feelings.
human minds and degenerating their potentialities.
He holds that treating religion as superstition has Participation/Active Role
further complicated the situation. On the contrary, — Took active part in Indian politics from
we points out that religion remains the everyday 1905 to 1911.
aspect of life unifying humanity.
— He belonged to the Extremist camp.
AUROBINDO GHOSH — Edited the ‘Bande Matram’.
— Put behind bar in Alipur Conspiracy Case.
Life and Time — Withdrew from active politics at the age
Aurobindo was born on 15 Aug. 1872 at Calcutta. of 38 years.
His father Dr. Krishandhan Ghose was a medical — Died at Pondicherry in 1950.
man who was educated from Aberdeen University,
England. It was natural for his son to be educated Main Works of Aurobindo
in westen system of education. In his later years, — Life Divine
the man proved himself to be a great mystic, a — Essays on Gita
poet, a profound thinker and above all an ardent
— Synthesis of Yoga
patriot. With an outstanding personality and
foresight to visualize the past and future, the — Renaissance of India
man continues to influence millions of his — Basis of Yoga
countrymen. — Ideal of Human Unity
— Defence of Indian Culture Aurobindo considered the efforts of moderates

— Riddles of the World as ineffective and fruitless. While, he accepted
— The Super Man that their attempts can bring about reforms in the
legislature or Indianization of civil service, they
SPIRITUAL NATIONALISM can not be helpful in creating a responsible
constitutional government. While they were
Aurobindo gave a new conception of Indian
significant, they could not be realized under
Nationalism. To him, it is not simply a political
conditions prevalent at that time.
programme. Rather, he saw the manifestation of
good in the nation. India, in his opinion is unique According to Aurobindo foreign rule was the
in herself and a genius par-excellence. main culprit for the ill plight of Indians. He
believed that a subject nation can not use its own
According to Aurobindo India is a divine
capacity and energy. Slowly and steadily it loses
power and an embodiment of spirituality. To fight
all its powers. The solution that he favoured was
for nation is to show love for mother. He exhorts
national independence. It will not only ensure
“Nationalism is a religion that has come from God.
individual development but also ensure full
Nationalism is a creed which you shall have to
development of the national strength.
love. If you are going to be a nationalist, you must
do it, in the religious spirit. Nationalism survives VIOLENT RESISTANCE
in the strength of God and it is not possible to
crush it whatever weapons are brought against it. The Partition of Bengal (1905) had a deep impact
Nationalism is immortal.” on Aurobindo Ghosh and he was led to believe
Aurobindo wanted India to play a leading that a violent resistance could be a better political
role in the world’s quest towards spirituality. But, alternative for the sake of national liberation. He
she could fulfil her task only when she attains favoured violent resistance only if the objective
complete independence. “In the ideal of could be gained quickly and the masses must
Nationalism which India will set before the world, acknowledge whether the violent resistance is
there will be an essential equality between man feasible under the existing circumstances. He
and man irrespective of caste, creed, religion or accepted that though there are suffering in such
economic status. Nation is a Virat Purush or a efforts, but he believed that armed revolt was the
magnified image of man and all the individuals quickest and thorough in results.
are an integral part of the personality which is However, Aurobindo was fully aware of the
symbolized by the nation”. existing environment. Lack of thorough unity and
Aurobindo’s conception of Nationalism was proper organization, made him to accept the
not sectarian. But, rather cosmopolitan where India usefulness of passive resistance as the best device
was destined to play a bigger role and spearhead for getting rid of the British domination.
the case for one humanity.
PASSIVE RESISTANCE
PURNA SWARAJ In broader terms, passive resistance implies
Aurobindo was a great nationalist who had great abstaining from doing something by which the
pride in the culture and traditions of his motherland. opponent would otherwise be helped. In the context
He believed that only a national government can of British rule, it included boycott of foreign goods,
rejuvenate the capacity and energy of India. It was institutions, etc.
due to these assumptions that Aurobindo Aurobindo highlights certain qualifications for
considered Purna Swaraj to be the main objective passive resistance. Those include
of Indian nationalism. (a) disobeying just coercive laws.
(b) defy unjust executive orders. in 1936 and was arrested in the Kanpur conspiracy
(c) refuse to pay taxes. case. Later on, he organized a ‘League of Radical
(d) social ex-communication against those who Congressmen’ and the Radical Democratic Party.
are traitors and hamper the activities of Roy’s life is broadly divided into three
freedom fighters. different phase
According to Aurobindo “so long as the action I—spanning upto 1919—as a revolutionary
of the executive is peaceful and within the rules II—spanning upto 1929—as a Marxist
of the fight, the passive resister scrupulously III—till death—as Radical Humanist.
maintains his attitude of passivity but he is not
bound to do so a moment beyond. To submit to Main works :
illegal or violent methods of coercion, to accept 1. India in Transition (1922)
outrage and hooliganism as the legal procedure of
the country is to be guilty of cowardice and 2. Indian Problem and its Solution (1922)
dwarfing national manhood, to sin against the 3. One Year of Non-Cooperation
divinity within ourselves and the dignity in our 4. The Future of Indian Politics (1926)
motherland”. He allowed the resister to use 5. Revolution and Counter Revolution in
violence if the opponent uses it. A passive China (1930)
resistance must be supplemented with active 6. Materialism (1934)
resistance. In the opinion of J.K. Ray “Aurobindo
7. New Orientation
was confident that passive resistance if applied to
different departments of Administration will cut 8. Beyond Communism to Humanism
the ground from under the feet of foreign 9. New Humanism and Politics.
bureaucrats, render their existence anachronistic
and useless and pave the way to national RADICAL HUMANISM
emancipation”. Roy started his political activities as a revo-
lutionary by participating in the activities of
M.N. ROY Yugantar Group. Later on, he studied Marxism
and was deeply inspired by its basic tenets. In his
Life and Time opinion “Marxism is the outcome of the
Manvendra Nath Roy was born in 1886, in 24 development of thought from dawn of history,
Parganas district of Bengal. Soon after receiving therefore it is the heritage of humanity, it is the
his education at Calcutta, he developed close ideological equipment belonging to every body
contact with revolutionaries. He was an active for “a better world”. But in view of dogmatic
member of Yugantar group, a revolutionary interpretations of Marxism by Russian tyrants, he
organization mainly active in Bengal. His moved on to outline, what he termed as Radical
association with Jatin Mukherjee was another factor Humanism.
of crucial importance in his revolutionary activities.
Roy’s radical Humanism is not simply a
In view of growing governmental pressure and
reaction against Stalin’s interpretation of Marx
attack on revolutionaries, he went to Java,
but instead it represents his vision of freedom and
Philippines, Korea, Manchuria and USA. He deeply
well being. As he says, ‘radical humanism is a
studied the tenets of Marxism Socialism and was
philosophy of freedom based on modern scientific
invited by Lenin to visit Russia in 1920, in 1926
knowledge. It aimed at infusing and re-invigorating
he went to China as the chief representative of the
ethical or moral outlook in the man.
communist international. Soon after he severed
ties with the communist international so as to There are following grounds on which Roy
avoid back lash with Stalin. He returned to India opposed Marxism.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—11
Firstly, He did not pin faith in the Marxism Roy made a novel connection between the
theory of surplus value. Rather he believed that means and ends. As he said “It is very doubtful if
surplus provided one of the basis for society’s a moral object can ever be attained by immoral
progress. means”. But, his conclusions draw a totally
Secondly, He did not approve of economic different picture than Gandhi’s Ram Rajya. He was
deterministic outlook of man. As Dr. V.D. Varma convinced of the usefulness of European
observes “in place of the Marxist thesis which rationalism. He advocated use of physical sciences
interpret ethical norms in terms of class struggle, in the service of mankind.
Roy accepts that there is something permanent in The basis of Roy’s “New Humanism” was
ethical values”. Roy also said “Philosophically, cosmopolitan. It transcended natural as well as
the materialist conception of history must political boundaries. As he observed “New
recognize the creative role of intelligence. Humanism is cosmopolitan commonwealth of
Materialism can not deny the objective reality of spiritually free men would not be limited by the
ideas”. boundaries of national states. Which will gradually
Thirdly, Roy had strong praise for indivi- disappear under the 20th century renaissance of
dualism. man“. The role of education was of pivotal
Fourthly, Roy was not convinced with the importance in Roy’s scheme of things.
Marxism notion of “history of all hitherto existing Roy’s conception of New Humanism was
societies is history of class struggle”. Rather, he basically a conception of individual freedom based
believed that conflict cooperation are part of social on reason and morality. It was to be a tool for
life. Moreover, the contemporary reality did not social progress. As he observed “The quest for
expressed Marx’s ideas. freedom is the continuation of biological struggle
Fifthly, Roy was highly critical of the for existence at the emotional and cognitional
dictatorship of the proletariat. On the contrary, we level”.
believed that the real “conflict was between His love for individual freedom and social
totalitarianism and democracy, between all- progress is expressed in his following word. “A
devouring collective ego-nation or class and the brotherhood of men attracted by the adventure of
individual struggling for freedom”. ideas, keenly conscious of the urge for freedom
A revolution through education was the most fired with the vision of a free society of free man
suitable method for change. In his opinion, and motivated by the will to remake the world so
revolutions and the resulting dictatorship of the as to restore the individual in his position of
proletariat lead to totalitarianism of one or the primary and dignity will show the way out of the
other kind. contemporary crisis of modern civilization.
NEW HUMANISM POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC IDEAS

Roy changed his view from radical to New Roy’s love for individual freedom led him to outline
Humanism. It was marked by as Vishnoo Bhagwan a broader framework that could be most conducive
observes “He found in the European renaissance to its realization. Being witness to the fate of
enriched by the discoveries of present day sciences centralized society (Soviet Union), he favoured
the basis of a new social order. Hence, it is rightly decentralization of power in the political as well
contended that Roy’s humanistic elements of as economic realm. The villages and local units
thoughts are traceable to several schools and must be the tool of social change and it should not
epochs of western philosophy. He craves for New be brought about by the political parties. As
Humanism based upon natural reason and secular Vishnoo Bhagwan observes “Like J.P. Narayan,
conscience”. we strongly advocated partyless democracy”.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—11-II
Roy did not favour the prevailing systems of wealth”. Moreover, he was totally against any use
representative democracy. According to Dr. V.P. of state power in economy, speaking about welfare
Verma, “He stood for a social system, where social state, he remarked “Money is taken out of the
technology and the pooled powers of human pocket of the worker and put into his other pocket
reasons and engineering would be applied to the in the form of benefits, in the process, the money
reconciliation of individual freedom and social loses about 20-25 per cent of its value”.
good and progress”. He labelled this model as Roy favoured a cooperative economy based
‘organized democracy’ resembling Rousseau’s on twin-principle of decentralization and
theory of direct democracy. He said, “To be real, cooperation geared towards serving human ends.
democracy must be direct, government must be These economic units must use technology on
under the direct control of the people”. substantial scale to industrialize itself. As he said
However, in view of its impracticability in the “Machine should not be the Frankenstein of modern
contemporary world, Roy made certain modi- civilization. Created by man, it must subserve man’s
fications. These included an institution of council purpose—contribute to his freedom.
of state whose members were to be elected as well
as selected by professional groups. The council Conclusion
will mainly concern itself with the planning and Roy remains one of the most dynamic intellectuals
guiding the execution of plan. that Indian soil has produced. His ability to
Roy neither favoured laissez faire capitalism, understand the world as a revolutionary, a Marxist,
nor did he precised collectivism of Soviet type. As a humanist and an Indian nationalist enable him
he said “The concept of the economic man to espouse a conception of freedom that is as
negatives the liberation doctrine of individualism. relevant as ever. As B.N. Das Gupta observes “Roy
The economic man is bound to be a slave or a remains unparalleled to the realm of human affairs
slave holder”. In the same vein he said “State as an exponent at a time when particularly the
control of the means of production and planned East and some countries of the west were passing
economy do not by themselves end exploitation through feverish turmoil for self determination and
of labour nor lead to an equal distribution of emancipation”.

1. Who asserts that fundamental conception in 4. Advancements in science and technology as
social sciences is power in the same sense also the socio-economic processes, have
that energy is fundamental concept in made -------- more complex.
physics? (a) Societies (b) Human mind
(a) Russell (b) Weber (c) Politics (d) None of the above
(c) Macpherson (d) Palmer 5. Which of the following is an example of
2. The ‘Power Theory’ finds its brilliant societies that do not have organized state?
manifestation in the political philosophy of: (a) Nuer in Southern Sudan
(a) Locke (b) Hobbes (b) Anuak in Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
(c) Mill (d) Rousseau (c) Tallensi in northern territory of Gold
3. Which of the following was a ‘protectorate’ Coast
of the British Empire between 1922 and (d) All of the above
1936? 6. ..... is not restricted to any geographical area.
(a) Israel (b) Egypt (a) State (b) Nation
(c) Haiti (d) Cuba (c) Society (d) Country
7. The relationship between state and society 15. What is meant by the “managerial
is --------, they determine and are, in turn, revolution”?
determined by each other. (a) The revolution by which managers and
(a) Reciprocal (b) Controversial not politicians became the controllers
(c) Contradictory (d) None of the above of political power
8. The word ‘nation’ is derived from the Latin (b) Managers of industries have become so
word ‘natio’ which means : powerful that they can dictate the terms
(a) Common affiliation and conditions of their services
(b) Common mother (c) The fact that in the modern western capi-
(c) Common birth or race talist economics, ownership of capital
(d) None of the above and control of capital have been
separated
9. During the French Revolution the term (d) The industrial managers virtually
‘nation’ came into great popularity and was control the economy of a country in the
used to mean : modern times
(a) Patriotism (b) Citizenship
16. Ideological power helps the ruling class in
(c) Liberation (d) None of the above
maintaining the legitimacy of its :
10. Who said that revolution is that process by (a) Ideological power
which a radical alteration of a particular (b) Political power
society occurs over a time span? (c) Economic power
(a) Moore (b) Cohan (d) Social power
(c) Dunn (d) Pete
17. Who defined power as ‘the capacity in any
11. Who said that power is “a relationship in relationship to command the service or
which one group of persons is able to compliance of others’?
determine the actions of another in the (a) Weber (b) MacIver
direction of the former’s own ends”? (c) Pareto (d) Russell
(a) Morgenthau (b) Palmer
18. According to Weber which of the following
(c) Easton (d) Duverger
is not one of the types of authority prevalent
12. The Elitist view maintains that in a in the modern state?
democratic society political power resides in (a) Legal-rational authority
the : (b) Traditional authority
(a) Bureaucratic elite (b) Pluralist elite (c) Charismatic authority
(c) Liberal elite (d) Socialist elite (d) Nominal authority
13. “Politics is the possession and distribution 19. Who among the following traditional
of power” ------- who made this statement? thinkers brought out the significance of
(a) Robson (b) Becker power in the political phenomenon?
(c) Russell (d) Disraeli (a) Hobbes (b) Machiavelli
14. According to Marxism, political power is a (c) Nietzsche (d) All of these
strong, organised and unified power of the 20. Who defined political science as ‘the study
economically : of the shaping and sharing of power’?
(a) Weaker Section (a) Weber
(b) Dominant Class (b) MacIver
(c) Backward Class (c) Lasswell and Kaplan
(d) Better off Section (d) Catlin
21. Match List I with List II and select the correct 27. Which of the following is not a form of
answer by using the codes given below : closed door policy?
List I List II (a) Tariffs (b) Shipping
A. Robert Dahi 1. Comparative Govern- (c) Concessions (d) Mandate
ment and Politics 28. What is the term used to explain control by
B. MacIver 2. Power and Society two or more powers over a disputed territory
C. Michael Curtis 3. Modern Political in order to prevent colonial rivalry?
Analysis (a) Protectorate (b) Alliance
D. Kaplan 4. The Web of (c) Condominium (d) None of the above
Government
Codes : 29. The right of extra-territoriality was claimed
A B C D and established in almost all ------ countries
(a) 3 4 1 2 which give few rights to Christians.
(b) 1 2 3 4 (a) North-eastern (b) Muslim
(c) 3 4 2 1 (c) Hindu (d) Western
(d) 4 1 3 2 30. Modern imperialism places more reliance on :
22. Which of the following is one of the (a) downright conquest and annexation
traditionally recognized organs of power in (b) diplomacy and international agreement
the State? (c) groupism and cold war
(a) Legislature (b) Executive (d) nuclear threat and hooliganism
(c) Judiciary (d) All of these 31. Which of the following may be defined as
23. Leacock defines a nation or nationality as a “the complex of organised associations and
body of people united by common descent institutions within a community”?
and a common : (a) Society (b) Nation
(a) Territory (b) Customs (c) State (d) None of the above
(c) Language (d) None of the above 32. Who said that the global economy must be
24. Who said that a nation is a community of viewed as a collection of heterogeneous units
persons living in definite territory and with different agendas interacting with one-
thereby bound together by the bonds of another in a variety of ways and thus
mutual love? changing its character over time?
(a) Gilchrist (b) Garner (a) Adiseshiah (b) Kurien
(c) Bryce (d) Barker (c) Bruton (d) Kruenger
25. Who, in his work International Law, 33. Which of the following is defined as the
emphasises that the idea of nation is value which labour produces beyond that
associated with origin of birth, community which is socially necessary to sustain itself?
of race, community of language, etc.? (a) Additional Value (b) Labour Value
(a) Leacock (b) Hayes (c) Concealed Value (d) Surplus Value
(c) Calvo (d) None of the above 34. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT) was established in :
26. Sidgwick has correctly said that some of the
(a) Geneva (b) New York
leading modern nations are “notoriously” of
(c) Tokyo (d) Paris
very mixed :
(a) Race 35. What does TRIPs stand for?
(b) Language (a) Tariff-Related Intellectual Practices
(c) System (b) Trade-Related Intellectual Property
(d) None of the above Rights
(c) Trade-Related Interest Property Rights (b) Privatisation

(d) None of the above (c) Commercialisation
36. Under ------ patents help shall be available (d) None of the above
for any invention whether product or process 44. What does MIC stand for?
in all fields of industrial technologies. (a) Marginal Inquiry Commission
(a) GATT (b) TRIMs (b) Market Inquiry Commission
(c) TRIPs (d) WTO (c) Monopolies Inquiry Commission
37. The company which had been granted a (d) None of the above
patent right for Neem as a pesticide is : 45. The term ‘nation’ conveys the ideals of :
(a) German (b) African (a) Social independence
(c) Canadian (d) American
(b) Political independence
38. Who made no distinction between State and (c) Economic independence
Society? (d) All of the above
(a) Hegel (b) Aristotle
(c) Plato (d) Both (b) and (c) 46. Which of the following statement is true
regarding nation?
39. Which theory considers the associations as (a) A nation is a community which
important as the state itself? considers itself one
(a) Institutionalistic theory (b) A nation means the population of a
(b) Behaviouralistic theory selfgoverning state
(c) Individualistic theory (c) It is held together by many ties like
(d) Pluralistic theory territory language etc.
40. ------ enjoys the power of coercion and ----- (d) All of the above
- does not enjoy the powers of coercion
47. Who said that a nation is a soul, a spiritual
(a) State, Society
principle and “to have suffered, rejoiced and
(b) Nation, State hoped together” makes a people a nation?
(c) Association, Society (a) Hayes (b) Ernest Renan
(d) Government, State (c) Burns (d) Zimmern
41. Society secures the cooperation of its 48. The term nation emphasises the
members by : consciousness of unity due to :
(a) Coercion (b) Peruasion (a) Psychological feelings
(c) Allurement (d) None of the above (b) Political feelings
42. Who agrues that trade liberalization brings (c) Spiritual feelings
about increasing returns, which in turn, (d) Both (a) and (c)
would generate a higher rate of growth in 49. Most of the political thinkers equate nation
the economy? with :
(a) Krueger (b) Edwards (a) Nationality
(c) Michaley (d) Tayler (b) State
43. Which of the following means the extension (c) Society
of the neo-classical view of competition, ‘the (d) None of the above
freedom of traders to use their resources where 50. Which of the following are not the basis of
they will and exchange them at any price the authority of society?
they wish’ across the nations? (a) Social Customs (b) Conventions
(a) Globalisation (c) Laws (d) Moral Pressure
51. The goals of the Indian Society have been The above statement is attributed to :
spelt out in the : (a) Gettel (b) Laski
(a) Bhagavat Gita (c) Gilchrist (d) Garner
(b) Constitution 59. Who among the following are
(c) Religious Scriptures ‘communitarian’?
(d) All of the above (a) Ralph Miliband
52. Who among the following modern writers (b) Hannah Arendt
brought out the significance of power in the (c) Hans J. Morgenthau
political phenomenon? (d) Louis Althusser
(a) Kaplan (b) Merrian 60. Consider the following statement : “---- the
(c) Hobbes (d) Both (a) and (b) entire world has no right to silence a fool ---
53. Ideological power provides a more subtle --”
base of : The above statement was made by :
(a) Economic power (b) Political power (a) Niccollo Machiavelli
(c) Traditional power (d) Physical power (b) Jeremy Bentham
54. Who defined ideology as a ‘systematic set of (c) James Mill
arguments and beliefs used to justify an (d) John Stuart Mill
existing or desired soical order’? 61. Which group of scholars among the
(a) Max Weber (b) Joseph Dunner following advocated that state has a
(c) Gramsci (d) Dyke personality of its own?
55. Who among the following, uses the term (a) Stahl, Gierke, Gerber, Treitschke and
‘Political System’ instead of the state? Bluntschli
(a) M.H. Fried (b) G.H. Almond (b) Green, Bradly, Aristotle and Bosanquet
(c) Miss Follet (d) Bakunin (c) Max Stirner, Kropotkin and Tolstoy
(d) Nietzsche, Mussolini and Bernhardi
56. Traditional political theory emphasises the
study of : 62. Which of the following views of state is the
(a) Nation and civil society earliest in temporal order?
(b) State and government (a) Church-state view
(c) Association and group (b) Anarchist view
(d) Government and nationality (c) Ethical view
(d) Organic view
57. Who among the following have given
relatively the most satisfactory definitions 63. In the tradition of the organic view of the
of the state? state, who was the first among the following
1. Garner to clearly point out the interdependence of
2. Oppenheim society and individual :
3. Gilchrist (a) Schaffle (b) Fichte
4. Sidgwick (c) Rousseau (d) Gumplowicz
Select the correct answer from the following : 64. The view which holds state as a ‘necessary
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 evil’ seeks :
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 4 (a) Abolition of state
58. “Government is the agency or machinery (b) Promotion of state
through which common policies are (c) Limited state
determined, common affairs are regulated and (d) Replacement of state by voluntary
common interests promoted”. organisations
65. Who among the following first used the 72. Which of the following is correctly matched?
modern terms ‘sovereign’ and sovereignty’? (a) Woodrow Wilson : Politics Among
(a) English liberals like Locke Nations
(b) German idealists like Hegel (b) Ralph Miliband : Politics Among
(c) Chinese revolutionaries like Mao Nations
(d) Franch jurists such as Beaumanoir and (c) Bluntschi : Theory of the state
Loyseau (d) Sidgwick : Politics
66. Jean Bodin claims to be the first modern 73. The book ‘The Hindrances to Good
writer to give the idea of sovereignty. He Citizenship’ is authored by :
disscussed it at length in : (a) R.M. MacIver (b) James Bryce
(c) J.S. Mill (d) De Tocqueville
(a) Lectures on Jurisprudence
(b) On Sovereignty 74. Consider the following statement : “He who
(c) Six Books on the Republic has the power to take part in deliberative or
(d) Recent Theories of Sovereignty judicial administration is said by us to be a
citizen of that state”.
67. Who among the following suggested that (a) Plato (b) Aristotle
the whole concept of sovereignty should be (c) Rousseau (d) J.S. Mill
abandoned altogether?
(a) Barker (b) MacIver 75. Naturalised citizens are citizens by :
(a) Training (b) Birth
(c) Jenks (d) Laski
(c) Education (d) Adoption
68. He is sovereign only in name and not in fact.
76. Who made the following statement?
Although, outwardly the power is vested in
“Education is the best defence of citizenship”.
him, the real power is enjoyed by another
(a) Laski (b) Woodrow Wilson
person or institution. He is a : (c) Lord Bryce (d) Edmund Burke
(a) De jure sovereign
(b) Legal sovereign 77. Who says that the essence of good citizenship
(c) Popular sovereign is “the contribution of one’s instructed
judgement to the public good”?
(d) Titular sovereign
(a) Laski in A Grammar of Politics
69. Who among the following is highly critical (b) MacIver in A Web of Government
of the Austinian theory of sovereignty? (c) Laski in Liberty in the Modern State
(a) Gilchrist (b) Locke (d) Thomas Paine in Rights of Man
(c) Henry Maine (d) Hegel 78. Who among the following is an authority on
70. The term ‘nation’ is derived from : Imperialism?
(a) Natio which means born (a) Michacl Sandel (b) Parker T. Moon
(b) Neten which means race (c) Rosa Luxemburg (d) Both (a) and (b)
(c) Noton which means form 79. The comment – “The Empire is comeree” is
(d) Nail which means community attributed to :
71. Who made the statement that ------ the, nation (a) Andrew Carnegic
underlies the state ------ ‘and’ ------ the state (b) Joseph Chamberlain
is the nation organised in a certain way? (c) Daniel Bell
(a) Thomas Hill Green (d) Parker T. Moon
(b) Lord Acton 80. Prominent critic of Imperialism is :
(c) Henry Leocock (a) J.A. Hobson (b) Lenin
(d) Leslie Lipson (c) M.K. Gandhi (d) All of the above
81. George Bernard Shaw has given his 88. The prominent criticism of the Marxian
description of the British Imperialism in : theory is that :
(a) The Third British Empire (a) There is no rigid division of society into
(b) Imperialism and Civilization two classes
(c) The Man of Destiny (b) The size of the middle class has
(d) The Pattern of Imperialism increased under the capitalist system
82. In Marxist theory, society is divided into instead of diminishing
dominant and dependent classes and the (c) Both (a) and (b)
former controls the state which is an (d) Its prognosis has not been practicable
anywhere, anytime
embodiment of :
(a) Political power (b) Economic power 89. Among the early Greeks who held the view
(c) Social power (d) None of the above that the state is not a divine inspiration
guiding the footsteps of men into Internal
83. The work History of freedom and other Truth but a device of his own making for the
Essays is authored by : convenience of his social life?
(a) Lord Hewart (b) Lord Chesterfield (a) Socrates (b) Pericles
(c) Lord Acton (d) None of the above (c) Plato (d) Epicurus
84. The pattern of social relations at any stage 90. According to early Romans Nomos represents :
of social development is determind by : (a) State (b) Society
(a) The forms of production at that stage (c) Internal Truth (d) Law
(b) The relations of production at that stage
91. The view that the state was created by man
(c) The mode of production at that stage
was given a systematic and theoretical
(d) All of the above
treatment during :
85. In the Marxist theory, the stage will wither (a) Fourteenth Century
away after : (b) Seventeenth Century
(a) Revolution of workers takes place (c) Eighteenth Century
(b) A classless society comes into existence (d) Both (b) and (c)
(c) Prolertariat takes away the property of
92. According to early Romans Lex signified :
the capitalists
(a) Body of Law created by man
(d) None of the above (b) Social conventions followed by man
86. A great merit of the Marxist theory of state (c) Internal truth
lies in the fact that : (d) None of the above
(a) It emphasies the role economic forces in
shaping history 93. The main exponents of the view that state is
(b) It proclaims the advent of the rule of a man made institution, an artificial device
numerical majority were :
(c) It purges the liberal theory of its (a) Hobbes and Locke
drawbacks (b) Locke and Bentham
(d) Both (b) and (c) (c) Hobbes, Locke and Bentham
(d) None of the above
87. Which of the following works is edited by
R. Blackburn? 94. The mechanistic view of the state gave rise
(a) Political Theory to the doctrine of :
(b) Political Thought in England from (a) Liberalism
Spencer to Today (b) Anarchism
(c) Theory of the State (c) Individualism
(d) Ideology is Social Science (d) None of the above
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—12
95. Which of the following theories has 98. Plato based his three fold classification of
facilitated the development of democratic society, namely working classes, warriors and
institutions? the rulers upon which of the following
(a) Liberalism faculties of the human soul?
(b) Guild-socialist view of the state (a) Appetite (b) Greed
(c) Both (a) and (b) (c) Wisdom (d) All of these
(d) Machanistic view of the state 99. Which of the following events challenged
96. The work Self Government in Industry is the view of the state as a natural institution?
(a) Renaissance
authored by :
(b) Reformation
(a) Herman Finer (b) G.D.H. Cole
(c) Scientific Revolution of the Seventeenth
(c) R.G. Gettel (d) A.J. Penty Century
97. Who among the following early Greeks (d) None of the above
compared the state to a man of great stature 100. Which of the following ignores the
and pointed out the resemblance between distinction between state and society?
the functions of the state and those of an (a) Machanistic view of the state
individual? (b) Organic theory of the state
(a) Plato (b) Aristotle (c) Marxist view of the state
(c) Socrates (d) None of the above (d) None of the above
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(a) (b) (b) (a) (d) (c) (a) (c) (a) (b)
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
(c) (b) (d) (b) (c) (b) (b) (d) (d) (c)
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
(a) (d) (c) (d) (c) (a) (d) (c) (b) (d)
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
(a) (b) (d) (a) (b) (c) (d) (d) (d) (a)
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
(b) (b) (a) (c) (b) (d) (b) (d) (b) (c)
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
(b) (d) (b) (b) (b) (b) (c) (d) (b) (d)
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
(a) (d) (b) (c) (d) (c) (d) (d) (c) (a)
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
(a) (c) (b) (b) (d) (c) (a) (b) (b) (d)
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
(c) (a) (c) (a) (b) (a) (d) (c) (d) (c)
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
(d) (a) (c) (c) (d) (b) (a) (d) (c) (b)
lll
Unit
3
Comparative Politics and
Political Analysis
WHAT IS COMPARATIVE POLITICS? 1. In the earliest phase, works of Aristotle,
Machiavelli, Alexis-de-Toaueville, Bryce,
The growth of Comparative Politics has been a
etc. are categorised. Most of the writers
recent phenomenon (particularly post second world
employed comparative method with the aim
war period). It is a systematic outcome of
of evolving a better political order.
realization within the circle of political scientist
to study political reality with the use of new 2. In the second phase comes the works of
methods and techniques to evolve what may be writers like Samuel Beer, Ulam, Macridis
called a science of politics. Moreover, widespread etc. It represents more sophistication in the
scepticism and disenchantment with the traditional realm of political enquiry.
approaches provided impetus to this trend. 3. In the third phase comes the works of
Contemporary manifestation comparative Easton, Almond, Coleman, Karl Deutsch,
politics is aimed at studying politics as a dynamic Lasswell etc. With the help of inter-
affair—as an activity, a process and power relations. disciplinary focus in their enquiry they
While ‘comparative government’ is concerned with evolved a number of tools and techniques
the study of different political system with respect for the analysis of politics.
to the institutions and their functions, comparative
politics is concerned with study of institution, Main Concerns
functions and also the study of non state actors. It Some of the main points of Comparative Politics
has wider focus and as Sidney Werba points out include.
“look beyond description to more theoretically 1. Change in focus from purely normative to
relevant problems; look beyond the formal empirical enquiry.
institutions of government to political processes
2. Focus on all those factors having impact
and political functions, and look beyond the
on politics.
countries of Western Europe to new nations of
Asia, Africa and Latin America.” 3. Their approach is interdisciplinary.
4. Attempts to build value free political theory.
Origin and Evolution 5. Most of these works concentrate on the
There have been three trends in the development study of developing societies (third world
of comparative politics. countries).
91
Thus, the study of comparative politics has — Exponents-Bagehot, James Bryce, Giovani
enormously influenced the expanding horizon of Sartori
political science. It has attempted to encompass — Amongst traditional approaches it alone
all those factors which it considers affects the gives an independent identity to the
politics of the day. It also expresses a kind of systematic study of politics
intellectual rigour towards the analysis of
— Emphasis of facts so exemplifies a shift
developing countries.
from normative to empirical approach.
However relies heavily on description rather
APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF
than explanation.
COMPARATIVE POLITICS
— It is assimilated into the behavioural
They are of two kinds : Traditional and Modern approach and is still important. For it draws
attention to the role of formal rules and
TRADITIONAL APPROACHES institutions.
1. Philosophical
— Oldest approach
MODERN/CONTEMPORARY APPROACH
— Identified with names and preferences Attempt to establish separate identity of Political
— Contemporary exponent is Leo Strauss, Science to try to understand politics in its totality
Lindsay comprises : behavioural, post behavioural
2. Historical approach :
— used in two senses — Power approach
1. Arriving at laws through analysis of events — Some models.
of past as found in writings of Hegel, Marx. Power
2. Attempts at understanding politics through — Machiavelli, Hobbes, Nietzche, Marx
historical account of political thought of Weber, Catlin, Laswell, Kaplan, Watkins,
the past—Sabine. Trietschke, Morgenthau.
— Popular in last quarter of 19th century. — Emphasis on format as well as informed
— Seeks to understand state and institution in centre.
process of change. — Even Marxists emphasis but differ from
— Exponent are Sabine, Dunning, McIiawain, liberals under location of the centres of
Burgess, K. Sceley, Carlyle, Carlin, Aristotle power.
and Machiavelli
— Criticised by behaviouralist like Easton. BEHAVIOURALISM
3. Legal — Believes that observing the outward
— Focusses on legal and const. framework in behaviour of political outer and political
which different organs of Government have institutions and analysing their behaviour
to function and inquires into their legal by scientific method can acquire the
position, power and procedure which makes knowledge of political system.
their action legally valid. — Draws heavily from sociology and
— Proponents of this approach are Bodin, psychology.
Hobbes, Bentham, Austin and A.V. Dicey.
4. Institutional Factors Responsible
— Popular in first quarter of 20th century. 1. Concept of General System Theory of
— Closely related to legal approach, yet Ludvig Von Bert pioneered at unification
different of sciences (Biologists).
Comparative Politics and Political Analysis l 93
2. Logical positivism popularly known as They advocates a new method and insist on
Vienna circle in 1920’s — everything that survey research.
was over and beyond experience. Their method is interdisciplinary.
3. Linguistic philosophy -T.D. Weldons
‘Vocabulary of Politics, Peter Laslett, Major Tenets
Bertrand Russell, A.N. Whitsheed. Only Easton has identified eight major tenets which he
those statements or propositions which regarded as ‘intellectual foundation stones’ on
could be conclusively verified or falsified which movement is constructed :
by empirical means could be regarded as 1. Regularities : discoverable uniformities
genuine. that can be expressed in theory like
Origin is traced to : statements for expectation and prediction.
— Graham Wallas—Human Nature in 2. Verification : each generalisation must be
Politics 1942 testable by observation.
— Arthur Bentley—The process of Govern- 3. Techniques : self-conscious selection,
ment, 1908. refined and validated mean. For observing,
— Charles Merriam is regarded as recording and analysing pet behaviour.
intellectual god father of behavioural 4. Quantification : unless it is done, it would
political science. be impossible to obtain precise and
Present state of the Study of Politics— accurate knowledge.
APSR (1921) 5. Values : Objective scientific inquiry has to
New Aspects of Politics—1925 : be value free or value neutral.
— Merriam emphasized renewed scientific 6. Systematization : research must be theory
endeavour and need for a policy science oriented and theory directed.
by using quantitative techniques already 7. Pure Science : Knowledge would be
developed in Psychology and Sociology. utilized in the solution of urgent practical
— G.E.G. Catlin—Science and Method of problems of society.
Politics (1927) advanced case produce see 8. Integration : to them man is a social
pure science. animal, so political research was to take
— Lasswell—Politics: who gets what, when, into account the findings of other
how? Proved a Landmark in empirical disciplines.
approach to politics as study and analysis Behaviouralist achievement by the theory
of power. building and techniques of research (greatest in
— To Easton it called for methodological sample survey).
rigour and empirical theory. Focussed on micro level situations rather than
— To Dahl it manifests a mood which calls attempting macro level generalizations.
for greater unity between empirical political It is poorer. When it comes to institutions and
studies and concern for general theory. processes whose data can not be quantified.
By second half of 1960’s behaviouralism In place of state they coined the term political
became an accepted face. system consisting of all things associated with
Its focus is individual person, rather than the political process.
group or the political system but it necessarily
takes account of the influences of the growth on Critics of Behaviouralism
the individual’s behaviour (Sociological and Leo Stranes in ‘what is political philosophy’
Psychological). (Journal of Politics 1957) argued that the rise of
behaviouralism was symptomatic of a crisis in D.T. 4. That values played an important role in
because of its failure to come to grips with the politics and research in the name of science,
normative issues. could not be permitted to know them out of
Sheldon Wolin in ‘Political Theory as political studies. If knowledge was to be
Vocation’ APSR, 1969 declared that preoccupation used for right goals, value had to be restored
of Political Science with method signifies an to the central position.
abdication of true vocation of Political Theory. 5. Political scientists, being intellectual of
Thomas Kuhnis ‘The Structure of Scientific society had a major role to play. They had
Revolution’ (1962) had promoted the view that to protect human values of civilization.
significance of scientific method lies in its capacity 6. Knowledge must be put to work. A sense of
of problem solving and crisis management, not in commitment and action must permeate and
methodological sophistication. colour entire research in Political Science.
By 1960s end, even exponents undivided that 7. Politicisation of the Profession—of all
strict adherence to pure science was meeting professional associated as well as
failures. universities.
POST-BEHAVIOURALISM SYSTEM APPROACH
In 1969, Easton announced a new revolution that What is a System? : It is defined as bounded
represented a shift of focus from strict region in space time, involving energy interchange
methodological issues to a greater concern with among their parts which are associated in functional
public responsibilities. It stood for no complete relationships with their environments.
departure from behaviouralism rather it stood for
Purpose : The purpose of general systems
consolidating its gains and applying them for
theory, is to reduce multiplication of efforts by
problem solving and crisis management.
integrating all knowledge and treating all systems
Relevance and action are major bases of his as interrelated.
approach.
Every discipline is like to sub-system of general
To Easton, it was future oriented seeking to system besides being a system in itself.
propel Political Science in new directions. He
Not only that, since every system has its own
equated it with a movement of an intellectual
structures and substructures which function with
tendency.
the help of infants : withinputs, throughputs,
Major Tenets outputs and feedbacks, so two more approaches
have emerged as derivates of the systems approach.
Easton came out with seven major traits of post-
behaviouralism and described them as credo of 1. Structural functional approach lays
relevance or ‘a distillation of maximal image’. emphasis on the structures and functions of
every part and subpart of a system and its
1. Substance must come before technique, to
functional aspect.
the slogan raised by the behaviouralists that
it was better to be wrong than vague. Post 2. Input output analysis lays emphasis on
behaviouralist raised country sogan that it certain forces that come from the
was better to be vague than non-relevantly environment and play their part in the
precise. decision making process, while decision
taken by men in authority roled one called
2. Place main emphasis on social change, not
social preservation as behaviouralists outputs.
seemed to be doing. Origin : System analysis was introduced due
3. To reach out to the real needs of mankind. to the realisation of Easton, Almond and Mortan A.
Kaplan who have reacted against the traditional 3. Easton is critical of equilibrium analysis
tendency of rigid compartmentalisation of social that stops at the point of analysing factor
sciences. They have realised that unidimensional that creates stability or instability in political
studies in social sciences have not only caused system.
duplication, triplication and even multiplication 4. Easton’s purpose is to study political system
of efforts but also impeded the patterns of a in both theoretical and applied perspective.
scientific analysis of creating conditions hostile to
5. Easton aims at keeping the study of politics
the tendency of unification of all knowledge. They
at an autonomous level.
have drawn inspiration from the contribution of
Ludvig Von Bartaranfy who pioneered the 6. Easton seeks to study political systems in
movement of unification of all natural sciences. their abstract or theoretical as well as
concrete or applied aspects.
Easton’s Contribution Characteristics of Political System : Main
Easton’s monumental work ‘A system analysis of characteristics of political system :
political life’ published in 1965, set out to develop 1. A political system is a set of intersections
a theory that would help to explain behavioural abstracted from the totality of social
reality in as much as political is but a symbolic behaviour, through which values are
system useful for understanding concrete or allocated for a society.
empirical political analysis. 2. There are certain properties common to both
Characteristics of Theory : The empirical natural and social systems. Like natural
political theory of Easton has following systems, social systems possess properties
characteristics : that enable them to cope with the words—
1. Easton is for a unified theory of know- types of disturbances to which they may be
ledge—same categories and propositions subjected.
could be applied to all kinds of political Like a living system the political system
activities. has ‘responding’ and ‘self regulating’
2. Easton is concerned with the issue of mechanisms by which it can change, correct
survival or persistence of political system. and readjust its processes and structures in
the face of activity which threatens to non institutional arrangements in the form
disrupt its own activity. of political beliefs and attitudes of the
3. Political system is not a static but a people.
dynamic affair. 10. The political system, apart from being a
It is on account of the feedback mechanism system in itself, consists of subsystem
that the system persists even though (mediating groups) involved in the decision
everything associated with it may change making process, what Easton calls para
continuously and radically. political system.
4. Political system is an open system amenable Criticism
to the influence of environmental factors. It
can be distinguished from other systems by 1. Easton’s definition of terms like politics
boundary lines. and political-system are so vague that one
fails to apply the time of demarcation
Outside and beyond the political system
between an abstract and a concrete political
there are other systems or environments that
system. Even though he criticises Talcott
may be distinguished from each other. Parsons, Easton goes very close to him by
5. The environment of a political system may not thinking of a theory in terms of
be intra societal as well as extra-societal. explanation but in terms of creation of a
6. A political system always remains subject conceptual framework.
to challenges from forces operating in the 2. Easton is not interested in the individual at
environment, which is required to cope with. all, he looks at individual only from outside,
Easton calls such forces as stresses that from the point of view of the role he might
constitute the response mechanism of the be playing in the preservation and
political system. persistence or disruption and destruction,
The stresses are of two kinds—demand of the analytic political system he has in
stress and support stress. mind.
7. Political system may be in a steady state if 3. It is not interested in the scope, depth and
weight of power as it was being used. Nor
there is proper balance between inputs and
does it helps us to understand what strategies
outputs.
and tactics were adopted by those who
Inputs are demands made upon the political employed power and influence.
system and the support of the system itself;
4. It is engaged in high degree of
Supports are those processes or structures mechanization and abstractions.
which give it the capacity to cope with the
demands made upon it. STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM
Outputs are the results of the processing of System analysis has two important derivatives :
demands. Structure functional and input-output analysis also
There may be withinputs as the demands called approaches.
made by the political elites themselves. Structural functionalism is a tool of
8. A political system lives in a critical range— investigation which perform the task of explaining
inputs have an overload. what political structures perform what basic
9. The survival of a political system requires functions in the political system.
certain structural bases that may be in the The concept of system analysis in the realm of
form of institutional arrangements like political science lays stress on the relation of
electoral machinery and political parties and political to the society.
Scholars subscribing and structural functional Characteristics

approach lays emphasis on the point that, indeed,
According to Almond, a political system has four
the society can survive or develop unless it has a characteristics that may be called ‘legitimate
political system performing such a function. patterns of interaction’.
Chief Features : The chief points are as : 1. Every political system has its structures some
1. It takes the society as a single inter- of which may be more specialised
connected system each element of which performing more functions, while others may
performs a specific function aiming at be less specialised, performing less functions
maintenance of equilibrium. in it.
Thus, it seeks to understand a behaviour 2. Whatever differences may be between the
pattern as a socio-cultural institution in system and its structures, the same political
terms of the role it plays in keeping the functions are performed in all political
given system in proper order and, thus, systems.
maintaining it as a going concern. 3. Political structures and multifunctional.
2. A social system has a dominant tendency 4. All political system beings parts of the
towards stability that is maintained by virtue society as a whole have a culture of their
of built in mechanism. own fact is always a mixture of the
traditional and the modern.
Thus, change in social system is not sudden
as revolutionary but gradual and adjustive. This approach is inclined to emphasise the
search for processes that maintain the stability of
3. Underlying the whole social structure there the system.
are broad aims and principles that are
observed by the manners of the society. INPUT-OUTPUT ANALYSIS
Main Emphasis In Broader Forms : It is framework for organising,
conceptualising, codifying and manipulating data.
Structure-functional analysis revolves round the If political system is a set of interactions having
two key concepts, viz. structures and functions. structures, each part of which performs its
Structures refers to those arrangements within ‘functions’ in order to keep it like an ongoing
the system which perform the functions. A single concern, it is also a set of processes routinely
function may be fulfilled by a complex combination converting inputs into outputs.
of structures.
Chief Characteristics
As regard the concept of functions, there are
three basic questions : 1. Focus is on the system as a basic unit of
1. What basic functions are discharged in a analysis and on the intra-system and inter-
system system behaviour of various systems as
principal areas of research.
2. By what instruments those functions are
2. Its refers to the analytic system (abstractions
performed
with focus on selected elements of human
3. Under what condition performance of these behaviour) existing and operating within
functions is done an overall social system.
As a model adopted from natural sciences 3. This approach treats all political systems as
functionalism accepts the organismic analogy— both open and adaptive. Its most salient
that a social or political unit will have certain focus is on the nature of exchanges and
adoptive qualities—in consult to a lybenatic is transactions that take place between politial
mechanistic analogy. systems and its environment.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—13
4. There exist a very strong and underlying Outputs are the result of the conversion
concern with questions relating to process acting upon a great variety of
persistence of the system, the sources of demands and supports.
stresses and modes of processes of regulating They are primarily means of generating
all tensions and threats that utter challenge specific support for a political system as
to the stability. they, according to Easton ‘may help to
5. It does not reject the issue of change, it maintain a minimum level of support for
cleverly interprets the process of accom- the various political objects. Further, to
modating change that is invariably slow, Easton it is the aspect of output that tends
peaceful and gradual but that by no means to be neglected in theoretical enquiry and
threatens the very stability and maintenance which lies at the heart of this part of
of the political system. enquiry.’
The political system is seen as a conversion 3. Feedbacks : It is this aspect that completes
process performing work, producing outputs, and the cycle of political system and that makes
outering its environment with a continuous it a dynamic and regenerative operation.
exchange between a political system and its Main Features :
environment based on the steady operation of the — helps system receive information
dynamic processes. concerning the position of the goal and
The approach focusses mainly on changes concerning its own distance from it.
whose principal results are only to modify or
— helps system to response to this
streamline the system.
information, by further changes into its
Key Concepts own position or behaviour.
It is essentially a regulative element.
1. Inputs : It refers to demand made by people
who contribute their role in the political 4. Capabilities : It refers to the extent to which
system—called environment. the system can cope with inputs in a
successful manner.
Demand :
It may be extractive, regulative, distributive.
ex : demand for allocation of goods and
services Conclusion
demand for regulation of behaviour
Thus, the comparative approaches to political
demands for participation in political system analysis have heralded a new era in the realm of
demand for communication and information. political studies. They have brought tools and
Support : techniques to qualify data and predict outcomes.
ex : material support But, they are inadequate in providing criteria for
obedience to laws and regulation evaluation and judgement.
particularly support
CONSTITUTIONALISM IN THEORY
attention paid to governmental communication
AND PRACTICE
A proper balance should be maintained
between the demands and support for The study of political constitutionalism occupies a
smooth running of the political system. significant place in the sphere of comparative
2. Outputs : are authoritative decision and politics in view of the fact that it is the constitution
actions of the systems leaders that bear on that, as Dicey said, directly or indirectly affects the
the allocation of values for the system. sovereign power of the state.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—13-II
Constitutionalism is a modern concept that supported by laws which in turn were supported by
desires a political order governed by laws and Religion.
regulations. It stands for the supremacy of law and In the Medieval period, the role of Church is
not of the individuals; it imbibes the principles of important. Church restricts the monarch from
nationalism, democracy and limited government. becoming a tyrant. According to Christiandom ‘only
Constitutionalism in a formal sense, denotes the those laws are good which have their base in
principle and practice under which a community is religion.’ Political thinkers followed the trend set
governed by a constitution. by St. Augustine and St. Thomas in making secular
Karl Freidrich says, constitutionalism is both a authority subsequent to the authority of the Church.
theory and a practice about politics according to This baleful mate of affairs could not be remedied
rule of the game. Rules of the game is needed to until after a period of about 800 years. The national
restraint the government. It is a system of restraint monarchs raised their heads to overthrow the
of government. Constitutionalism is based on the discredited hold of the papacy.
belief in a limited government and in the use of
Liberal Theory
constitution to impose these limitations.
Constitutionalism in the proper sense of the Hobbes rejected the idea of constitutionalism. He
term is still in the process of evolution. According was in favour of unrestricted power in the hand of
to Karl Loe Wenstein, the ancient great empires— Leviathan. Thomas Harrington was in favour of
Egypt, Babylonia, Persia had no constitutional government of laws. He was against government of
process, instead evolved what he called men.
transcendental constitutionalism where the ruler Locke favoured constitutionalism, limited
and the ruled were all subject to divine law government, people have right to give themselves
pronounced by prophets. a constitution. He talks about natural rights. It
However, the true origin of this concept is restricts the government. He was in favour of
found in ancient Greeks thinkers who challenged division of law making power. This was an attempt
mythological legitimisation of power. Subsequently to put restriction.
Roman constitutionalism also came into being and Western writers like Thomas Saine, James
after the decline of the Roman empire, medieval Bryce, Harold J. Laski, Herman Rines, Charles H.
constitutionalism sought to invoke natural law, McIiawain, C.F. Strong, Carl J. Friedrich etc. have
sometimes identified it with divine law. But all taken a view that constitutionalism is both an end
these were partly sedimentary forms of and a means; it is both value free and value ladden,
constitutionalism. It was only towards the end of it has normative and empirical dimension.
middle ages that significant advance was made in Whether the constitution is in the form of a
the direction of modern constitutionalism. document made at a particular time of history as
the American constitution was made by the
THEORIES OF CONSTITUTIONALISM Philadelphia Convention in 1787, or it is in the
form of numerous laws, institutions, and
Conservative Theory conventions. Western concept of constitutionalism
Greek and Roman : Both were more practice than lays stress on this point that the basic laws of the
theory. Both had certain value preferences. This land should be such that the difference between
value preference was stability and strength as the government of the people and the constitution
systems. Both had preference for restraints. of the state is discernible. The constitution is more
Roman constitutionalism is known to us important than the government.
through polibious. The Roman constitutional The western concept of constitutionalism
according to Polibious consisted of—Rules desires a constitutional state with a well
acknowledged body of laws and conventions. It PRACTICE OF CONSTITUTIONALISM

has a legislature, an executive, and judiciary, all
Constitutionalism in Developing
required to work within the prescribed framework
by following the defined procedure. If there is a Countries
change, it should be peaceful and orderly so that It is very difficult to suggest the precise feature of
the political system is not subjected to violent the concept of constitutionalism in poor and
stresses and strains. There is the rule of law ensuring backward countries of the Afro-Asian world that
liberty and equality to all; there is the freedom of have recently emerged as sovereign nation-states
the press to act as the Fourth estate, there is a and are struggling hard for achieving the ideal of
plural society having freedom for all interests to a social welfare state. It appears that they are
seek the corridors of power, there is a system that between the poles imitating the system of some
strives to promote international peace, security European country under which they remained for
and justice. a sufficiently long period of colonial domination
on the one hand and going for a better and more
Marxist Theory workable system having much of the indigenous
elements coupled with something of the socialist
The Marxists begin their theory by criticising liberal
systems of the world on the other. It is also found
theory. According to them liberal constitutional that several developing countries are experimenting
theory is status quoist. Socialist constitutionalism with the imported constitutional arrangements and
aims at socialist transformation. The constitutiona- trying to establish a synthesis between the ideals
lism is not an end in itself, it is just a means to of the liberal democratic constitutional state on the
implement the ideology of scientific socialism. It one side and the demands and aspirations of the
is a tool in the hands of the dictatorship of the people on the other. It is for this reason that
proletariat that seeks to establish classless society countries like Pakistan and Bangladesh (also be
that would eventually turn into a stateless condition found involved in alternating from parliamentary
of life. to Presidential systems and vice versa.)
The purpose of having the constitution is not Constitutionalism in Post-colonial countries,
to limit the powers of the government but to make as Carl Freidrich says “became a factor of
them so vast and comprehensive that the ideal of considerable importance” because constitutionalism
workers state is realised and a new type of state in post-colonial countries was symbolic, it was a
comes into being. symbol of their newly acquired independence. Only
The real aim of the constitution in such a few of them followed Marxist paradigm, most of
country is not to ensure liberty and equality, rights them went for liberal values of US and UK because
and justice for all but to see that the enemies of of the fact that :
socialism are destroyed and the new system is firmly 1. The political orientations of the political
consolidated. elites of post colonial countries towards
The Marxist concept of constitutionalism is liberal values, most of whom were educated
based on the principles of a particular ideology of in liberal western tradition. They thought
Marxism-Leninism according to which the state is that constitutionalism can be a means for
political modernisation.
viewed as a class institution whose raison d’etre is
to act as an instrument of exploitation and 2. Most of the newly independent countries
oppression by one class over another. What the were familiar with liberal political
constitution of the state but the policy of institutions.
communist party is supreme. State and thus 3. They inherited an administrative structure
constitutionalism is seen to have class character. It from their western colonial rulers so it was
incorporates rights. pragmatic to make use of it.
4. Political elites had a liking for civic and 5. Pressure from external factors—
political rights. Globalisation, terrorism and conflicts were
5. Geographical vastness/cultural plurality— the cause for this gap.
Federalism (liberal definition of federalism).
VIEW OF EMINENT THEORISTS
6. Liberal constitutionalism was only an
alternative to anarchy or Authoritarianism C.B. Macpherson in this work “The Real World of
in the opinion of political elites. Democracy” (1978), says the politics of Third World
7. Liberal constitutionalism provides an is a variety of democracy different from the liberal
opportunity to downtrodden to join the ranks and communist notions of democracy. In the post
of elites. colonial countries which adopted liberal
Most of the post-colonial countries imported constitutions, comparative Market Society is absent.
the institutions and ideas, which in most of the In a comparative market society there is a
cases was away from the political reality (Theory competition of political ideas and in such society
and practice). So, in most of the post-colonial only the liberal ideas and liberal state flourish.
countries constitutionalism do not express the Whatever competition was there, it was imposed
practical reality. from above. In such countries individual freedom
is less important but equality within the community
REASONS FOR GAP IN THEORY is more important. In such countries where
AND PRACTICE community was more important than the individual,
there is not much chance of survival of liberal
Constitutional theory in developing countries is ideas and constitution.
intricately bound to colonial legacy. The body of Carl Freidrich says that liberal constitution
knowledge about constitutions have been derived has generally failed in most of the post-colonial
from the west. Therefore countries. The restraint exercised by the people is
1. Constitutional Theory is a derivative theory not so effective (lack of willingness of thought on
derived from the colonial institutions as the part of the people).
well as colonial knowledge about politics
of west Sources of Strain in Constitutionalism
2. There has been institutional carryover from 1. Threats to political stability and integrity.
colonial era—policy, bureaucracy etc.
3. There have been attempt at indigenous roots
of democracy, after a great deal of self-
External Internal Real Imaginary
reflections especially in the 1970’s.
In most post colonial countries there is
4. Some countries have tried to justify
plurality of one or the other kind in the
alternative to liberal constitutions notably
aspect of life. Plurality of race, religion,
through
language, culture. Moreover, the socio
— Military rule economic condition behind the working of
— Emergency (India) plurality is under-development.
— Cultural Revolution (China) Most of the post colonial countries opted
— There has been upsurge of social movements for democratic politics but it has
in third world—Human right, women, degenerated into electoral politics.
Environment protection, ethnic right etc. All Identities are politicised and the result is
these groups pointed out the inadequacies of conflict. There threats can be real or a threat
the constitution. There were demands for but it is mishandling of the plurality that
constitutional change. is the cause of stability and integrity.
Response : either constitutionalism is ended principle of constitutionalism must incorporate the

or suspended or distorted. principle of nationalism. It must reflect the
2. Mass Poverty : It never goes above but democratic values and imbibe socialistic aspirations
goes along other evils—poor health, whereby it may balance values and divergent
illiteracy, relative lack of communication interests and classes and society. It must recognize
and mobility. It is socio-economic the efficacy of new international order, ideals of
condition that keeps the poor busy in international law and justice and renounce policies
struggle for survival. Poor are not aware of and programmes of war or irrational protectionism.
their roles and constitutionalism is
threatened. EXECUTIVE, LEGISLATURE AND
3. Sharpening of class contradictions : The JUDICIARY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE
demand for better wages by have nots and TO UK, USA AND SWITZERLAND
the political elites interpret it as a threat to
law and order or harmful to national UNITED KINGDOM
production.
4. Dependence on Foreign Aid : Neo- WORKS ON BRITISH POLITICAL SYSTEM
colonialism or Globalisation : in such a
1. Walter Bagehot : The English Constitution
situation, foreign-interests are
accommodated and foundations of the 2. A.V. Dicey : Law of the Constitution
constitutional government are eroded. 3. H. Finer : Government of Greater
5. Personalismo (Personality Cult) : person is European Powers
more important than the institutions. 4. W.I. Jennings : Cabinet Government
6. Corruption at higher places 5. W.I. Jennings : The Law and the
7. Military intervention Constitution
6. H.J. Laski : Parliamentary Government
8. Extra-Constitutional Machinery : Pressure
in England
group politics (approaching decision
makers personality, privately), lobbying. 7. H.J. Laski : Reflections on the
Constitution
9. Communication Network : If there is private
ownership of means of communication, 8. A.L. Lowell : Government of England
information reaching masses at times being 9. Herbert Morrison: British Parliamentary
tailored to suit the political elites and serves Democracy
somebody else’s interest. 10. Ramsay Muir : How Britain is Governed
10. The Market processes 11. K.C. Wheare : Modern Constitutions
11. Intelligence operation 12. Ernest Barker : Essays on Government
12. Management of threat of Military attacks 13. James Bryce : Modern Democracies
Conclusion NATURE OF THE CONSTITUTION

In the end it must be noted that everchanging l unwritten Constitution
completely of contemporary political life often draw l product of history
attention towards states withdrawl from consti- l involved with time
tutional. However, it must be realised that l Ivor Jennings in his ‘The Law of the
eradicating conditions of starvation, famine, disease, Constitution’ says ‘‘the British
poverty etc. require discretionary action from the Constitution has not been made but has
state. Moreover, in third world countries the grown and there is no paper’’
l Streachey has labelled British Constitution and Parliament. The distinction between King and
as ‘Child of Wisdom and Chance’’ the Crown evolved with King John.
l based on custom, conventions, statutes,
charters etc.
Powers of the Crown
l Thomas Paine and De Tocquiville does The powers of the Crown are nominally powers of
not consider British having a Constitution the king but exercised by the Ministers who are
responsible to the Parliament.
SOURCES OF THE CONSTITUTION
Executive Power
l Charters, Statutes etc. It includes Magna
Carta (1215), the Petition of Rights (1628), l Crown is the executive head
Bill of Rights l Directs the administration of Britain
l Decisions of the judges. The Parliamentary l Appoints higher officials
sovereignty was established in Brand laugh l Supervises the works of local government
Gossett (1884) (boroughs and Counties)
l Common Law l Has Supreme command over armed
l Usage or Conventions establishments.
l Commentaries by Writers A.V. Dicey’s Law Legislative Power
of the Constitution is important one
l Crown is an integral part of the Parliament
FEATURES OF THE CONSTITUTION l Summons, prorogues, dissolves the
Parliament
1. Mostly an unwritten Constitution.
l Each opening session is greeted by speech
2. Parliamentary Supremacy.
from the throne
3. A flexible Constitution Parliament is
empowered to make or unmake a law and Judicial Power
it does not require special procedure for l Judges are appointed by Crown
this purpose.
l A member of Cabinet (Lord Chancellor)
4. A Unitary Constitution. exercises supervision over them.
5. Two Party System. l Grants pardon to persons convicted on
6. Hereditary Character. Criminal charges
7. Rule of Law and Civil Liberties.
PRIVY COUNCIL
THE KING AND THE CROWN l A descendent of the King’s council, the
The history of British political system is one of Curia Regis
gradual transfer of power from hereditary monarch l In earlier days kings consist of advisors.
to the democratically elected Parliament. Till the l With passage of time, it has given way for
Glorious Revolution (1688), the king ruled as well Cabinet
as reigned. But now the King reigns but does not l Cabinet is an inner committee of the Privy
rule. Council
King is a person while Crown is an institution, l It consists of Cabinet Ministers of the past
to whom the power of the King have been as well as present, Prince of Wales and the
continuously transferred. The Crown is an abstract Royal Punkes, the Archbishop and Bishop
concept which has assumed the powers and rights of London and a number of distinguished
of the King. It is a association of King, Ministers persons.
l Its member enjoy life long tenure. l Barker says ‘‘co-ordinates and controls the
l It provides form for interaction to various whole of the executive government, and
committees. integrates and guides the work of the
Legislature.
MINISTRY l A.L. Lowell ‘‘Keystone of the Political
It consists of following elements : arch.’’

l Marriot ‘‘the pivot round which the whole
Cabinet political machinery revolves.’’
l A closer and small body within the ministry l Ivor Jennings ‘‘provides unity to the British
which carries out the affairs of the country. system of government.’’

l It meets as a collective body. l Ramsay Muir ‘‘the steering wheel of the
ship of the state.’’
l Usually every member is head of one or
more departments. Development : The beginning of the Cabinet
system is traced from the Wing Junto of 1696. In
l They head the government.
1714 King did not participate in Cabinet meetings.
l A Committee of the ministry. George I did not attend Cabinet meetings because
Ministers of Cabinet Rank he did not understand English. As a consequence,
the members started seeking unanimity in their
l came into existence in Attlee’s government decisions which was conveyed to the King. Later
l not members of the Cabinet on there developed the principle of ministerial
l head administrative department responsibility. Strafford was the first minister to
answer to parliament. However, the Cabinet system
l accorded the status of Cabinet minister
in its present form came into existence in the reign
l attend the meeting of the Cabinet not in of Queen Victoria.
their own right, but only when invited by
the Prime Minister. Features
Minister of State l not enjoy a legal status
l consists of most active people within the
l usually does not head department
party
l they are deputy ministers.
l a small body
Parliamentary Secretaries l marked by unity of purpose and speedy
delivery
lmembers of the Parliament
l works under leadership of the Prime
l do not have any power
Minister
l help their senior ministers in parliamentary
l support of Party ensures majority in the
proceedings and departmental activities. Parliament
Strength : Upto ninety one ministers can be l works on the principle of collective
from House of Commons. Any increase in their responsibility
member would require inclusion of peers. l it functions secretly and its secrecy is
safeguarded by law and convention
THE CABINET
l Bagehot label it as a ‘‘hyphen that joins, Working
the buckle that binds the executive and l Usually meets at the official Residence of
legislature departments together.’’ the Prime Minister.
l During sessions of the Parliament, it meets THE PRIME MINISTER

twice and once a week otherwise.
l Most powerful person.
l Cabinet Secretariat prepares the agenda of
l Greaves says ‘‘is the master of the country
the Cabinet meeting. and master of the government.
l Issues are decided unanimously. l Morley ‘‘keystone of the Cabinet arch.’’
l There is no voting. l For the first time office of the PM is
l Work through Committees. recognized by Ministers of the Crown Act,
l Committees of the Cabinet can include 1937.
non-cabinet members also. l Must be a member of either house of the
Parliament.
Functions
l Powers are derived from conventions.
l Determines policies.
l Deliberates in the Parliament. Powers
l Controls the legislation. l Head of the government.
l Directs the functioning of different l Selects ministers.
departments. l Presides over Cabinet meetings
l Acts as co-ordinator between the various l Ask for resignation of ministers.
departments. l Advice dismissal of a minister.
l Ensures implementation of policies. l Leader of majority party.
l Spends government money and raises l Co-ordinates the work of several
revenue for its programmes. departments.
l Appoints officials at home and abroad. l Initiates and intervenes in all debates of
general importance.
Cabinet Dictatorship l Can ask for dissolution of the Lower
The terminology of Cabinet Dictatorship has House.
gained ascendance on account of ability of Cabinet l Acts as channel of communication between
to get all its measures passed by the legislature. the Ministry and the Crown.
The disciplined two party system has enormously l Acts as the Chief advisor of the King.
empowered the Cabinet. The influence of party
ship is no where as enormous as in Britain. Position
Moreover, the growth of delegated legislation is Lord Morely described him as the first among
seen as threat to Rule of Law and liberty of citizens. equals. But Ramsay Muir in his ‘‘How Britain is
However, these fear need not threaten as long Governed’’ holds than he wields too much power,
as franchise remain the weapon in the hands of even more than the President of United States.
people. The governments that hope to assume Ogg and Zink in their ‘‘Modern Foreign
authoritarian terms, can do so only at the cost of Governments’’ compares him to ‘‘inter stellas luna
losing power. Moreover, the changing socio- minores’’ or a moon among lesser stars. But, Ivor
economic conditions and problems have led to Jennings in his ‘‘Cabinet Government’’ considers
increase in power of the executive all over the him a sun around which planets revolve. However,
world. There should not be any scepticism with it is because of disciplined two party system and
it, so long as it threatens the fundamental law of his own personality and prestige that any Prime
the land or people’s expectations from the Minister can hope to retain the stature that have
government. been outlined above. That explains why people
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—14
like Mrs. Thatcher and Mr. Attlee were different. 2. Delay legislation except financial ones (for
Prime Ministers B.E. Carter in his ‘‘The office of one year).
the Prime Minister’’ is of the opinion that the 3. Participates in impeachment cases.
power of the Prime Minister and his senior 4. Act as Supreme Court of Appeal in Civil
colleagues is substantially greater than that of the cases.
American President. But he is not the wholesole
man and accountable to the electorate, party, his Proposal for Reform
team and others.
l Introduction of limited system of election
PARLIAMENT of members.
l Doing away with exclusive insistence on
A deliberative and legislative body where people
heredity.
talk about the affairs of the nation. In British
political system, its origin is traced to need of l Including women.
money by the king. The first Parliament is supposed l Provision for disqualification of members
to be summoned by Simon de Montford in (1265). not participating regularly or being absent
But Glorious Revolution (1688) led to supremacy without a genuine cause.
of Parliament. Then followed the period of gradual
democratization of the parliament which still House of Commons
continues. l Lower Chamber
l An elective body
Supremacy of the Parliament
l Total seats—635
According to A.V. Dicey ‘‘under the British – 516 England
constitution the Parliament enjoys the right to
– 36 Wales
make and unmake any law whatever and no person
or body is recognised by the law as having a right – 71 Scotland
to override and set aside the legislation of – 12 Northern Beeland
Parliament.’’ There does not exist any distinction l Normal tenure is for 5 years
between constitutional and other laws in England. l Must meet once a year.
The Parliament consists of the King and the l Speaker is most important official.
two Houses, viz; House of Lords and House of
Commons. SPEAKER
House of Lords l Elected official
l Presides over the meetings
l Also called upper chamber.
l Sir Peter de la Mare was first speaker
l G.H. Adams in his ‘‘Constitutional History
of Britain’’ points out that bicameralism l Unanimously elected
became evident by the end of Edward-III l Belongs to party in power
reign. l Expected to be impartial
l Organised on the principle of heredity. l Once elected, continues in office for the
l Lord Chancellor is the Presiding Officer. whole life of Parliament
l Lord Chancellor is the minister of the l Continues in office even after new
Cabinet. Parliament, if he so desires
l Re-elected unopposed
Powers l Acts as link between the House and the
1. Influence Governmental policies. King.
l Keeps the house and members in order and l Presidential form of executive
select the speaker in debate l Rigid Constitution which warrants
l Does not vote except in case of a tie. participation of both sets of government.
l Judicial Review
Decline of Parliament
There has been a criticism of Parliaments inability THE PRESIDENT
to check the growing encroachment by executive l Is the real executive
and other agencies. Such apprehensions have arisen l Wields enormous power and influence
due to following factors.
l Must be a natural born citizen, 35 years of
l Delegated legislation
age, a resident of U.S.A. for 14 years
l Well established party system
l Tenure of 4 years
l Complexity of administration and technical
l Eligible for re-election
nature of modern legislation
l Cannot be elected more than twice
l Emergence of Social Service State
l President Roosevelt was elected four times
However, it must be noted that Parliamentary
l Elected by indirect election
system is more democratic as it makes the
l Removed from office by impeachment on
government accountable to elected representatives
of the people. grounds of treason, bribery or other high
crimes
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA l In case of Impeachment, the charges are
initiated by the House of Representatives
IMPORTANT WORKS and Senate acts as Court of trial
l Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presides
M.E. Dimock : American Government in over trial
Action
l Article II deals with the office of the
J.W. Garner : Government of the United States President
W.B. Munro : Government of the United States POWERS : Most of the provisions regarding
Burn & Peltason : Government by the people powers of the President are general in terms. As a
Ernest Griffih : The American system of consequence, it all depends on his personality as
Government to how he deems it fit to carry the administration
H.J. Laski : The American Presidency of the country.
The American Democracy Executive Powers
CONSTITUTION 1. Ensures the observance, enforcement of
laws, treaties and decisions of court and
l Drafted at Philadelphia Convention
acts as chief Administrator.
l A written document
2. Nominates and appoints the ambassadors,
l Oldest written Constitution ministers, consuls, judges of the Supreme
l To Gladstone it is ‘‘the most wonderful Court and other officers.
work ever struck off at a given time by the 3. He is the Commander-in-Chief of army and
brain and purpose of man.’’ navy and the State Militia.
l A federal constitution 4. He can grant reprieves and pardons for
l Based on separation of power and check offences against the United States except
and balances in case of impeachment.
5. He is the Chief foreign policy maker and The Senate

accredited official spokesman of U.S.A. in
l Upper House
international relations.
l Most powerful upper chamber in the World
Legislative Power l Small body with only one hundred members
1. Informs the Congress and recommends l Two members are elected from each state
measures for consideration. l Each member is elected for a term of six
2. He may convene either of both the Houses years, one third retiring every two years
of Congress in extraordinary circumstances. l A permanent body
3. Submits the Budget to the Congress. l A member must not be less than 35 years
4. Empowered to issue ordinances. of age, an inhabitant of State from where
5. Enjoys the Veto power over legislation he is elected and a citizen of USA for 9
passed by the Congress. years
CONGRESS : Article I of the American l They are elected by the people of the state.
Constitution vests all legislative powers in the l In case of vacancy, a temporary appoint-
hands of the Congress. ment may be made by the Governor of the
It consists of two Houses, viz; House of State
Representatives and the Senate. l Vice President of the USA is the Presiding
officer
House of Representatives
l Vice President votes only in case of a tie
l Also called Lower House FILIBUSTERING : A senatorial device by
l Organized on the basis of population which measures are delayed by members by
l Normal tenure is of 2 years participating in debate for longer period.
l A member must not be less than 25 years
Functions
old, must be citizen of USA, stayed in
U.S.A for 7 years and a native of state from 1. Senate confirms the appointments made by
which he is elected the President. It does so by simple majority.
l Exemption from legal cases 2. All treaties entered into by the American
l A special session can be called by the President require ratification from the Senate
President and a two-thirds vote is necessary.
l Speaker is the presiding officer of the House 3. Senate acts as the court of trial for
impeachment. Two-thirds vote of the senate
Speaker is required for conviction.
l Elected from majority party 4. Senate enjoys co-equal power with House
l Acts as leader of the party to which he of Representative in the matter of
belongs legislation.
l Can not punish a member 5. Senate has wide ranging investigative
l Decides the speaker in debates functions.
l His rulings are not final The disagreement between two Houses are
resolved through a Conference Committee.
l Enjoys the same right to participate in
debate and vote, as other members AMERICAN SUPREME COURT
l Usually he does not vote except when the
House is voting by ballot or when there is l Apex Court
a tie l Mentioned in Article III of the Constitution
l Consists of one Chief Justice and eight 2. A detailed and lengthy document.
other judges 3. Republican spirit.
l Judges are appointed by the President with 4. Rigid but not as complicated as U.S.A.
Senatorial Consent Constitution.
l No prescribed qualification for the judges 5. A living/dynamic Constitution.
l Judges continue to hold office for life or
during good behaviour FEDERAL EXECUTIVE
l Meets in Washington l Article 95 provides for a Collegiate
l Special session can be called by the Chief Executive
Justice. l Executive authority is exercised by a
Jurisdiction Commission of seven men.
l Committee is known as Bundesrat or
(I) Original Jurisdiction Federal Council.
l Very limited l Members are chosen for 4 years by Federal
l Covers cases involving foreign ambassador, Assembly.
minister or consul l Article 96(2) provides that the term Federal
l also covers cases involving one or more Council coincides with that the National
states Council.
(II) Appellate Jurisdiction l Any Swiss citizen, eligible to be elected to
l Much wider the National Council can be chosen for
l Regulated by Congress Federal Council.
l it covers l Not more than one person can be chosen
from each canton.
(a) Cases coming from the highest State
Courts where a federal question is l Members are not representatives of party.
presented, namely, when the State l Modesty remains a high political value in
Court has held that a federal law Switzerland.
violates the Constitution. l Federal Council is subordinate to the
(b) Cases from the Lower Federal Courts, Federal Assembly.
mainly from the Courts of Appeal. l Most of the old members are usually
reelected.
SWITZERLAND l Dicey compares the Swiss Federal Council
to a Board of Directors of a Joint Stock
IMPORTANT WORKS Company.
E. Bonjour : Real Democracy in operation l Work is divided into seven departments
C. Hughes : The Federal Constitution of but decisions are taken by the Council as
Switzerland a body.
Erich Grunner : The Political System of l Deliberations of Council are secret.
Switzerland l Council has corporate character.
H. Finer : The Theory and Practice of
Modern Government PRESIDENT
The Federal Assembly chooses one member from
SWISS CONSTITUTION amongst the councillors to the rank of President
1. A federal one; Although the term for a period of one year.
Confederation is used in Constitution. l Based on the principle of rotation
l His position is not exalted or superior to In recent times, there has been a continuous
his colleagues growth in the power of Council vis-a-vis the
l Acts as Chairman of the Council Assembly. The world wide trend toward
l Casts his vote in case of a tie centralization has influenced the Swiss executive
as well. It has what Andre Seigfied calls ‘‘gradually
Functions of the Federal Council came to wield a quasi-absolute power.’’
1. To conduct the affairs of the state with the THE FEDERAL ASSEMBLY
provisions of the Constitution.
There exists a bicameral legislature in Switzerland.
2. To supervise the ‘guarantee’ of
The two chambers include Council of States and
constitutions of the Cantons.
the National Council.
3. To initiate the legislation process.
Supremacy : Article 71 provides ‘‘subject to
4. To reply to Federal Assembly on matters of the rights of the people and of the Cantons. The
given debate under right of interpellation. Supreme power of the Confederation shall be
5. To issue direction for execution of law. exercised by the Federal Assembly.’’
6. To supervise the military affairs of the However, the voters of Switzerland are
confederation. empowered with the weapon of referendum to Veto
7. To prepare budget. Bilb.
8. To submit to the Assembly, a report of its
The Council of States
working.
9. To maintain peace and order. l Represents the units of Confederation
10. To conduct foreign relations and ensure l Two members are drawn from Cantons and
neutrality and independence. one from half canton
11. To appoint federal officials. l Total Members are 46
12. To supervise the branches of administration l Modalities of election, tenure, allowances
in Cantons. of members are decided by the Cantons
itself
Position of Federal Council l Cantons follow the methods of both; direct
The executive in Switzerland, is not an and indirect elections
independent or co-ordinate branch of government. l Article 81 debars the members of Federal
It is neither Parliamentary nor Presidential type. Council to become member of National
Rather there exists an executive which is a collegial Council
body of seven members. According to Bryce it l A special session may be called by Federal
‘‘stands outside party, is not chosen to do party Council or members ¼ of National Council
work, does not determine party policy, yet is not or of five Cantons
wholly without some party colour.’’ It reflects the l The Chairman and Vice Chairman are
presence of all the major political parties. elected out on the basis of circulation
l It is a weaker chamber as compared to the
Advantages
National Council
l Promotes mutual confidence and
cooperation The National Council
l It represents a government of all by all and l Fixed membership-200
for all l Elected by proportional representation
l Provides political stability l Clergies are excluded from membership of
l Promotes public spirit the National Council
l Seats are allotted on the basis of population l Members are so elected that the three
l Tenure is of 4 years official languages are represented
l Cannot be dissolved l Members of Federal Council and Federal
l Every elector can be elected Assembly can not become its members
l Following people are excluded from being l A member of Federal Court can not hold
elected any other office
(a) Executive and Administrative Servants l No prescribed qualification
(b) Members of Council of States l Number of judges is 26 and there are 11 to
13 substitutes
(c) Federal Councillors
l Judges are elected for 6 years period
l Chairman & Vice Chairman are elected for
one session at a time. l Judges are re-elected
l There is followed the procedure of rotation Jurisdiction
of office.
l Chairman does not enjoy wide powers. l Relates to cases of Civil and Criminal
nature and questions of public law
l To elect the Federal Councillors, the
l No power of judicial Review
Federal Court, the General of Federal Army
and the Chancellor votes. l Has wide ranging civil jurisdiction
l All sessions in a year count as a single l Enjoy Criminal Jurisdiction as well

session. l Enjoy Constitutional jurisdiction in case
l A special session can be called on by of conflict between federal and Cantonal
Federal Council or on request of ¼ of its authorities. It can also adjudicate dispute
own members or members of five cantons. between contons as regards rights of
l According to Andre Siegfried, ‘‘the sessions citizens or violation of treaties or
of the National Council are more like agreements.
meetings of an administrative body affecting Swiss Court is a single Court. It does not have
only indirectly those who are not subordinate Courts (like the U.S.A.). It depends on
immediately concerned-but what an efficient the Federal Council for the enforcement of its
administration.’’ decisions. It has no power of Judicial Review and
l Three official languages are French, in case of disagreement or conflicts it is bound to
German and Italian. apply the law passed by the Federal Assembly.
l Absolute majority Constitutes the quorum.
PARTY SYSTEM
l There does not exist any official opposition.
Provision of Joint Sitting : There are 3 The political parties have become an indispensable
cases for holding joint sitting part of modern representative forms of government.
Firstly, To select Federal Councillors. In the democratic forms of government they not
only provide the link between government and
Secondly, To grant pardon for individual
the citizen but also help in change and
offences.
transformation. They ensure peaceful transfer of
Thirdly, To resolve jurisdictional conflicts. power. That is why Munro equates Democratic
system with the party system. Almost a similar
FEDERAL COURT
opinion has been expressed by Smith who hailed
l Created in 1874 and first met in 1875 Political Party as the vanguard of democracy.
l Members are elected by the Federal A political party is a voluntary organization
Assembly joined by persons more or less sharing common
aims and objectives who seek to gain control of It is a community with a particular structure.
the governmental apparatus with a view of They are distinguished by the nature of
furthering their interests. organization.
They have become a universal aspect of Robert Michels : The cause or the growth of
contemporary political life. oligarchy in the democratic parties is to be found
Party politics is a new phenomena. The in the technical indispensability of leadership in
founding fathers of U.S.A. described the influence his book ‘Political Parties’ contradicted by Lipson.
of parties and even BLONTSCHI’S comprehensive Lenin : A small compact care, consisting of
theory of state paid no reference to party reliable, experienced and hardened workers, with
government. responsible agents in the principal districts and
Definitions : They are product of nineteenth connected by all the rules of strict secrecy with the
organization of revolutions, with the wide support
century.
of the masses and without an elaborate set of rules.
Sigmund Neuman : Political parties are the
life line of modern politics. NATURE OF POLITICAL PARTIES
Barker : Compares them to the conduit that Political parties are groups with some degree of
carries the process of social thought of society organization and permanency.
into the area of government.
They are specialised associations.
Sait : Under a regime of universal suffrage,
They have definite aims and objectives.
they are inevitable like the tides of the Ocean.
Their central concern is to capture power.
Schumpeter : Whenever universal suffrage was
A tool to ensure responsibility.
delayed the political party on its most advanced
democratic forms was late in the appearing. It is present even in the non-democratic
regimes.
In England
Origin of Political Parties
Tories and Whigs were not party but political
Political parties had their beginning with the system
groups in the house of Commons.
of Parliamentary politics and electoral system.
Modern political parties first appeared on the
Political Parties and Pressure Group : A
U.S. precisely because of prevalence of adult
Comparison:
franchise.
Political Party Pressure Group
Burke : Political party is a body of men united
Formal Informal
for promoting up their joint endeavours in the
national interest upon some particular principles Interest Aggregation Interest Articulation
in which they all agree not wholly true. Direct involvement Indirect participation
Weber : Political party is a voluntary society more durable guided by expediency
of propaganda and agitation seeking to acquire To Neumann
power to realise objective, aims or personal Heterogeneous group Homogeneous group
advantages or both. has integrative function concerned with a
Schumpeter : The first and foremost aim of of diverse forces specific purpose
each political party is to prevail over the others in Proponderance of leadership is an inseparable
order to get into power or to stay in it. part of party system.
Duverger : Groups organised for the purposes The framers of American Constitution :
of achieving and exercising power within a Washington and Hamilton regarded that all parties
political system. are evils.
Major Determinants of Political Parties To Bryce, they are two bottles of wine with
different labels.
The determinants of party system can be classified
as The two parties of Ireland (Finna Fail and
Fine Gael) are prototype of two parties of
1. Historical : Parties are the product of
U.S.
modern political process of their emergence
presupposes a certain degree of urbanisation 5. They do the task of political modernisation.
and development of mass communication. 6. They also perform social welfare functions.
2. Level of Economic Development : In a
CLASSIFICAT ION OF POLIT ICAL
liberal democratic state parties with a
totalitarian structure may hardly find a PARTIES
congenial place to live in and operate. Classification : Duvergeso
3. Ideology : However it is not necessary that A french political scientist suggested a novel
every political party is committed to but traditional classification of political parties in
common ideology. his work Political Parties.
The political parties of the U.S. have nothing 1. One of the basis of leaders-single members-
like ideological commitments for which reasons usually members of traditionally respected
they have been described by James Bryce as two and powerful families.
bottles of wine, liquor being the same but different 2. Divided as interior and exterior on the basis
labels. of their Parliamentary role.
Jean Paul Sartre, one of the last surviving 3. On the basis of structure :
ideologises, is reported to have advised young
(a) Caucus
men in France to go to Africa to pursue their
ideology as Western Europe as well as its political (b) Branch
parties had no ideology to offer. (c) Cell
(d) Militia
Role of Political Parties
1. The parties unite, simplify and stabilize Caucus Type
the political process. Provide coherence. Also called Committee type.
2. Form order out of chaos. Avoids mass membership.
Though the interest articulation function is Emphasis on quality rather than quantity.
performed by the pressure groups, the work Virtually remain inactive between elections.
of interest aggregation is done by the
With the extension of franchise and expanding
parties.
mass base, caucus suffers natural decline.
3. Provide a link between the government and
American parties fit this description
its people. They seek to educate, instruct
and activate the electorate. That is, they Branch Type
perform the job of political mobilisation,
secularisation and recruitment. Mass party with open membership and hierarchical
4. They present issues, they set value goals structure dominated by a Central leadership
for the society. delegates are elected by branches to Central body.
Though American political parties have, Central body represents the highest policy-
what Dahl says ‘ideological similarity and making body.
issue conflict,’ they have no disagreement German Social Democratic Party.
on the fundamental goals of the society. British Labour Party.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—15
Cell Type hegemonic party in antagonistic terms and

on an equal basis.
A communist invention
Ideological : Communist party of Poland
Smaller and more cohesive than branch type.
Pragmatic : PRI (Institutional Rev. Party
Organised on the basis of place of work.
of Mexico)
Secretive and Highly disciplined.
3. Predominant Party : One party governs
Their area of interest is more than winning
alone as long as it continue to win absolute
election.
majority in the elections India, Japan,
They have wider political interest in changing Turkey.
society.
The two and multi party systems of society
Militia Type embody the common characteristic of
polarised pluralism.
Modelled on the army command and control
pattern. Characteristics of Polarised Pluralism
Organisation is hierarchical.
1. Different parties exist and operate,
Expects complete allegiance of members to
including anti-system; not revolutionary
Leader.
character.
Kufler’s Storm troopers.
2. Oppositions.
Muslim’s fascist militia.
3. A Centre party.
But none of these pure types can be found in
reality. Party’s actual functions will always be 4. The degree of ideological distance may be
having mixed structures. discovered between different parties.
In fact his model focuses on four types of 5. Centrifugal drives prevail over centripetal
parties. ones.
Caucus : American 6. Existence of different parties differing not
Branch : West European only in policies but more importantly on
principal fundamentals.
Cell : Communist
7. Existence of irresponsible opposition.
Militia : Fascist-Nazi
8. The ruling party or other ones may cause
Characteristics of Single Party Model inflationary disequillibrium by making tall
1. Monopolistic : If political power is wielded promises to the voters.
by one party alone and no other party is A Biparty system is one where the existence
permitted to exist at all. of third party does not prevent the two major
(a) Totalitarian : Wercieve, only official parties from governing alone, and therefore
ideology. coalitions are unnecessary.
(b) Authoritarian : Some autonomy, Sartori has included the case of countries
ideology is weak. having stable coalition systems in this category
(c) Pragmatic : Hold of ideology is (Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Denmark).
irrelevant. Sartori has excluded the case of United States
2. Hegemonic position : Although existence from this model on the plea that this applies to a
of other parties is allowed, only one party country having Cabinet Government, not a
counts more than all. presidential Government.
Other parties are like Satellites. Other parties Multi or atomised party system leads to the
are not permitted to compete with the existence of highly fluid party politics.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—15-II
A coalition party is fragmented by leaders 2. Even though the political parties of Great
with very small groups revolving around each Britain have acquired constitutional status,
leader. they are primarily based on customs and
But in practice, it creates a problems lack of conventions.
cohesion in coalitional form of government, 3. Due to unitary structure of government and
reading to precarious instability. strong nationalistic spirit, the political
But experiences in countries like Switzerland, parties primarily focus on the common
Sweden, Denmark and Germany with long tradition issues that have nationwide appeal.
of multiparty system have shown stable and 4. There exists strong, clear cut ideological
successful governments. differences between the political parties.
Almond : Almond classified on the basis of The conservative focus on cutting down
1. Organisation : Authoritative dominant, government expenditure on social sectors,
non-authoritative, competitive two-party or the labour party advocates welfare policies.
competitive multi party. As such their social bases are also different.
5. Britain has a two party system. Even though
2. Style : Secular pragmatic bargaining,
other parties exist, they are insignificant in
idelogical or absolute value oriented
the political process. For example, Labour
particularistic or traditional.
Party’s birth led to decline of liberal party.
Conclusion 6. Political parties in Britain are more powerful
than their counterpart in Presidential System
Where as Bryce sums up the value of party as The
because it is based on the principle of
parties keep a nation’s mind alive as the rise and
collective responsibility of Council of
fall of the sweeping tide freshens the water of long
Ministers to the Parliament.
ocean inlets; Leacok says ‘A different parties
remain in a state of wilful inconvincibility with 7. There exists strict discipline in the ranks of
individual judgement frozen tight in the shape of Party members. They never vote on any
the party would.’ It creates factionalism as it tends issue to which the party objects.
to make the political life of a country machine 8. There is high degree of political maturity
like or artificial. and sensitiveness among the rank of the
The idea of partyless democracy had its root parties with regard to political issues. Most
in the philosophy of George Washington James of its members are educated ones and of
Madison and Gandhi, Roy, Vinoba Bhave and J.P. high moral status.
AMERICA (U.S.A.)
POLITICAL PARTIES IN GREAT
BRITAIN, U.S.A. AND SWITZERLAND : 1. There exists biparty system in America.
A COMPARISON While earlier Federalist and antifederalists
were two parties, today there exist the
Republican and the Democratic parties. Bi-
GREAT BRITAIN (U.K.) party spirit is more strong than U.K.
1. Political parties have evolved with the 2. The ideological differences between the
evolution of democratic institutions. As two political parties is not so striking as in
such the conventional Tories and Whigs the case of U.K. That is why Prof. Bryce
(Charles II) became Liberal and dubs American political parties as two
Conservative parties only in the nineteenth bottles of wine with different labels.
century. Labour Party came into existence 3. Political parties are active only during the
in the twentieth century. election.
4. Political parties focus on local issues that 8. There exist high degree of cooperation
may be championed to obtain votes. among the various political parties.
5. Political parties are not influential in the 9. Usually there is absence of a single leader
affairs of the state (as compared to U.K.) in the party.
because the system is Presidential one with 10. Political parties are not very important in
separation of powers. the political system and there is lack of
6. In terms of their bases the American party spirit.
Political parties rely on regional forces. 11. Political parties do not enjoy any
7. The members of the political party are often constitutional status (same as USA).
observed as voting against the general
opinion of the party. Moreover, there are DEMOCRATIC AND TOTALITARIAN
no setbacks due to these endeavours PARTY : A COMPARISON
because government of the day is hardly
destabilized as in U.K. Democratic model allows elements of opposition
leading to the existence of a big or multiparty
8. There exists a number of professional
system.
politicians in the ranks of political party.
They are recruited to work in extra- Totalitarian model signifies the existence and
governmental environment. leading role of a single political party.
9. There has been an increase in the instances In Democratic model parties operate within a
of corruption in which political parties are constitutional framework to that party and
involved. government becomes different institutions.
In totalitarian model party and government
SWITZERLAND become identical and the latter becomes the
1. There exists low degree of party politics as shadow of the former. To Apter totalitarian party
compared to US or UK. is coterminus with the state itself.
2. There is multiparty system in Switzerland.
AMERICAN AND BRITISH PARTY :
3. Like U.S.A, the political parties are mainly
A COMPARISON
concerned with putting up candidates for
political posts, organizing and enlightening (Republican and Democratic) (Labour and
public opinion. Conservative)
4. In spite of multiparty system there hardly Both are models of biparty system. But, while
has arisen a situation of political instability. the American political parties lack rigid
5. Some of the important political parties are organisational discipline and clear cut ideological
: Liberal Party, Radical Party, Catholic commitments, English party system exhibit
Liberal Party, Social Democratic Party and cohesion, effective organisation and specific
Peasant Party. ideological commitments.
6. There is loosely organized party system in They are more nationalistic in spirit but
Switzerland. Most of the elected members American political parties focus on local issues as
of the Union Legislature decide about the well.
party membership only after general In underdeveloped or developing countries,
elections. parties are a product of historical circumstances.
7. Every party has three main parts, viz; Diet, Parties come into existence not for the sake of
Central Committee and Working running the government but for the sake of fighting
Committee. for national liberation.
ROLE OF OPPOSITION IN Norway : 23

DEMOCRACY Germany : 20
Though, a radical statesman John Hobhouse said India : 18
it was not until 1937 that the opposition was U.K. : 21
recognised officially.
The institution was officially recognised in
DIFFERENT VIEWS
Canada : 1905 To Mill : Universal teaching must precede
Australia : 1920 universal enfranchisement.
South Africa : 1946 To Laski : Exclusion from power means,
exclusion from the benefits of power.
In the British Westminster model, the official
opposition has been recognised as vital and integral Compulsory Voting : Belgium, Rumania,
as the Cabinet itself. Argentina, Netherland, some of Swiss Cantons.
Sir Ivor Jennings says : ‘If there is no CRITERIA OF REPRESENTATION
opposition, there is no democracy.’
A.L. Lowell says : The constant pressure of a There are two known criteria of general
recognized opposition is an obstacle to despotism... representation :
is a wok against the tyranny not only of a despot 1. Territorial
but also of a fanatical majority. 2. Functional
In the case of several Asian and African
countries nationalist parties often found it Territorial Representation
relatively easy to establish one party system and Under this the whole country is divided into
place extraordinary restrictions on civil liberties geographical areas of heavy equal population
precisely because no organised group with any called constituencies.
measure of popular support was committed to Gerrymandering a malpractice is vague in U.S.
maintenance of a competitive frame works. wherein manipulation of delimitation of the
boundaries of constituencies is done to help party
ELECTORAL SYSTEM in power to capture few more votes.
Adult Franchise is the basis of election. To Victor
Functional Representation
Hugo suffrage had crowned man as a citizen.
Norway was the first country to do so. In Representation on the basis of economic functions
another countries it started as : or occupational interests.
Germany : 1919 The Guild Socialists, Syndicalists and Italian
U.S.A. : 1919 Fascists were its advocates. Indeed the system was
tried by Mussolini in his corporate state of Italy.
Sweden : 1920
Laski is critical of functional representation.
Britain : 1929
U.S.S.R. : 1936 CRITERIA OF ELECTORAL SYSTEMS
France : 1945 To Laski a good electoral system ought to satisfy
Italy : 1948 four general considerations.
Switzerland : 1973 1. It should so constitute the legislature that
Voting Age the vital issues of public policy. The
Japan : 25 legislature must reflect the opinions of the
Denmark : 25 majority and the minority.
2. The constituencies should be small enough Single Candidate Constituencies

to develop the personal relation between A voter can vote for only one candidate.
the elected representative and the electorate. If no candidate gets a first ballot majority, a
3. It should reflect the changing opinion of second run off ballot is held between the leading
the major issues by methods like elections. two candidates.
4. It should assure that the voters as far as This system is popular in France.
possible remain directly in contact with In Alternative vote system there are single
the government in power. members constituencies.
KINDS OF ELECTORAL SYSTEM There are preferential voting : 1, 2, 3 and 4 so
on. Winning candidate needs to get 50% of the
The result of voting is determined according to votes cast. Votes are counted according to the first
the prevailing electoral systems. preference. If no candidate gets absolute majority
Broadly one can identify three electoral of the first preference votes, the candidate who
systems under democratic systems. gets the least number of first preferences is
1. Plurality or first past the post eliminated and the next preferences of his or her
2. Majoritarian voters are added to first preference of those
3. Proportional representation candidates.
Alternative vote system is followed in the
First Past the Post election to the Lower House in Australia and in
election of American and Indian Presidents.
Also called simple majority system.
To Finer ‘the majority produced by the systems
The principle of first past the post is applied.
of the second ballot or the alternative vote is a
A candidate who receives the highest number kind of second best, not whole hearted first choice.’
of votes, may be less than even half the votes
polled, is declared a winner. Proportional Representation
This practice is widely followed :
Proportional representation was favoured by J.S.
Demerit : The plurality system undermines Mill. It is claimed that under this system any party,
the legitimacy of government in so far as interest or group would secure representation in
government only often enjoys only minority proportion to the support it has among the electors.
support less than 50%. There are multi member constituencies.
Minorities may remain under represented. The main idea is to ensure by distributing
Merit : The champions, contend that this votes rather than voters, that the number of seats
system promotes two party system. won by a political party in the legislature shall be
Prevent separatist tendencies among approximately proportionate to the votes cast for
minorities. that party.
Provides for a relatively stable and effective There are two main schemes in proportionate
government. representation.
1. The Hare system
Majoritarian
2. The List system
A candidate is usually required to obtain an
absolute majority 50% of valid votes cast. Hare System
When there are three or more contestants it is Hare system is also called single transferable vote
assured by system.
1. Second Ballot System Devised by Thomas Hare in Pamphlet called
2. Alternative Vote Machinery of representation, hailed by Mill as the
greatest improvement yet made in the theory and The list system is the only potentially pure
practice of government. system of proportional representation and is
Multi member constituencies never less than therefore fair to all parties.
three electors vote preferentially. The system of proportional representation has
Candidate are elected if they achieve a Quota. unique advantage of giving representation to all
Quota is usually equal to the total number of types of groups. But its disadvantages are
valid votes divided by one more than the number unstability and fissiparous tendencies.
of seats available plus one vote.
METHODS OF MINORITY
Total number of valid votes polled REPRESENTATION
= +1
Total number of seats to be filled
Methods of Minority representation are :
Votes are counted according to first preference.
An elected candidate’s surplus votes are Cumulative Vote System
redistributed. Involves with member constituencies.
The candidate obtaining least number of first A voter has as many votes as the number of
preferences is eliminated and the next preferences seats.
of his or her voters are added to the first preferences
A voter has the right to the option of either
of other candidates.
giving his votes to all, to a few or even to
This system of redistribution is repeated till concentrate all his votes just for one candidate.
the number of candidates securing electoral quota
A well organised minority has an opportunity
equals the number of seats available.
to get at least one of its representatives elected by
The Hare system is used in the election to cumulating all its votes in favour of its own
Municipal Council in U.S. and Canada. candidate.
Both Houses of Parliament in Northern It used in educational institutions and for local
Ireland. bodies in Great Britain and U.S.
Lower House of Parliament in Peru and
Malta. Limited Vote System
Rajya Sabha and Legislative Council in India. Involves multi member constituencies : Voter has
certain number of votes which is less than the
List System
number of seats to be filled.
Under this system, the entire country is treated as This system acts as a check on the monopolisa-
a single constituency or it is divided into a large tion of representation in a constituency by a single
multimember constituencies. political body and helps minority to get at least
Ballots contain separate lists of candidates of one seat.
different political parties.
Electors vote for the parties not for candidate. Communal Representation
Parties are allocated seats in direct proportion Separate electorate for separate communities.
to the votes they gain in the election. A second method is reservation of seats in
In Switzerland, voter has the right even to joint electorate : the voter may cast votes for the
write additional names to determine his own candidates of communities other than their own.
preference. But in deciding the result, a member of community
Followed in Germany, Legislatures of Finland, who gets the highest number of votes among
Knesset of Israel, Switzerland. candidates of that community will be elected.
Instructed Represenation The traces of recognizing the need to evolve

some mechanism for separation of power could be
Advocated by Bentham & James Mill
traced to earlier times (Aristotle, Polybins and
To them unless the legislators elected by the poorer Cicero, Marsiglio of Padua, Bodin, Locke Madison
classes be bound to their wishes by a pledge, the etc.). But, a systematic effort was made by
interests and demands of the poorer classes will
Montesquieu. He propounded his theory in his
never be fairly represented.
work ‘Spirit of the laws’ had decisive impact on
J.S. Mill, however, completely discarded the founding fathers of American political system. He
idea and agreed with Burke. evolved his analysis by a close analysis of the
British political system.
Concurrent Majority
The most significant point of the theory is
Advocated by John, C. Colhon that it bases itself on the preservation of political
It means that any decision should be treated as liberty. According to Montesquieu ‘‘individual
valid only when due concurrence of all the liberty is certainly endangered when two organs of
important sectional interests affected by it has been the government are combined. It is to be found
obtained. only in moderate governments.’’ His chief
Its implications are veto power in UN and contention is that the three organs of the
EEC. government should work independently. In other
words, the legislative, the executive and the
Coalitional Democracy judicial branches should not intervene in the
It is regarded particularly suitable for the works of one another. So, he holds that the three
governance of the societies which are deeply organs of the government should be organized in
divided by religious, ideological, linguistic, such a way that each organ performs differently
regional etc. differences. and remain independent and supreme within its
It involves four basic principles, which are of own sphere.
primary importance. However, this theory has not been applied in
1. Executive power sharing : means grand its entirely. The increasing complexity of the socio-
coalition of the representatives of all economic life has rendered it impossible for clear
significant segments. cut separation of power. Moreover, the three organs
2. Greater autonomy to different segments : of the government must be seen in connection.
federalism. They have certain goal and objective that deem it
3. Proportionality : allocation of political necessary to interact with one another. On the
offices, administrative appointments and contrary, it may lead to isolation and disharmony.
public funds on the basis of population of As MacIver observes ‘‘What is needed, in fact is
each segment. not the separation of functions but their proper
articulation; only thus can responsibility be
4. Exercise of veto by minority.
wedded to efficiency.’’
SEPARATION OF POWERS Application of the Theory of Separation
The theory of separation of power deals with of Power
functional organization of the government. It gives
an idea about the organization of rule making, U.S.A.
rule application and rule adjudicating departments. Separation of power is mainly a hallmarks of
This theory is mainly associated with the name of President system. American political system stands
famous French Philosopher, Montesquieu. as the model in this respect. As Herman Finer says
‘‘the American constitution was consciously and 1. Many of appointments made by and treaties
elaborately made an essay in the separation of entered into by the President need
powers and is today the most important policy in ratification on the Senate. Only then, they
the world which operates upon that principle.’’ can become a law.
However, this provision is implicity stated in the 2. American President enjoys the Veto power
Constitution. In Kilbourn Vs. Thomson (1880) the over bills passed by the Congress.
American Supreme Court observed that ‘‘It is
believed to be one of the chief merits of the Britain
American system of written constitutional law that The British has a Parliamentary system of
all powers entrusted to government whether state government where in the Council of Ministers
or national, are divided into three general
form an integral part of the Parliament. They are
departments, the executive, the legislature and the
collectively responsible to the lower House of the
judicial.
parliament. Moreover, the upper house (House of
It is also essential to the successful working of Lords) acts as the highest Court of appeal. There
the system that the persons entrusted with the is no Supreme Court in Britain.
power in any of these branches shall not be
Thus, there exists concentration rather than
permitted to encroach upon the powers confided
separation of powers in the British political system.
to others, but that each shall by the law of its
Organised party system and pressure of public
creation be limited to the exercise of the powers
opinion acts as antidotes to the governmental
appropriate to its own department and no other.’’
tyranny.
The prominent implications of the theory are
1. American President is given wide range of India
powers viz; appointment of officials, policy India has a Parliamentary system of government
making etc. In these respect there is no which operates on principle of collective
interference by the legislature or judiciary. responsibilility. The Ministers are drawn from the
2. American President is not responsible to Parliament. The President is elected by members
the Congress for his acts of omission or of the Parliament. Ordinance making power of the
commission. He can not be removed by the President corresponds to the law made by the
Congress except through impeachment. Parliament. Thus, there is no separation of power
3. The Congress discusses and decides a large between legislature and executive.
number of issues pertaining to policy Article 50 of the Constitution provides for
measures and questions of national or separating judiciary from executive. This has been
international importance. The President a hallmark of Indian Constitution. Judges are free
does not interfere in these aspects. from executive control, hold office during good
4. American President neither summons nor behaviour and their salaries could not be altered
can dissolve the Congress. to their disadvantage.
5. The American Supreme Court remains
independent in its sphere of action. Conclusion
However, to ward off the problems resulting Thus, the way different political system adopts to
from clear cut separation of power, there is provision the theory of separation of power reflects their
of checks and balances. By this principles, each normative predispositions. It also reflects their
organ of the governments in spite of being separate socio-economic milieu that warrants variation in a
and integral in itself, controls each other. These theoretical predicament. While American political
include system has been able to continue with the principle
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—16
of separation of power with check and balances, with certain elements of egalitarianism by which
the British have more attention for strong legal equality can be meaningful.
government. The Indian Constitution follows a Secondly, I. Jennings in his ‘‘The Law and the
‘‘middle of the road’’ course. It follows Constitution’’ observes that ‘‘the growth of the
concentration of power as regards relationship new functions of the state has made much of his
between executive and legislature and separation analysis irrelevant.’’ The growing complexity of
of power as regards organisation of the judiciary. governmental functions and resulting phenomenon
of delegated legislation has restricted crude
RULE OF LAW observance of the Rule of Law.
Rule of Law is the cornerstone of the British Thirdly, The growth of administrative laws to
Constitution. The principal exponent of the tackle the social welfare functions of the state has
principle is Prof. A.V. Dicey. According to him, it further minimized the scope of Rule of Law.
implies three things Fourthly, Immunities granted to persons and
Firstly, ‘‘no man is punishable or can be property of diplomats limit the scope of Rule of
lawfully made to suffer in body or goods except Law.
for a distinct breach of law established in the
ordinary legal manner before the ordinary courts
Conclusion
of the land.’’ It implies that no person can be Thus, the conventional notion of the Rule of Law
deprived of his life, liberty and property except expounded by A.V. Dicey has undergone
through trial in a duly constituted court of law. modifications. It has been supplemented with other
Secondly, ‘‘Not only with us is no man above adequate provisions to suit the exigencies of the
the law, but every man, whatever be his rank or time. In its present connotation, it implies, as Wade
condition, is subject to the ordinary law of the and Philips in ‘‘Constitutional Law’’ observes ‘‘the
realm and amenable to the jurisdiction of the absence of arbitrary power, effective control of
ordinary tribunals.’’ and proper publicity for delegated legislation,
It establishes the legal equity. ‘‘Every official particularly when it imposes penalities : that when
from the Prime Minister to constable or a collector discretionary power is granted the manner in which
of taxes is under the same responsibility for every it is to be exercised should as far as practicable be
act done without legal justification as any other defined, that every man should be responsible to
citizen.’’ the ordinary law whether he be private citizen or
Finally, it implies that ‘‘the general principles public officer; that private rights should be
of the constitution are ... the result of judicial determined by impartial and independent tribunals;
decisions determining the rights of private persons and that fundamental private rights are safeguarded
in particular cases brought before the courts.’’ The by the ordinary law of the land.’’
rights are not listed in the Constitution and this
avoids any miscarriage of limiting them. JUDICIAL REVIEW
According to Dicey the principle of rule of The power of Judicial Review is an important
law is best antidote to governments tyranny. In his Constituent of American political system by which
opinion, there exists liberty in Britain only because the Supreme Court enjoys wide ranging power. It
there was the Rule of Law. may be defined as the power of the court to declare
However, there are serious drawbacks in any law null and void, if it transgresses or is
Dicey’s conception of Rule of Law. inconsistent with any provision of the constitution.
Firstly, It is meaningless in societies marked It enables the courts to examine the action of
by wide inequalities. It will have to buttress itself legislature, executive and administration and
ensure their conformity to the provisions of the neither approves, nor condemns any legislative
constitution. Though every court in U.S.A. is policy.
empowered to review a law or an executive action, Its delicate and difficult office is to ascertain
but the Supreme Court’s decision is the final one. and declare whether the legislation is in accordance
with, or in controvention of, the provisions of
Application of Judicial Review
the Constitution and having done that, its duty
U.S.A. ends.’’
The power of Judicial Review is implicit in the However, the critics have accused the Supreme
American Constitution. It has nowhere been dealt Court of becoming a non-elective super-legislature.
in detail. The two provisions are : The judgements have wide ranging consequences.
Issues of public policy are severely affected by a
Article VI which provides that the
minority of American society sitting in the judicial
‘‘Constitution, and the laws of the United States
which shall be made in pursuance thereof; and branch of government. Of late, there has been a
change and Supreme Court has undergone
all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under
modernization and there has been a substantial
the authority of the United States, shall be the
supreme law of the land’’ and Article III, Sec. 2, change in its functioning.
provides that ‘‘the judicial power shall extend to India
all cases, in land and equity, arising under this
constitution, the law of the United States, and The power of judicial review is not explicitly stated
treaties made or which shall be made, under their in the Constitution. According to Article 13 : ‘any
authority. action of the legislature or the executive in
contravention of the provisions of the chapter of
However, the issue was made clear is Marbury
Fundamental Rights shall be declared void.’’ While
Vs Madison (1803) case, it underlined the view
the Courts in U.S.A. proceed on ‘‘due process of
that the Judicial Review is a part of Constitutional
law,’’ India follows ‘‘procedure established by
Law. There are following implications of Justice
law.’’ While procedure established by law enquires
Marshall’s decisions.
into the legality of any legislative or executive
Firstly, the constitution is a written document
action, the phrase ‘due process’ also examines the
which clearly defines and limit the power of
malafide intention of the law giver.
government.
In addition, the Indian constitution attempts
Secondly, the constitution is a fundamental
to strike a balance between Parliamentary
law and is superior to the ordinary law passed by
sovereignty and judicial supremacy. The Parliament
Congress.
may make law to avoid deadlocks by Courts.
Thirdly, the Act of Congress which is contrary
to and violation of the fundamental law is void Conclusion
and cannot bind the courts. Thus, there exists limited scope of judicial review
Fourthly, the Judicial power obligation to in India. It is able to establish a Condition of
uphold the oath, render it necessary for the courts happy interaction with different organs of the
to declare unconstitutional those acts of Congress government. As A.R. Ball in his ‘‘Modern Politics
which contravene the fundamental law. and Government’’ observes ‘‘The courts are the
It must be emphasised in this connection that part of political process and one should stress co-
the courts are not concerned with policy, wisdom operation as much as conflict. They interact with
or expediency but only with constitutionality of other parts, not as illegitimate outsiders but as part
legislation. In the opinion of Supreme Court, ‘‘it of the stable ruling political alliance.’’
1. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct (b) Only external actions of man showed be
answer using the codes given below the lists: a subject of appraisal by the state
List-I List-II (c) Law should be understand and applied
(Books) (Authors) at large in the body politic in the sense
A. Guide to the 1. Benn and Peters of positive law and a specific regimen
Philosophy of of punishments and incentives should
Morals and Politics be brought in to being
B. Social Principles 2. C. E. M. Joad (d) Government should not be arbitrary, but
and the Democratic should be conducted through the
State procedures authorized by legislation and
C. Law and Rights 3. Barker passed in proper form; citizens should
D. Political Thought 4. Hocking be punished for breach of law and for
in England
nothing else; and official status should
Codes:
not protect a person from the operation
A B C D
of legal sanctions, if he has broken the,
(a) 2 1 3 4
law.
(b) 1 2 4 3
(c) 4 2 1 3 4. Match List–I with List–II and select the
(d) 2 1 4 3 correct answer using the codes given below
2. Which of the following are corollaries of the the lists:
rule of law? List-I List-II
1. Ruling elite of society must adhere to A. A.V. Dicey 1. Law and Opinion
the dictates of law and steer clear of any in England in the
arbitrariness in governance. Twentieth Century
2. Law of the land should be properly B. Roscoe Pound 2. Law in a Changing
notified so that the citizens know as to Society
how it will effect them C. Morris Ginsberg 3. Introduction to the
3. Laws should be ‘general’ in form so that Study of the law
they are uniformly applicable to all the of the Constitution
citizens; there should be no separate laws D. W. Friedmann 4. The Spirit of the
for any specific category of the people. Common law
4. Rights and duties of the citizens and Codes:
ruler alive should be laid down in the A B C D
form of a legal code.
(a) 3 4 1 2
Select the correct answer using the codes (b) 4 3 2 1
given below: (c) 3 4 2 1
Codes: (d) 4 3 1 2
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 5. Consider the following statements:
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3 1. While in France, the constitutional law
3. The main thrust of the rule of law is that: has utmost sanctity, in England it is the
(a) Legal ethic must take precedence over common law which is bestowed with a
morality in the society in general spirit of inviolability.
2. The evolution of French Jurisprudence 8. Which of the following gives a most plausible
has been around the contradiction sequence of stages during a revolution?
between the law and morality while the (a) Dissatisfaction, public symptoms of
English Jurisprudence has evolved from disturbance, organisational activity,
a basic belief in the harmony between overt demonstrations, capture of
the law and morality. government, removal of old regime
3. Under the French legal system disputes (b) Dissatisfaction, public symptoms of
between officials and subjects were dealt disturbance, overt demonstrations,
with by a special division of the judicial organisational activity, removal of old
system, while in England they were dealt regime, capture of government
with by ordinary law–courts concerned (c) Dissatisfaction, public symptoms of
with disputes between subjects. disturbance, open warfare, organisational
4. In France law is much popular among activity, capture of government,
the various prevailing professions as revolution any regime begins
compared to England. (d) Dissatisfaction, public symptoms of
Which of the above statements best disturbance, overt demonstrations,
distinguish the French legal System from the capture of government, removal of old
English legal system. regime
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(c) Only 2 (d) Only 3 9. “Whenever any form of Government becomes
destructive to these ends, it is the Right of
6. Capitalism is inevitably characterised by a the People to alter or abolish it, and to
steady swelling of the ranks of the proletariat institute new Government.” – The American
as well as by an increasing pauperisation of Declaration of Independence, 1776.
the working class. This process continues Which of the following is implied in the
unabated and ultimately a stage is reached above statement?
when the working class driven to the wall as (a) Right to recall
it were, rises and expropriates the exprop- (b) Right to carry out armed insurrection
riators, thus ending all time capitalist system. (c) Right to electoral boycott
Revolution is thus the mid-wife of change. (d) Right to revolution
The above statement reflects which of the
10. Assertion (A) : Certain restraints of law are
following?
necessary in the interest of general
(a) A neo-capitalist view of revolution
well-being. But they should be applied
(b) Stalinist view of revolution
impartially and society should be convinced
(c) Marxist view of revolution
of their reasonableness.
(d) Maoist view of revolution
Reason (R) : So long as one has the feeling
7. Which of the following is not correctly that law is an external compulsion devised
matched? for the benefit of some particular person or
(a) R. Dahrendorf : Class and class class, there is bound to be profound
Conflict in Industrial discontent and unhappiness leading at times
Society to rebellion.
(b) Ebenstein : Today's Isms (a) Both A and R are true and R is the
(c) Antony Giddens : The Class Structure correct explanation of A
of the Advanced (b) Both A and R are true but R is not a
Societies correct explanation of A
(d) Karl Popper : The Poverty of Philo- (c) A is true but R is false
sophy (d) A is false but R is true
11. Assertion (A): The leadership of the socialist 4. Government to be based on the motion
and proletarian revolutions has generally of majority rule and minorities, both
come from the middle classes, not from the electoral and non-electoral, are to
working class. comply with the decisions of the
Reason (R): The feeling of frustration, the majority.
quest for power, the sense of injustice, and Which of the above statements expound the
various idealistic aspirations are of greater basic principles of democracy? Select the
importance in the formation of a revolutionary correct answer from below:
than is economic discontent. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 3
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the (c) 1, 2, and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3, and 4
correct explanation of A 14. Match List-I (Forms of democracy) with
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a List-II (Description) and choose the correct
correct explanation of A answer from the codes given below the lists:
(c) A is true but R is false List-I (Forms List-II
(d) A is false but R is true of Democracy) (Description)
12. Assertion (A): One of the meanings ascribed A. Social 1. It is basically a Guild
to the rule of law is that the general principles Democracy socialist idea and
of the Constitution are the result of Judicial Cole was its
decisions determining the rights of private exponent. Its aim is
persons in particular cases brought before the manage-ment of
the courts. industry by workers
Reason (R): English judges played a on self-governing
retrogressive role in safeguarding the rights lives
and liberties of Englishmen. Dicey, who was B. People’s 2. Its central idea is
a liberal castigated the Judges. Democracy economic equality.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the Karl Marx used it in
place of political
correct explanation of A
democracy and called
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a
it the determining
correct explanation of A
factor of politics
(c) A is true but R is false
C. Industrial 3. It is neither capitalist
(d) A is false but R is true
Democracy nor socialist. It is
13. Consider the following statements: partly liberal and
1. Right of every individual to speak, partly socialist. It
criticise and disagree with others and aims at social
maintain her or his separate ideas and equality and welfare
ideologies. of the people.
2. The power of taking basic decisions D. Economic 4. It is commonly used
relating to the government are vested in Democracy by communist states.
all the members of the community and It is intended to put
not in any particular class of persons. emphasis in the
3. Absence of illegitimate coercion, use of politico-economic,
force only as a medicine and prominence ma cro-mic ro a nd
to pursuasion and peace both in the suprainfra nat ure
internal and international spheres. of their democracy.
Codes: (b) Both A and R are true but R is not a

A B C D correct explanation of A.
(a) 2 4 1 3 (c) A is true but R is false.
(b) 4 3 1 2 (d) A is false but R is true.
(c) 4 1 3 2 18. There are certain mechanisms to secure direct
(d) 3 4 1 2 democracy. Which of the following pairs
is/are not correctly matched in this
15. Assertion (A): Democracy demands that the
connection?
people should have a high level of
intelligence and a sound system of education. 1. Referendum : A special procedure of
referring a particular
Reason (R): If the people do not possess the billon constitutional
spirit of ‘normal reasonableness’ democracy amendment for popular
degenerates into mob rule which is set aside vote. If a majority votes
by dictatorship. in its favour, the bill
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the becomes law
correct explanation of A. 2. Recall : A devise to enable to a
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a people’s representative
correct explanation of A. to call the popular
(c) A is true but R is false. assembly consisting of
(d) A is false but R is true. all the adult members of
16. Assertion (A): The elitist theory of the electorate of his or
democracy does not aim at change in the her constituency in order
existing socio-economic situation. Its object to listen to the ir
is to suggest a political system best suited to grievances and redress
the existing order. them
3. Initiative : A devise which enables
Reason (R): The elitist theory arose due to a specified number of
the need for the maintenance of stability and people to draft a bill and
equilibrium in the liberal capitalist societies. send it to the legislature
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the for its consideration. It
correct explanation of A. is a positive power in
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a the hands of the people
correct explanation of A. to initiate a law which
(c) A is true but R is false. they desire to be passed
(d) A is false but R is true. 4. Plebiscite : A mode of securing
17. Assertion (A): Though democracy has a long opinion of the people’s
tradition, the notions regarding its essence representatives in an
and grounds of its justification have been assembly. It is a
revised from time to time. negative power of the
Reason (R): Literally, democracy signifies represen-tatives to put a
‘the rule of the people’. It is derived from the check on undesirable
legislation by the
Greek word ‘demos’ which means ‘the people’
government
while ‘cracy’ stands for ‘rule’ or
‘government’. Select the correct answer from below:
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
correct explanation of A. (c) 2 and 4 (d) Only 2
19. Consider the following statements: 3. Men and women who are bonded and
1. It upholds equality of all people who organised should formulate a clear and
are endowed with equal capability to specific programme which they should
rule place before the electorate
2. It banks on the wisdom of the masses 4. A political party should be prepared to
and treats their representatives only as carry out its policy by any means, fair or
their agents or messengers foul, so far as its policy is in keeping
3. It reposes faith in elitism and regard with the national interests
politicians as the best custodians of
Which of the above statements are valid as
public interest
conditions necessary to constitute a political
4. It holds that instead of using their own
party? Select the correct answer from the
judgement, representatives must translate
following:
the judgement of their constituents into
concrete policy proposals (a) 1, 2 and 3
Which of the above statements form the best (b) 1 and 3
description of the liberal theory of represen- (c) 2 and 4
tation? Select the correct answer from below: (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 3 22. Match List-I (Scholars) with List-II (Works)
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3, and 4 and select the correct answer from the codes
20. Assertion (A): Democracy is a system of given below the lists:
government in which every citizen, List-I List-II
irrespective of his or her age, is equally free (Scholars) (Works)
to express views and desires upon all subjects A. Political Parties :A 1. Maurice
in whatever way he or she wishes. Sociological Study Duverger
Reason (R): There are certain presumptions of the Oligarchical
of democracy: that the individual is rational Tendencies of
and has the capacity to think and discuss the Modern
general problems of the community, that Democracy
individual is sovereign over his body and B. Political Parties: 2. Giovanni
mind and that there is no conflict between A Genuine case Sartori
the good of the individual and the good of for Discontent
the community.
C. Parties and Party 3. Robert
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the
Systems: A Frame- Michels
correct explanation of A.
work for Analysis
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a
D. Political Parties: 4. Jean Blondel
Their Organisation
(c) A is true but R is false.
and Activity in the
(d) A is false but R is true.
Modern State
21. Consider the following statements:
1. A certain measure of agreement on Codes:
fundamental principles which can bind A B C D
the people together as a political unit (a) 2 3 1 4
2. Men and women should be duly (b) 2 3 4 1
organised or else they would make just (c) 3 2 1 4
a mongrel crowd (d) 3 4 2 1
23. Consider the following points : 25. Assertion (A): Political parties can, at times,
1. Pressure groups are part of the politcal flout the public opinion.
process of country. Reason (R): Political parties are
2. Pressure groups seek to influence all indispensable links between the people and
institutions of a polity except judiciary the representative machinery of the
which is completely insulated from any government. Their rule is more obvious when
extraneous momoeuvrine. election is in prospect, but they need to be
3. Pressure groups attempt either to continually operative if a democratic system
strengthen or change the direction of is to work effectively.
goverment policy. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the
4. Pressure groups do not seek to directly correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the
capture political power and run the
government.
Which of the above points stand true (d) A is false but R is true.
regarding interest groups? Select the correct 26. Assertion (A): A distinguishing feature of an
answer from the following: interest or pressure group is that it seeks to
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 3 influence the public policy-making processes
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 but without attempting to take over directly
24. Consider the following : the control and conduct of the government.
1. The perpetual struggle of Ins and Outs Reason (R): Pressure groups are the same as
for political power turns the legislature lobbies and concentrate chiefly on the
into a battlefield and in this struggle the legislature while it is in session and are
interests of the country are forgotten. concerned with the passage or defeat of
2. Parties encourage hollowness and particular bills.
insincerity. They divide not only the (a) Both A and R are true and R is the
legislature but the nation into hostile correct explanation of A.
camps. During national emergencies, (b) Both A and R are true but R is not the
parties can hardly transcend their petty correct explanation of A.
differences and present a united front. (c) A is true but R is false.
3. Parties often over-reach themselves and (d) A is false but R is true.
indulge in unwholesome and immoral 27. The main characteristics of the party implied
activities live bribing the legislators in Lenin’s conceptualization are:
4. Parties tend to become antonomous and 1. The party is in possession of a unique
to regard organisations as important for type of knowledge as well as a distinctive
their own sake. Principles are thus method. Its knowledge base is Marxism
subordinated to success at polls and and its method is dialectic.
issues are not considered on merit. 2. The party is in principle a rigidly
Which of the above statements make a valid disciplined and carefully selected small
group. It claims intellectual superiority
criticism of political parties?
because of the possession of unique
Select the correct answer from the following: knowledge.
(a) 1 and 2 3. The party has to be territorialy all
(b) 1, 2 and 3 pervasive in the sense that its branches
(c) 1, 2 and 4 should spread in all the parts and regions
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 of the country.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—17
4. The party is, by design, a highly people cannot cooperate with one
centralised organization. Autonomy of another and achieve their political ends.
local units is thus ruled out. The rank 4. A political party must try to join together
and file would be subject to strict different issues raised by pressure groups
discipline and rules of obedience. so that a holistic picture can be presented
to the legislature.
Select the correct answer from the following:
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 3 Select the correct answer from the following:
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3, and 4
28. Assertion (A): The existence of a single
political party is antithetical to democracy. 31. Assertion (A): A genuine party system, that
is, one which contains two or more parties is
Reason (R): The essence of democracy is its
a major step in the attainment of political
hospitality to all kinds of opinions and so
maturity and it was only a century and a half
one party state is diametrically opposite to
back that political parties in the real sense
the democratic system.
came into being.
correct explanation of A. Reason (R): It is, a curious fact that in Britain
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the where the party system first began, political
correct explanation of A. parties are still unknown to law, though
(c) A is true but R is false. without them the whole nature of the British
(d) A is false but R is true. constitution would be changed and many of
the conventions, would become unworkable.
29. Assertion (A): Group politics play a vital (a) Both A and R are true and R is the
role at different levels of an electoral process correct explanation of A.
although they play a role of hide and seek (b) Both A and R are true but R is not the
and do not come on the scene. correct explanation of A.
Reason (R): Public idntification of a (c) A is true but R is false.
candidate engaged in electoral battle, with a (d) A is false but R is true.
particular group may be of negative value
32. Match List-I (Confederations) with List-II
and group endorsement may drive away
(Duration) and select the correct answer from
more votes than it may attract.
the codes given below the lists:
List-I List-II
(Confederation) (Duration)
A. German Confederation 1. 1991 –
Continuing
B. Swiss Confederacy 2. 1815 – 1866
(d) A is false but R is true.
C. American Confederacy 3. 1781 – 1789
30. Which of the following conditions are D. Common Wealth of 4. 1815 – 1840
necessary to constitute a political party? Independent States
1. A party should seek to carry out its
policy by constitutional means. Codes:
2. A party must endeavour to promote A B C D
national interests as distinguished from (a) 1 4 3 2
sectarian or communal interests. (b) 1 3 4 2
3. There must be agreement between people (c) 2 4 3 1
on certain issues. If there is no agreement, (d) 2 3 4 1
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—17-II
33. Though the country is divided into Reason (R): Under the parliamentary system
administrative units called ‘Departments’ the acts of omission and commission of the
which are divided into cantons, arrondisse- government can be criticised without any
ments and communes, each having its organs loss of time as the legislature is sitting most
for local administration, but the general of the time and the ministry or the executive
opinion is that it is almost misleading to also sits in the legislature. There is no
talk about local governments. difficulty in asking the questions.
The country referred to above is– (a) Both A and R are true and R is the
(a) U.S.A. (b) Switzerland correct explanation of A.
(c) France (d) Italy (b) Both A and R are true but R is not the
34. Consider the following points about the correct explanation of A.
Presidential system of government of the (c) A is true but R is false.
American model: (d) A is false but R is true.
1. The President and his ministers cannot 36. Assertion (A):A Presidential system is
become the members of the legislature. suitable for emergencies.
In case the President appoints somebody Reason (R): All powers are concentrated in
as his minister who is also a member of the hands of the President and he can afford
the legislature, he will have to resign to take prompt decisions to meet a crisis.
his legislative membership before (a) Both A and R are true and R is the
accepting the ministerial assignment. correct explanation of A.
2. Ministers do not attend the sessions of (b) Both A and R are true but R is not the
the legislature and though they may go correct explanation of A.
and also speak in the House, they cannot (c) A is true but R is false.
vote. Again, the legislature cannot (d) A is false but R is true.
censure the conduct of the ministers, it
can only initiate proceedings of 37. Assertion (A): A federal system is a poor
impeachment against the President. device as far as harmonization of national
3. The President may send his messages to unity with local autonomy is concerned.
the legislature and the latter may, and Reason (R): In the federal system, there is
may not, act according to the wishes of always the danger of secession of units from
the Head of the State. the federal government. As the units enjoy
4. The bills passed by the legislature are autonomy, there can develop a spirit of
subject to the veto power of the President defiance and independence and that can
who may exercise this power in case of ultimately result in a revolt against the federal
bills not pertaining to his choice. The government.
budget prepared by the President is (a) Both A and R are true and R is the
submitted to the legislature that may correct explanation of A.
pass it, or cut it wherever it so chooses. (b) Both A and R are true but R is not a
Which of the above are valid? Select the correct explanation of A.
correct answer from the following: (c) A is true but R is false.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 4 (d) A is false but R is true.
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 38. Which of the following statements is false?
35. Assertion (A): The most important merit of (a) Pressure groups are an important channel
a parliamentary form of government is of communication for transmission of
harmony and cooperation between the political ideas from the mass of the
legislature and executive. citizen to the rulers
(b) Pressure groups are influence groups body of personal servants who may be
organised to influence policies. They set-off against the appetite of the
attempt to exert influence over the aristocracy for power.
government or parliament or local 3. Democracy aided in the rise and growth
authorities of bureaucracy by, first, obviating the
(c) Pressure groups are non-political entities. possibility of maintaining a system
They are involved in the political process whereby officials could constitute a
but are not willing to assist in forming permanent and hereditary caste and
a government. second, making it essential to have a
(d) None of these. body of experts in charge of a particular
39. Anomic Pressure Groups are those groups. service.
(a) Which perform the role of interest 4. The scale of the modern state and the
articulation by publicising protests in vastness of the service it seeks to render
order to exert pressure on policy-makers make expert administration inevitable.
for changing particular policies and Which of the above statements paraphrase
decisions the Laskian view on the rise of bureaucracy?
(b) Which perform the role of interest Select the correct answer from below:
articulation by associating themselves (a) 1 and 4
with certain political parties (b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) Which perform the role of interest (c) 2 and 3
articulation from the political platform. (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
42. The Weberian model of bureaucracy has been
40. Which of the following is a charge against criticised from a variety of stand points.
the Pressure Group?
Consider the following points in this regard:
(a) They perform a much needed function
1. The Weberian model appears to be a
in the modern society
‘machine theory’ and a closed system
(b) They try to bribe the legislators and other
model taking little account of organisat-
high officers and thus spread corruption
ional interactions with the environment.
in public life
2. The structural features of bureaucracy as
(c) They help in the advancement of the
laid down by Weber might be suitable
aims of their members
for routine and repetitive tasks but these
(d) They enlighten the legislators and
would produce dysfunctional conse-
administrators regarding the problems
quences in terms of human behaviour if
faced by their party members
the jobs would involve innovation and
41. Laski attributes the rise of bureaucracy to creativity.
several factors. Consider the following 3. Weberian model has not been found to
statements in this regard: respond adequately to the tasks of socio-
1. Bureaucracy arose as a by–product of economic transformation in the deve-
aristocracy. Historically, a disinclination loping countries. These tasks require
on the part of the aristocracy for active quick changes whereas the capacity of
government has in some cases led to the the Weberian model for adaptation to
transfer of power into the hands of change is rather slow.
permanent officials. 4. Weber's model is confined to the study
2. The origin of bureaucracy may be traced of formal bureaucratic structure and fails
to the desire of the crown to have a to take notice of the informal structure
of bureauracy such as informal relations, 45. Who among the following made the
informal norms and values, an informal observation that – “Bureaucracy identifies
power hierarchy and informal power the interest of the state with particular private
struggles. goals in such a way as to make the interests
Which of the above points make a valid of the state into a particular private goal
opposed to other private goals”?
criticism of the Weberian model? Select the
(a) Mao (b) Max Weber
correct answer from below:
(c) Marx (d) None of these
(a) 1 and 3
(b) 2 and 3 46. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct
(c) 1, 2 and 3 answer using the codes given below the lists:
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 List-I List-II
A. Kaplan 1. Comparative Politics
43. Assertion (A): The rise and growth of
B. Freeman 2. Political Science and
bureaucracy is integrally associated with the Government
emergence of the ‘Socialist’ state. C. Garner 3. Power and Society
Reason (R): Bureaucracy suggests a middle D. Gilchrist 4. Principles of Political
class concept. However, it has been viewed Science
differently by Liberal and Marxist thinkers. Codes:
While the former have appreciated it as at
A B C D
best a necessary evil, the latter have frankly
(a) 1 2 3 4
denounced it and suggested its replacement
(b) 2 3 1 4
by a new type of public services under
(c) 3 1 2 4
people’s bodies or ‘Soviets’.
(d) 3 1 4 2
correct explanation of A. 47. Who among the following is one of the
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a advocates of the Power theory in politics?
correct explanation of A. (a) Catline (b) Kaplan
(c) A is true but R is false. (c) Lasswell (d) All of the above
(d) A is false but R is true. 48. Who founded the structural-functional school
44. Assertion (A): Bureaucracy is a perplexing in Political Science?
term and has been subjected to many different (a) Aptev (b) Coleman
interpretations. It is used variously to identify (c) Plato (d) Both (a) and (b)
an institution or a caste, a mode of operation, 49. Political Socialisation is the process of
an ideology, a way of life, a social category induction into the political culture and the
etc. psychological dimension of the
Reason (R): From the start the use of the (a) Socio-economic system
term ‘Bureaucracy’ has been pejorative (b) Political system
and its focus has been on government (c) Economic system
officials. (d) Social system
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the 50. Who defines the political system as the
correct explanation of A. ‘institutions, processes and interactions
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the through which values are authoritatively
correct explanation of A. allocated in a society’?
(c) A is true but R is false. (a) Almond (b) Easton
(d) A is false but R is true. (c) Aptev (d) Pye
51. Who was one of the first among the modern 59. According to the Marxist point of view,
political scientists to challenge the politics is only a part of –
traditional approaches? (a) Structure (b) Substructure
(a) Freud (b) Lasswell (c) Superstructure (d) Class structure
(c) Bernard Crick (d) Charles Merriam 60. Marx, Engels and Lenin argued that political
52. Traditional study of politics was dominated systems should be compared and contrasted
by – with reference to their respective
(a) Behavioural approach (a) Substructures (b) Class structures
(b) Normative approach (c) Superstructures (d) Caste structures
(c) Marxist approach 61. Which of the following statements is correct?
(d) Power approach (a) The traditional view of politics deals
53. .......... is the most effective instrument of with the study of state and government
exercising power in the sphere of politics. in their various aspects
(a) Government (b) Political power (b) Traditional thinking was characterised
(c) Legitimacy (d) Authority by a normative orientation
54. Max Weber’s definition of Politics implies a (c) Traditional approach can be sub-divided
focus on .......... in the context of national into philosophical, institutional, histori-
as well as international politics. cal, evolutionary and legal approaches
(a) Power (b) State (d) All of the above.
(c) Society (d) Democracy 62. Who propounded the Elitist theory?
55. Political communication is the process (a) Mosca (b) Robert Dahl
whereby components of a .......... system, such (c) Lasswell (d) Catlin
as, groups, institutions, transmit and receive 63. Who said that “philosophers have so far
information regarding the functioning of the interpreted the world, the problem is how to
political system. change it”?
(a) Social (b) Political (a) Lenin (b) Marx
(c) Economic (d) Governmental (c) Rousseau (d) Miliband
56. A .......... political system is characterized by 64. In which book Lenin said that a socialist
differentiation of structures for the revolution would imply that the state under
performance of specific functions. the fundamentally new conditions “is
(a) Developing transformed into something which is no
(b) Underdeveloped longer the state proper”?
(c) Developed (a) Marxism and Politics
(d) Progressive (b) The Anatomy of Revolution
57. Who is the chief exponent of Communication (c) State and Revolution
Theory Approach? (d) Social Change
(a) Almond (b) Karl Deutsch 65. Who desired the ‘fostering of revolution
(c) Marx (d) Coleman abroad as an essential part of the process’?
58. Communication theory regards the function (a) Miliband (b) Lenin
of communication as the centre of all (c) Cohan (d) Trotsky
(a) Social activity 66. The Communist Manifesto of Marx and
(b) Political activity Engels advocates the use of :
(c) Economic activity (a) Unfair methods
(d) Socio-economic activity (b) Temporary methods
(c) Violent methods 74. Who has sought to lay down some empirical
(d) Non-violent methods observations on the basis of a case study of
67. According to Johnson which one of the four great revolutions of the world?
following is a kind of revolution. (a) Cohan (b) Brinton
(a) Millenaria rebellion (c) Aristotle (d) Lasswell
(b) Jacquerie 75. Who considers revolution to be ‘a rapid,
(c) Anarchistic rebellion fundamental and violent domestic change in
(d) All of the above the dominant values and myths of a society’?
68. Who makes a psychological study of the (a) Petee (b) Kuhn
theme of revolution? (c) Brinton (d) Huntington
(a) Johnson (b) Sorokin 76. Who saw revolution as ‘a shift in the class
(c) Gurr (d) Tocqueville composition of the elites’?
69. Who among the following has propounded (a) Lasswell (b) Dunn
the theory of relative deprivation? (c) Cohan (d) Moore
(a) Gurr (b) Nesvold 77. According to Marxists, a revolution is taken
(c) Marx (d) Both (a) and (b) as an inevitable development in which the
70. Who discussed the causes of a revolution essential factor is the change of :
from the standpoint of psycho-analysis? (a) Class dominance
(a) Cohan (b) Friendrich (b) Caste dominance
(c) Schwartz (d) Gurr (c) Social dominance
(d) Political dominance
71. Who made the most significant contribution
to the study of revolutions in modern times? 78. Who looks at revolutions as ‘a sweeping
(a) Marx (b) Lenin fundamental change in the predominant myth
(c) Moore (d) Johnson of social order?
(a) Cohan (b) Neuman
72. In his Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis
(c) Brinton (d) Lenin
Bonaparte, Marx produced a masterpiece of
contemporary ------ revolutionary history. 79. Who recognised the importance of historical
(a) Russian (b) German accidents as a causative factor in revolutions?
(c) French (d) Chinese (a) Lenin (b) Sorokin
(c) Moore (d) Marx
73. Match List I with List II and select the correct
answer by using the codes : 80. Which of the following is not one of the
List I List II works of Marx?
A. Glorious Revolution 1. 1776 (a) The German Ideology
B. American Declaration 2. 1917 (b) The Civil War in France
of Independence (c) The Communist Manifesto
C. French Revolution 3. 1688 (d) Revolutionary Change
D. Russian Revolution 4. 1789 81. Who said that social revolution is an ongoing
Codes : process in which causes and effects are
A B C D dialectically related?
(a) 3 1 4 2 (a) Huntington
(b) 1 2 3 4 (b) Karl Marx
(c) 3 1 2 4 (c) Johnson
(d) 3 2 4 1 (d) Miliband
82. For Marx, the ------ was the ‘political form of 90. Besides common law and the statute law, the
social emancipation’. English courts apply a certain type of rules
(a) Communist League which is known as
(b) Paris Commune (a) Rationality
(c) Revolution (b) Veracity
(d) Communist Manifesto (c) Equity
83. Who among the following emphasized the
human causes of revolution? 91. What is regarded as the corner stone of the
(a) Lenin (b) Marx British system of government?
(c) Almond (d) Popper (a) Common law (b) Civil law
(c) Rule of law (d) Statute law
84. Marx in his address to the Communist
League advocated the idea of : 92. In which book Dicey developed the idea of
(a) Mass revolution Rule of law, published in 1885?
(b) Temporary revolution (a) The British Constitution
(c) Permanent revolution (b) Law and the Constitution
(d) Class revolution (c) An Introduction to the British Constitution
85. Which of the following statements is not
correct regarding nature and meaning of 93. Who said that “rule, predominance or
revolution? supremacy of the law” is an outstanding
(a) Alteration of institution feature of the British Constitution?
(b) Alteration of social structures (a) Dicey (b) Harvey
(c) No changes in the leadership formation (c) Tocqueville (d) Barther
(d) Alteration of values or myths of the 94. According to first proposition of Dicey, no
society person can be punished except for the :
86. Who said that political revolution occur (a) Crime of homicide
because “the parties to a revolution differ (b) Breach of law
about the institutional matrix within which (c) Breaking of taboos
political change is to be achieved and (d) All of the above
evaluated”? 95. Which of the following is not one of the
(a) Kuhn (b) Laski sources of Administrative law?
(c) Moore (d) Dunn (a) Constitution (b) Custom
87. A revolution is certainly a result of : (c) Ordinance (d) Superstition
(a) Political disequilibrium 96. Who divides the field of administrative law
(b) Economic disequilibrium into the law of internal administration and
(c) Class disequilibrium the law of external administration?
(d) Social disequilibrium (a) Goodnow (b) Dicey
88. Who stressed the point that revolutions are (c) James Hart (d) Morgan
destructive? 97. The distinction between Constitutional law
(a) Gurr (b) Sorokin and Administrative law is very clear in
(c) Johnson (d) Cohan countries like :
89. The ------ law in England is regarded as a (a) USA
true embodiment of justice. (b) Germany
(a) Civil (b) Constitutional (c) India
(c) Statute (d) Common (d) Both (a) and (c)
98. Which article of the Indian constitution 100. Which of the following are the major types
provided that the government or its agencies of participation, exercised by citizens in the
shall be subject to the jurisdiction of the decision-making process in government and
Superior Courts? administration?
(a) Article 300 (b) Article 136 1. Democratic
(c) Article 226 (d) None of the above 2. Administrative
3. Social
99. According to which theory, participation 4. Community Development
represents the process by which goals are set Select the correct answer using the codes
and means are chosen in relation to all sorts given below :
of social issues? Codes :
(a) Socialist theory (b) Marxist theory (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4
(c) Democratic theory(d) None of the above (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(d) (b) (d) (a) (d) (c) (d) (a) (d) (a)
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
(a) (c) (b) (d) (a) (a) (b) (c) (c) (d)
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
(a) (d) (c) (c) (d) (c) (c) (a) (a) (a)
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
(b) (c) (c) (d) (b) (a) (d) (d) (a) (b)
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
(d) (d) (b) (b) (c) (c) (d) (d) (b) (b)
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
(b) (b) (d) (a) (a) (c) (b) (b) (c) (b)
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
(d) (a) (b) (c) (d) (c) (d) (b) (d) (c)
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
(a) (c) (a) (b) (d) (a) (a) (b) (d) (d)
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
(b) (b) (b) (c) (c) (a) (d) (b) (d) (c)
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
(c) (b) (c) (b) (d) (c) (d) (c) (c) (d)
lll
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—18

Unit
4
Indian Constitution
The period from 1765 to 1772 is called the period
MAKING OF THE INDIAN of Dual Government.
CONSTITUTION
The landmarks in the development of the
The Indian Constitution is a systematic outgrowth constitution during the British rule are explained
of following factors. below in a chronological order.
1. India’s subjection to colonial rule and
Regulating Act of 1773
struggle for independence.
2. The ideological and intellectual inputs This was the first step taken by the British
provided by stalwarts like Gandhi, Nehru, Government to control and regulate the affairs of
Ambedkar, Rajendra Prasad and others. the East India Company in India. It laid the
3. Socio-economic milieu of Indian society. foundations of Central Administration in the
following three respects :
4. Liberal democratic ideas of representative
1. It designated the Governor of Bengal as
government, adult franchise, elected
the Governor-General of Bengal. The first
institutions etc. which was more pragmatic
such Governor-General was Lord Warren
and commensurate with Indian ethos.
Hastings.
Apart from the above cited factors many factors
2. It subordinated the Governors of Bombay
have contributed to affect the constitutional
and Madras to the Governor-General of
provisions and it would be far from truth to accept
Bengal.
that Indian Constitution is still in the process of
evolution. 3. It established Supreme Court at Calcutta as
the highest court.
CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Pitts India Act of 1784
The Constitution of India was adopted by the
Constituent Assembly in 1949, was not absolutely It placed the Indian affairs under direct control of
new. It was, to a great extent influenced by the the British Government. For that purpose, it
Government of India Act 1935. The foundation of established a Board of Control (representing the
British rule was laid in 1600 through the British Cabinet) over the Court of Directors (the
establishment of East India Company in England governing body of the East India Company).
under a charter of British Queen Elizabeth. The The governor-general’s position was made
Company acquired control over Bengal in 1765. stronger. He could over-rule his council on
138
Indian Constitution l 139
important matters. Presidencies of Bombay and over Indian administration through Governor-
Madras were brought under his authority. General as his agent, and he was responsible
ultimately to the British Parliament.
Charter Act, 1813
By the Charter Act, the company’s trade monopoly
Indian Councils Act of 1861
in India was ended, and trade was thrown open to 1. It introduced for the first time the
all British subjects. But trade in tea and trade with representative institutions in India. It thus
China remained exclusive to the company. And provided that Governor-General’s
both the government and the revenues of India Executive Council should have some
continued to be in their hands. Indians as non-official members while
transacting legislative business.
Charter Act of 1833
2. It initiated the process of decentralisation
It made the Governor-General of Bengal as the by restoring the legislative powers to the
Governor-General of India. All civil and military Bombay and Madras Presidencies.
powers were vested in him. Also, the Governor of 3. It accorded the statutory recognition to the
Bombay and Madras were deprived of their portfolio system.
legislative powers. 4. It empowered the Governor-General to
This was the final step towards centralisation frame rules for more convenient transaction
in British India. The Act created for the first time, of business in the council.
the Government of India having authority over
the entire territorial area possessed by the British Indian Councils Act of 1892
in India. Moreover, the Act also ended the It introduced the principle of election but in an
activities of the East India company as a indirect manner. The Governor-General still had
commercial body. the power of nomination even though the members
Charter Act of 1853 were indirectly elected. Also, it enlarged the
functions of Legislative Councils and gave them
This Act separated, for the first time, the legislative the power of discussing the Budget and addressing
and executive functions of the Governor General’s questions to the Executive.
Council. It also introduced a system of open
The main features of the Indian Council Act
competition as the basis of recruitment for civil
1892 were as under :
servants of the company and thus, deprived the
l The Indian Councils Act of 1892, further
Directors of their patronage power.
increases the number of members of central
Government of India Act of 1858 and provincial legislative councils.
l The non-official members of the central
This Act transferred the government, territories and
revenues of India from the East India Company to council were to be nominated by calcutta
the British Crown. In other words, the rule of chamber of commerce and Provincial
Company was replaced by the rule of Crown in Legislative Councils.
India. The powers of the British Crown were to be l Non-officials members of Provincial
exercised by the Secretary of State for India. Thus, councils were to be nominated by local
the Board of Control and Court of Directors were bodies, such as the Municipal Council’s
replaced by this new office. The secretary of state and District Boards.
was a member of the British Cabinet and was l The members of the councils were given
assisted by Council of India, having 15 members. right to ask questions on matters of public
He was vested with complete authority and control interest.
Indian Councils Act of 1909 The transferred subjects were to be

administered by the Governor with the aid of
This Act is also known as Morley-Minto Reforms. ministers responsible to the Legislative Council.
It changed the name of Central Legislative Council The reserved subjects, on the other hand, were to
to Imperial Legislative Council and retained be administered by the Governor and his Executive
official majority in it. The provincial legislative Council without being responsible to the
Councils, on the other hand, were allowed to have Legislative Council. This dual scheme of
non-official majority. Apart from increasing the governance was known as ‘Dyarchy’. However,
size of Legislative Councils, the Act also enlarged this experiment was largely unsuccessful.
their deliberative functions. The Act also The Act introduced, for the first time,
introduced a system of communal representation bicameralism and direct elections in the country.
for Muslims by accepting the concept of ‘Separate Thus, the Imperial Legislative Council was replaced
Electorate’. Thus, this act ‘Legalised by a bicameral legislature consisting of an Upper
Communalism’ and Lord Minto came to be known House (Legislative Council). The majority of
as the ‘Father of Communal Electorate’. members of both the Houses were chosen by direct
The main features of the Indian Council Act election.
1909 were as under : The Act also required that the three of the six
l Expanded the central and provincial members of the Governor-General’s Council (other
Legislative Councils. than the commander-in-chief) were to be Indian.
The main features of the Government of India Act
l Maintained majority of official members.
1919 were as under :
l Non official majority in provincial
l In fact an amending Act and provided for
legislature but not of elected ones. a Preamble.
l First attempt of introducing representative
l Subjects of administration divided into 2
and popular element. categories— central and provincial.
l Official majority in Central (Imperial) l Dyarchy in Provinces–transferred and
Legislature. reserved subjects.
l Separate electorate for Muslim. l Ministerial responsibility in limited sphere.
l Members can discuss budget and more l Delegation of power between centre and
resolutions and supplementary question. provinces (no federation).
l Members can discuss matters of public l Introduction of Bicameral legislature at
interest. centre first time.
l Each house was to have an elected majority.
Government of India Act of 1919
l Discretionary power in the hands of
This act is also known as Montagu-Chelmsford Governor General.
Reforms. It relaxed the central control over the l No provision of collective responsibility.
provinces by demarcating and separating the l Budget was divided into two categories —
central subjects from that of provincial subjects. votable, non-votable.
The central and provincial legislatures were l Maximum limit on Governor General’s
authorised to make laws on their respective list of Executive Council was removed.
subjects.
l Half of his Executive Council members to
The Act further divided the provincial subjects be Indians (three).
into two parts : l Control of Secretary of State was reduced.
1. Transferred l New offices of the High Commissioner of
2. Reserved India was created.
The Act of 1919–Dyarchy in the Provinces down a common political programme. In

February 1928, an All parties conference
l The Act established in the nine provinces
appointed a committee under the
the dual system of Government called
chairmanship of Moti Lal Nehru to discuss
Dyarchy.
question of framing a new Constitution of
l According to this system, the provincial India.
subjects were divided into two parts-the
l The Committee prepared a report which
Reserved and Transferred.
laid down Dominion Status as India’s
l Land Revenue, Famine Relief, Irrigation, political objective.
Law and Order, control of news papers etc.
l The British government, however, did not
were the Reserved Departments to be
accept the report of this committee.
controlled by the Governor and his
Executive Councillors. l The committee refused to grant self-govern-
ment to India within the British empire.
l They were not responsible to the
Legislative Council. The Transferred Government of India Act-1935
departments were to be administered by
the Governor and the ministers chosen from l Simon Commission report was considered
the elected members of the Provinicial by RTC.
Legislative Council. l After 3rd RTC, white paper was issued.
l The system of double government did not l White paper examined by a Committee of
work satisfactorily and was established by Parliament by Linlithgow.
1937. l The recommendations of joint select
committee formed the basis of GOI 1938.
The Simon Commission-1927 l A comprehensive and declared document-
l November 1927, a statutory commission 321 sections and 10 schedules.
on called Simon Commission. Commission l Federal Scheme and Provincial autonomy
was appointed by the British government. (autonomous units).
l Its main task was to examine the working l Three Lists : Federal-59, Provincial-54,
of the Government of Indian Act of 1919. Concurrent-36.
l The commission under the chairmanship l Dyarchy at centre
of Sir John Simon landed in Mumbai on l Received subjects to be administrated by
3rd February 1928. Governor General with Counsellors
l It was boycotted by all parties, because appointed by him.
the seven members of it were all British. l In six provinces legislature was bicameral
l The commission visited many places. The and unicameral in five.
whole country rang with the slogan Simon l Bicameral Legislature at Centre : Council
Go Back in one such demonstration at of State and Federal Assembly.
Lahore Lala Lajpat Rai received lathi blows
l Direct election for both houses.
on his head. He died in 1928.
l For council of State
Nehru Report-1928 l Seats were reserved on the basis of relative
l While the Simon Commission was carrying rank and importance of the state.
on its work without any regard for l One third member retire every third year.
sentiments of the people of India, the l Six member to be nominated by Governor
leading Indian political parties tried to lay General.
l The Governor at his discretion decided as (ii) the federal centre should have control over
to what were his discretionary power. defence, foreign affairs and the communi-
l The Governor General could authorise cation.
either federal or provincial legislature to (iii) the division of provinces according to three
enact a law with respect to any matter not groups
enumerated in lists. (iv) setting up of a Constituent Assembly to
draft a constitution.
Cripps Mission-1942
(v) the establishment of an interim National
l During Second World War the British Government by the constitution of the
desperately needed Indian’s cooperation in Viceroy’s Executive Council from among
war and to secure it, sent to India in March the leaders of the different parties.
1942, a mission headed by a cabinet The Muslim League accepted the proposals
minister Sir Stafford Cripps. but criticised it particularly on the issue of Pakistan.
l Cripps came to India on 22 March 1942. An interim Government was finally formed by
After long discussions with Indian leaders the Congress in September 1946 with the
he put forward his proposals even baging
Jawaharlal Nehru heading the Council of Ministers.
that:
l India should be given the Dominion Status Mountbetten Plan-1947
after the war.
l Lord Louis Mountbatten was sent to India
l During the War period, the Defence and he assumed office as viceroy in March
portfolio would remain in the hands of the 1947. On 3 June came the broadcast laying
viceroy and down the method by which power would
l After the termination of the war, a be transferred to Indian hands. He also
Constituent Assembly would be setup to advanced the date of withdrawal of the
decide the future of India. British from India to 15th August 1947.
l The Congress as well as the Muslim l It was accepted by the Congress and the
League refused the offers and the Cripps League. Pakistan was to comprise Sindh,
Mission ended in complete the failure. Baluchistan and Northwest Frontier
Province.
Wavell Plan
l But the provinces of Bengal and Punjab
l Concerned mainly with the Viceroy’s were to be partititoned between India and
Executive Council. Pakistan.
l Proposed to make Council more l Accordingly, on 15th August, India and
representative. Pakistan emerged as two independent
l External affairs to be under Indian Minister. states.
Simla Conference Indian Independence Act-1947

l Called to suggest names for Executive l Simple and short document consisting of
Council. 20 clauses.
l Conference failed due to Jinnah. l Partition to be effected from Aug 15, 1947
as Independence Day.
Cabinet Mission l Constituent Assembly to function as
The Cabinet Mission recommended for Legislative bodies.
(i) a Union of India comprising British India l Princely states were free to join either
and the Indian States. country or remain independent.
l Office of Secretary of State was abolished. Minorities such as Anglo-Indians and Parsees
l Governor General and Governor to were represented by Frank Anthony and H.P. Modi
function as Constitutional heads. respectively.
l Partition of Punjab and Bengal. Mrs. Sarojni Naidu and Mrs. Vijaya Laxmi
l Paramountacy of crown over Princely states
Pandit were important women members.
to lapse. It took 3 years to complete its work and Rs.
l First sitting of the Constituent Assembly-
64 crore were spent on Assembly during the period.
9 Dec. 1946. The provisions relating to citizenship,
l Constituent Assembly as a Government
elections, provisional Parliament temporary and
body for Dominion of India-14 Aug 1947. transitional provisions were given effect from Nov.
26, 1949 referred to as date of commencement.
l Meanwhile demand of Pakistan was
accepted. Two-thirds of the provisions of the constitution
is similar to the Government of India Act 1935.
l When the Constituent Assembly
reassembled on-31 Oct 1947. SOURCES OF CONSTIT UTIONAL
Total Members – 299 PROVISIONS
Elected – 229
Great Britain : Parliamentary form of Government,
Nominated – 70 process of law making, institution
The draft of Constitution prepared in Feb. of speaker, writ jurisdiction.
1948. America : Supremacy of the Constitution,
Third sitting was over by 26 Nov. 1949. independent judiciary, Judicial
review, impeachment, process of
COMMITTEES OF THE ASSEMBLY ratification of Constitutional
amendments by state Legislatures,
Members Chairman
Fundamental Rights.
Drafting Committee 07 Ambedkar Ireland : Directive Principles, Method of the
29 Aug 1947 election of President, nomination
Union Powers Committee 9 Nehru of members in the Rajya Sabha.
Committee on FR and 54 Patel Canada : Definition of Indian Federation as
Minorities an Union of State and giving
Steering Committee 3 Rajendra residuary power to the Union.
Prasad Australia : Concurrent List.
Provincial Constitution 25 Patel Japan : Procedure established by law.
Committee Germany : Emergency provisions.
Committee on Union 15 Nehru USSR : Fundamental Duties
Constitution South Africa : Constitutional Amendments
B.N. Rao-Advisor to the Constituent Assembly
prepared draft. MAJOR LANDMARKS IN
A 7 member Committee chaired by Sir Alladi CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Krishnaswami Iyer was set up to examine the The enormous task of drafting constitution of
draft. independent India was done by an indirectly
There were more than 30 members who elected Constituent Assembly. From 9 Dec, 1946
belonged to scheduled castes. to 26 Nov., 1949. But, there remained significant
landmarks in this direction. Some of them are as After nearly three years of its work, Assembly
follows. adopted the Constitution on 26 Nov., 1949. It
l Dec. 1918, At the 33rd session of INC held held 11 sessions, covering 2 years 11 months and
at Delhi a unanimous resolution proclaimed 18 days.
that ‘‘principles of self-determination The last sitting was held on 24 Jan. 1950.
should be applied’’ to India. Number of members was decided on the basis
l Jan. 1922, Gandhi writing in Young India of one representative for a population of ten lakh.
declared that Swaraj would not be the gift In all, Assembly had 15 committees with 80
of British Parliament, but will of people members. The Drafting Committee constituted in
must be expressed through freely chosen 1947 under the chairmanship of Dr. Ambedkar
representatives. consisted of six other members to prepare the draft
l May, 1928, All Parties Conference held at Constitution. The Draft Constitution was first
Bombay appointed an all-parties published in Feb., 1948.
committee headed by Motilal Nehru to
frame a Constitution for an independent BASIC FEATURES OF
India. THE CONSTITUTION
l Dec, 1929, Lahore session of the All India
The Constitution of a country is the legal
Congress Committee passed resolution for
document with the help of which a country’s affairs
complete independence. Soon after demand
are managed. It is a combination of many factors,
for a Constituent Assembly was
viz., history, values, traditions, ethos, socio-
emphasized.
political milieu and alike. It is a document which
l 1938 Haripura and 1940 Ramgarh Session
establishes the doctrine of limited government and
reiterated claims for a Constituent promotes democratic rule. Indian constitution
Assembly. drafted and enacted after a period of struggle and
l 1940, August offer implicitly conceded the deliberation is among the longest in the world.
demand for Constituent Assembly. Though most of it is taken from the Government
l 1942, Cripps Mission accepted for the first of India Act 1935, the Indian framers gave it a
time India’s right to independence and her twist so as to be an instrument of socio-economic
right to frame her own Constitution. But, justice without compromising the aspect of
it failed. security, good governance and other aspects.
l May, 1946, Cabinet Mission finally The following are the basic features of Indian
conceded the demand for setting up a Constitution.
Constituent Assembly for whole India. 1. One of the longest document in the world.
The Constituent Assembly was to consist of Originally it contained 395 Articles and 8
389 members. schedules. Now, it contains 395 Articles
Members elected from British India-296 and 12 schedules.
Members who were to be representative of 2. Indian Constitution is a written Constitution
native states–93 like American, Canadian and French
Total–389 Constitution.
The Muslim League boycotted the Assembly. 3. India has a federal system with unitary bias.
When Assembly met at its first meeting on Dec 9, The desire and commitment to preserve the
1946 only 211 members were present. The process unity without compromising the issue of
of merger and integration of Indian states kept on development of different regions, made this
changing its strength. choice inevitable.
4. Independent and impartial judiciary is Definition and Facts

hallmark of Indian Constitution.
Objective Resolution : A historic resolution
5. Novel features like fundamental rights, moved by Nehru on Dec 13, 1946 which
fundamental duties and directive principles proclaimed India as an Independent Sovereign
of state policy in a single document. Republic. It also sought to draw a constitution for
6. Parliamentary system of government. governance of the country. It became guiding
7. Compromise between Parliamentary principle of the Assembly in its task of Constitution
supremacy and Judicial Review. making.
8. A democratic Republic, head of the state is
elected indirectly. He/she is not hereditary. FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
9. A mix of rigid and flexible elements the
The Constitution of India is committed to a
constitution amendment procedure as
fundamental change in the social order so as to
moderate enough to address the needs of
ensure more human life of people. Perhaps no part
change. But, is also strict in the sense that
other than on Fundamental Rights and Directive
crucial provisions need special majority.
Principles of State policy testifies to this
10. Citizenship is single, everybody fulfilling commitment of Indian Constitution.
certain qualification is entitled for
Fundamental rights are the rights that have
citizenship of the country, not of a
been incorporated in the Constitution and are
particular state.
justiciable in court of law. They have been
Criticism modelled on the basis of U.S. Constitution and are
hailed as ‘‘Cornerstone of the Indian Constitution.’’
However, Indian constitution is also criticized, on It is to be noted that though all fundamental rights
following grounds. are human rights but not the vice-versa. Most of
1. A lengthy document. A layman cannot these rights are worded negative and directed
understand the language of the provisions against the state. Some of the rights viz, Article 17
that are often faulty written. are enforceable against the private individuals as
2. A cut-paste work. The document is dubbed well.
as borrowed from other states and fit into
a broader scheme. HISTORY OF DEMAND FOR FUNDA-
3. A carbon copy of the Government of India MENTAL RIGHT
Act, 1935. l Swaraj Bill (1895) by Lokmanya Tilak.
4. A very long and complicated document. l Congress Resolution in the period of first
Conclusion World War.
l Commonwealth of India Bill by Annie
Despite limitations the framers have given India a Besant.
constitution that has stood the test of time and
l Madras Resolution of Congress (1927).
responded to the changing time. At times its
practical political scenario raised serious doubts l Nehru Committee 1928.
about efficacy of the constitutional provisions but l Karachi Session of Congress (1931)
such apprehensions were warded off by enlightened adopted a Resolution on Fundamental
citizenry and accountable leadership. For the time Right.
being India need to be comfortable with its l Sapru Committee Report (1945) made
constitution for it is empowered to deal with distinction between justiciable and non-
complexities and eventualities that are foreseeable. justiciable rights.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—19
CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS negative concept implying absence of

OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS special privilege on grounds of birth, caste,
creed, colour or sex.
1. Integral part of the Constitution cannot be
Equality before law is second corrollary
altered or taken away by ordinary
from Dicey’s concept of the ‘‘rule of law.’’
legislation.
It implies that no one is above the law of
2. They are not absolute. ‘Reasonable’ restric- land. It is the law no one is supreme.
tions can be imposed in view of However, exceptions are granted to the
sovereignty and integrity of the country or office of President and Governor.
alike on certain grounds.
l Equal Protection of the Law : It is of
3. Though most of the rights are worded nega- American origin and is a more positive
tively some are positive rights. For example concept implying equality of treatment in
Negative : Article 18 equal circumstances.
Positive : Article 16 It provides for protective discrimination.
4. They are justiciable. But, chief feature is Article 15(1), says ‘‘the State shall not
that part III dealing with Fundamental discriminate against any citizen on grounds only
Rights is guarantor as well as protector of of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any
Fundamental Rights. A remedy under of them.
Article 32 is given for enforcement of a Besides these 5 grounds, state can prescribe
Fundamental Rights. guidelines say; for job in a particular region.
CLASSIFICATION OF FUNDAMENTAL Article 15(2) says ‘‘No citizen can be denied
access to public places only on the ground of
RIGHTS
caste sex, race, religion, place of birth or any of
Fundamental Rights are classified as them.’’
1. Right to Equality This Article is a Corollary to Article 17 (against
2. Right to Freedom Untouchability).
3. Right against Exploitation Article 15(3) says that ‘‘nothing in this article
4. Right to Freedom of Religion shall prevent the state from making special
provisions for women and children.’’
5. Cultural and Educational Rights
Article 15(4) says that ‘‘Nothing in this or in
6. Right to Constitutional Remedies
clause (2) of Article 29 shall prevent the state from
The Original Constitution provided for the making any special provision for the advancement
Right to Property but it has been abolished by the of any socially and educationally backward classes
44th Amendment. of society or for the SCs and STs.’’ This Article
Recently, Right to Primary Education has been was introduced by Ist Amendment.
included in Part three under Article 21 A. Article 16(1) provides for equality of
opportunity in public employment.
1. Right to Equality
Article 16(2) prohibits discrimination on
Article 14 to 18 deals with the Right to Equality. grounds only of religion, race, sex, descent place
Article 14, says that ‘‘the state shall not deny of birth or any of them in matters relating to public
to any person equality before the law or the equal employment.
protection of the laws within the territory of India. Article 16(3) provides for residential
l Equality Before Law : It is an expression qualification in certain category of public
of English common law and is somewhat employment.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—19-II
Article 16(4) provides for reservation of seats It is the most important Article which has
for the backward classes of citizens in public been hailed as backbone of Part III and Part IV of
employment if they are inadequately represented. the Constitution by the Supreme Court. It can
Article 16(4A) provides for reservation in never be suspended.
promotion for SCs and STs in Government service. Article 21 is the bedrock from which many
Article 16(5) provides for reservation of seats rights have been inferred by the Supreme Court.
to officer connected with a religious or dominated Article 22 provides protection against arbitrary
institution for members professing the particular arrest and detention. It includes
religion or belonging to the particular denomi- l Informing the detainee of the cause of his
nation to which the denomination relates. arrest.
Article 17 abolishes ‘untouchability’ and l Allowing him to consult and be defended
makes its practice, an offence punishable under by a legal practitioner of his choice.
the law. l Producing him before a nearest magistrate
In view of this, an act was made by Parliament. within the period of 24 hours.
Untouchability (offences) Act 1955, which is
3. Right against Exploitation
renamed as Civil Rights Protection Act 1976.
Article 18 abolishes titles and prevents state There are two Articles : 23 and 24 under it.
from conferring title to any person. Article 23 : it seeks to ban traffic in human
beings, beggar or any form of forced Labour.
2. Right to Freedom Article 24 : it prohibits employment of
Article 19 to 22 deals with the Right to Freedom. children below the age of 14 years in any factory
Article 19(1) includes six freedoms. or mine or any hazardous condition.
(a) Freedom of Speech and Expression. 4. Right to Freedom of Religion
(b) Freedom of Assembly.
It includes four rights under Article 25, 26, 27, 28.
(c) Freedom of Association.
Article 25 entitles everyone the freedom of
(d) Freedom of Movement. conscience and the right to process, practice and
(e) Freedom of Residence and propagate a religion of one’s choice.
settlement. Article 26 grants right to religious
(f) Freedom of profession, occupation, trade denominations to
and business. l establish institutions for practice or
(g) included freedom ‘to acquire hold and propagating their religion.
dispose of property’ which has been l manage its own affairs in matters of
abolished by the 44th Amendment. religion.
Freedom of the Press is included under Article l passes and dispose of their immovable
19(1)(a). property.
Article 20 provides protection against arbitrary Article 27 provides for exempting religious
and excessive punishment to any person who institutions from paying taxes to state for
commits an offence. It can not be suspended during religious purposes.
the period of emergency. Article 28 deals with religious instruction
Article 21 guarantees right to life and personal to be imparted in educational institutions.
liberty. It says that ‘‘No person shall be deprived l No religious instruction can be provided
of his life or personal liberty except according to in institutions owned and administered by
the procedure established by law.’’ the state.
l Religious instruction may be imparted but ‘‘Prohibition’’ issued to an inferior court to

pupil may not be compelled to attend keep within limits of their jurisdiction. It is a
them in institutions recognized by the state matter of right for which only aggrieved person
and receiving aid out of state funds. can approach the Court.
l Religious instructions can be imparted and ‘‘Quo Warranto’’ issued to enquire into the
people can be compelled to attend them in legality of the claim of a public office. It asks
educational institutions administered by ‘What is your authority.’ Its intention is to see that
state established by a religious endowment unlawful claimant does not usurp a public office.
or religious trust. ‘‘Certeorari’’ issued to quash orders passed in
excess of jurisdiction of a court.
5. Cultural and Educational Rights
Conclusion
It includes Articles 29 and 30.
Article 29 provides for criteria for A brief survey on rights enshrined in Part III of
Indian constitution reflects the concern for values
determination of minority.
of liberty, equality and fraternity. They have been
Article 30 provides that all minorities shall arranged systematically with exceptions and
have the right to establish and administer limitations so as to address the needs of socio-
educational institution of their choice. economically diverse polity. It goes to the credit
of the framers that they combined the best elements
6. Right to Constitutional Remedies
of different constitution into a harmonious whole.
It has only one Article 32. In the words of Dr. Perhaps this optimism has lived upto its
Ambedkar Article 32 is fundamental of all expectations and individuals rights and liberties
Fundamental Rights. This right makes it consti- have been seldom abrogated.
tutionally obligatory on the part of the Supreme
Court to enforce the Fundamental Rights. FACTS AND DEFINITION
It includes five kinds of writ jurisdiction ‘‘In certain respects the writ jurisdiction of High
adopted from England. Court is wider than the Supreme Court’’?
l Habeas Corpus Yes, the reasons are :
l Mandamus l While the Supreme Court can issue writ
l Certeorari
only for the enforcement of fundamental
rights, the High Courts can issue it for
l Prohibition
legal rights as well.
l Quo Warranto
l While Supreme Court is obliged to enforce
‘‘Habeas Corpus’’ is in the nature of an order Fundamental Rights by way of only writ
calling upon the person who has detained another jurisdiction, the High Court can suggest
to produce the latter before the court. It literally other remedies.
means ‘to have a body.’ In addition to aggrieved But, the Supreme Court also has wider
person; other individual or organization can head jurisdiction in the sense that it can issue writs for
for its enforcement. any part of India or whole part of it.
‘‘Mandamus’’ means command. It is issued to Basic Features : The doctrine of basic
command a person or a body to do what is his or structure is a judicial attention of the Supreme
its duty to do. It is a discretionary remedy at the Court in view of clash between the fundamental
hands of HC and an aggrieved person can approach rights and directive principles. It was outlined in
the court. It can be issued against public offices as the historic Keshavananda Bharati versus State of
well as inferior courts and judicial bodies. Kerala Case, 1973.
Procedure Established by Law : It means 5. To promote harmony and spirit of common

uses and practices as laid down in statute or law. brotherhood amongst all the people of India
The courts examine whether a law is passed by transcending religious, linguistic and
competent legislature and a prescribed procedure regional or sectional diversities, to renounce
is followed or not. It can not examine the motive practices derogatory to the dignity of
of the law. women.
Due Process of Law : It signifies court’s 6. To value and preserve the rich heritage of
competence to examine the sphere of legislature our composite culture.
in enacting law as well as intention of the law 7. To protect and improve the natural
itself. It has been read with Article 21 since Maneka environment including forests, lakes, rivers
Gandhi Case (1978). and wild life and to have compassion for
Preventive Detention : It means detention of living creatures.
a person without trial. Detention usually takes 8. To develop the scientific temper, humanism
place at the apprehension that somebody may do and the spirit of inquiry and reform.
something prohibited by the constitution. The 9. To safeguard public property and to abjure
legislature is authorised to make laws providing violence.
for ‘preventive detention.’ Ex-TADA, MISA, POTA
10. To strive towards excellence in all spheres
etc. It is being dubbed as a ‘necessary evil.’
of individual and collective activity so that
Double Jeopardy : One of the provisions under the nation constantly rises to higher levels
Article 20 that provides protection against arbitrary of endeavour of achievement.
and excessive punishment. It says that ‘‘no person
11. As a parent/guardian to provide for
shall be prosecuted and punished for the same
education to their child from 6–14 years of
offence more than once.’’
age. (86th Amendment Act, 2002)
FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES Conclusion
In ancient times, it was felt that if everyone performs Although the Duties are not justiciable. But, like
his duties, then the rights would automatically be DPSP, they can be useful in interpreting in court
safeguarded. of law like the various provisions of the
There was no provision of Fundamental Duties constitution. They continue to guide the policy
in the original Constitution. The Constitution makers.
(Forty Second Amendment) Act, 1976 added part
IVA and a new Article 51A to the Constitution. It DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES
gives a list of ten Fundamental Duties. But OF STATE POLICY
presently eleven fundamental duties are as follows:
The Directive Principles of State Policy mentioned
1. To abide by the Constitution and respect
in Part IV of the Constitution contain 15 Articles
its ideals and institutions, the National flag
(36-51). They are one of the many novel elements
and the National Anthem.
of the Constitution which have been adopted from
2. To cherish and follow the noble ideals the Irish Constitution. They are in the nature of
which inspired our national struggle for certain ideals the state should strive for. They give
freedom. certain directions to executive and the legislature.
3. To uphold and proved the sovereignty, They give certain unforcible rights which the state
unity and integrity of India. shall aim at securing by its various policies. These
4. To defend the country and render national features have undergone evolution and represent
service when called upon to do so. context and experience of India. They are a
combination of socialist ideals, Gandhian sickness and disablement keeping in view the
perception, Western liberalism and the ideals of limitations of economic resources.
India’s freedom struggle. Article 43 provides for living wages for worker
and a decent standard of life, leisure and social
Different Views and cultural opportunities for people.
According to B.R. Ambedkar ‘‘they are like the Article 43(A) provides for participation of
instruments of instruction to the government.’’ workers in the management of industry and other
According to Ivor Jennings ‘‘the philosophy undertakings. It has been added by 42 n d
underlying most of these provisions is ‘Fabian Amendment.
Socialism’ without the word ‘Socialism’, there is Article 44 provides for a Uniform Civil Code
only nationalisation of the means of production, applicable to the entire country.
distribution and exchange is missing.’’ Article 45 provides free and compulsory
Gravinile Austin considers it to be aimed at education to children till 14 years of age. It has
furthering the goals of the social revolution or to now been made a fundamental right under Article
foster his revolution by establishing the conditions 21A.
necessary for its advancement. Article 46 provides for protection of
Constitution declares directives to be educational and economic interests of weaker
fundamental in the governance of the country and sections of the society and in particular, of the
it shall be the duty of the state to apply these scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.
principles in making laws. It spells out the norms Article 47 provides for prohibition of
of social and economic democracy in the country. consumption of intoxicating liquor and to raise
the level of nutrition and improvement of public
PROVISIONS
health.
The various articles on Directive Principles are as Article 48 provides for preserving and
follows. improving the breeds and prohibiting the slaughter
Article 38 instructs the state to promote the of cows, calves and other milks and draught cattles.
welfare of people by securing and protecting a Article 48A added by 42nd Amendment,
social order in which justice (socio-economic and provides for protection and improvement of the
political) shall inform all the institutions of environment and to safeguard the forests and wild
national life. life of the country.
Article 39(a) it talks about state’s role in Article 49 provides for protection of
providing adequate means of livelihood to all its monuments of historical and national importance.
citizens.
Article 50 provides for separation of judiciary
Article 39(b) provides for state’s direction for from executive.
equitable distribution of resources.
Article 51 provides for promotion of inter-
Article 39(c) provides for prevention of national peace and security.
concentration of wealth in fewer hands.
Artcile 39(d) provides for equal pay for equal Criticism
work, for both; men and women. 1. Not enforceable in a court of law and
Article 39(A) provides for equal justice and dubbed as ‘Window dressing’ or as ‘pious
free legal Aid. superfinies.’ According to K.C. Wheare,
Article 40 says that the state shall organize ‘‘they represent manifesto of aims and
village Panchayats as units of self-government. aspirations.’’
Article 41 provides for right to work, public 2. There remain theoretical ambiguity and
assistance in case of unemployment, old age, logical inconsistency in provisions on
Directive principles. Most of the ideals are History

vaguely combined to form a whole.
The relationship between the Fundamental Rights
3. They are more in the nature of moral and Directive Principles is best illustrated in the
precepts than of practical utility.
Article 37. It provides that Directives are not
Conclusion enforceable in a court of law. But, they are
fundamental in the governance of the country and
However, it can not be denied that the directives it shall be the duty of the state to apply them in
reflect the willingness to solve the contradictions
making laws.
of a multiculturally diverse polity like India. Even
the Courts have come to grasp its significance and In view of such provision, there have arisen
come to interpret it in a more lenient way. The certain conflicts between the Directive Principles
leadership has also shown sensitiveness to the and Fundamental Rights. But, as of now Article
efficacy of directives. For, the time to come we can 39(b) and 39(c) can take precedence over
accept more directives to be made enforceable like Fundamental Right enshrined under Article 14 and
fundamental rights in the part III of the Article 19.
Constitution. A survey of historical development in
relationship between Fundamental Rights and
RELATION BETWEEN FUNDAMENTAL Directive Principles are as follows.
RIGHTS AND DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES
l During the initial period from 1950 to 1966
OF STATE POLICY
there was emphasis on sacrosanct character
Despite being part of the same constitution, a of Fundamental Rights. The Supreme Court
contrast is often made between part III and part IV held the view that if two interpretations of
i.e. between fundamental rights and directive a law are possible, the one avoiding
principles. The main reasons are the judicial conflict should be accepted. But in case of
enforceability of FR and its nature being negative a single interpretation, leading to conflict
obligation of the state. The directives are non- fundamental right would prevail other
justiciable and are more in the nature of positive directive principles. In this view,
affirmations of the state. However, in recent time,
constitutionality of Ist Amendment Act was
some of the directives have been made a part of
hailed as valid.
chapter on Fundamental Rights to be in tune with
l In the historic Golak Nath’s case, 1967,
the requirements of changing polity.
Differences the Supreme Court emphasised on
unamendability of the fundamental rights
Fundamental Rights Directive Principles which have been given a ‘transcendental
1. Negative obligation positively worded position.’
on the state l The Government passed 24 th and 25 th
2. Justiciable non-justiciable Amendment Act 1971.

3. Seeks to establish Intends to establish The 24th Constitution Amendment Act
political democracy a just socio-economic made it clear that the Parliament has power
and political order to amend any provision of the
Constitution, including the fundamental
4. Have precedence over can take precedence
Rights.
directive as long as a over only through
The 25th Constitution Amendment Act
law does not provide for enactment of a
introduced Article 31(c) which provides
implementing directive complex nature that in case of implementing Article 39(b)
and (c) if there is a conflict with helped (directly or indirectly) in shaping the face
fundamental right, the law shall not be of our polity. It has been seen with optimism by
declared null and void. leadership as well as people to be of paramount
l In Keshavananda Bharati case overruled importance. For, both have inevitable interest in
the Golaknaths’ case but made it clear that building a more egalitarian society than they have!
courts retained the power to judicial review Directives help in achieving this objective.
in case of law giving effect to directives
under Article 39(b) and (c). One of the THE PRESIDENT
crucial implications of this judgement was The Constitution makers of India adopted a
‘basic structure’ which can not be altered. Parliamentary form of Government based on British
l During the period of Emergency, Parliament westminster model. But, unlike the British model,
passed the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 they opted for a chosen head of state elected
which provided for implementation of indirectly for five years. He occupies a position of
directives other than only under Article pre-eminence in the institutional set of the country
39(b) and (c). and regarded as first citizen of the country.
l In Minerva Mill’s case, 1980 the Supreme Qualification : A person should be
Court declared that a balance between Part 1. a citizen of India.
III and Part IV was a basic feature of the
2. must not be less than 35 years.
constitution. This abrogated the view of
giving precedence to the directives over 3. must be qualified to be elected as member
fundamental rights. of Lok Sabha.
4. must not hold any office of profit under the
Significance of Directive Principles of state.
State Policy Election : According to Article 54, the
Firstly, they are intended to usher an egalitarian President shall be elected by a electoral college
order, once the limitations or resources is overcome consisting of
and state is competent enough to fulfil them. For, l the elected members of both the houses of
most of the directives are resource consuming. Parliament.
Secondly, they have exercised an important l the elected members of State Legislative
check on the government. Rightly remarked by Assemblies and Legislative Assemblies of
Ambedkar that the directives ‘can be the best Union Territory of Delhi and Pondichery.
election manifesto.’ Article 55 provides for ensuring uniformity in
Thirdly, they guide both, the government and the election of President by
the people in the realm of politics and society. 1. maintaining a balance between states as a
They have significant educative value. whole and the Union.
Fourthly, they emphasize the goal of welfare 2. population of states and votes of legislators.
state and social justice that are warranted in Indian Value of Vote of M.L.A.
polity and keep check on elitist or populist Population of state
measures. = ´ 1000
Total number of elected M.L.A.
Conclusion of the state
Value of Vote of M.P
Despite accusations of being nothing more than
‘moral precepts’ or ‘dead wood in living tree’ and Total value of vote of all states
=
alike, it can not be denied that the directives have Total number of elected M.P.'s
PRESIDENTS AND THEIR TENURE

Name Tenure
1. Dr. Rajendra Prasad 26 Jan. 1950 to 13 May 1962
2. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan 13 May 1962 to 13 May 1967
3. Dr. Zakir Hussain 13 May 1967 to 3 May 1969
4. V.V. Giri 3 May 1969 to 20 July 1969 (working)
5. Justice M. Hidayatullah 20 July 1969 to 24 Aug. 1969 (working)
6. V.V. Giri 24 Aug. 1969 to 24 Aug. 1974
7. Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed 24 Aug. 1974 to 11 Feb. 1977
8. B.D. Jatti 11 Feb. 1977 to 25 July 1977 (working)
9. N.S. Reddy 25 July 1977 to 25 July 1982
10. Gyani Zail Singh 25 July 1982 to 25 July 1987
11. R. Venkataraman 25 July 1987 to 25 July 1992
12. Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma 25 July 1992 to 25 July 1997
13. Dr. K.R. Narayanan 25 July 1997 to 25 July 2002
14. Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam 25 July 2002 to 25 July 2007
15. Smt. Pratibha D.S. Patil 25 July 2007 to 25 July 2012
16. Pranab Mukherjee 25 July 2012 to 25 July 2017
17. Ram Nath Kovind 25 July 2017 to still in office
The election of President is held in accordance fourteen days notice is served on him. If the house
with system of proportional representation by passes the resolution by not less than 2/3rd of the
means of single transferable vote. total strength of the house, the matter is to be
Term : The term of President’s office is five referred to the other house which will investigate
years from the date on which he enters upon his the charges. The President, however, has the right
office. However, he is eligible for re-election. to defend himself in the other house either by
Salary : The President gets emolument of himself or through an attorney. If the second house
` 5,00,000/- (Proposed) per month along with also passes the resolution by majority of not less
allowances and government accommodation. than 2/3rd of the total strength of the house, the
President is considered removed from his office
Resignation : President may resign his office
from the date of passing of such resolution.
by writing under his hand addressed to the Vice-
President. Powers and Functions of the President
Impeachment : The President may be The Parliamentary form of government depends
impeached for ‘violation of the Constitution’ in on principles and practices wherein the President
accordance with the provisions in Article 61 of the is the formal executive and council of minister
Constitution. headed by the Prime Minister is the real executive.
Procedure for Impeachments : A motion All the actions of government are undertaken in
seeking removal of the President can be introduced the name of President but only on the advice of
in either house of the Parliament by giving a notice ministers chosen by him. According to Article 53
signed by not less than 1/4 of the total strength of of the Constitution ‘‘executive powers of the Union
the house. The resolution can be moved after a shall be vested in the hands of the President who
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—20
shall exercise it either directly or through officers l he has power to send messages to either
subordinate to him in accordance with the house of Parliament which the House
provisions of the Constitution.’’ must consider.
The powers of the President can be broadly l he has power to nominate not more than
categorized as : 12 members to the Rajya Sabha and not
1. Executive Power more than 2 members belonging to the
2. Legislative Power Anglo-Indian Community to the Lok
3. Military Power Sabha.
l he has power to promulgate an
4. Emergency Power
ordinance when the Parliament is not in
5. Diplomatic Power
the session (Article 123). Presidential
6. Judicial Power
ordinance has the same force and effect
7. Financial Power as an Act of Parliament.
1. Executive Power : All executive actions l he has power to
are taken in his name. He has power to
declare his assent to a bill,
appoint the Prime Minister, other ministers
of the Government of India, Attorney declare that he withholds his assent,
General for India, the Comptroller and return the bill for reconsideration (not
Auditor General of India, the Judges of the money bill)
Supreme Court, the Judges of High Court l The Governor of a state may reserve a
of States, the Governors of State, Members bill for President assent, but it is
of Union and Joint Public Service obligatory when the Bill derogates the
Commission, the members of Finance power of High Court. In cases where a
Commission, the Chief Election state bill is reserved for Presidential
Commissioner and members of election assent, he can declare that he withhold
commission. his assent or can give assent.
The President shall also have the power to 3. Military Power : The President is the
remove ministers, Attorney General, judge
Commander-in-Chief of the Defence forces.
of Supreme Court or High Court or Election
However, the exercise of his power is to be
Commissioner on the advice of Parliament,
regulated by law of the Parliament.
Chairman and member of Public Service
Commission on the report of Supreme Court. 4. Judicial Power : The President is accorded
2. Legislative Power : President is an integral the power to grant pardon, reprieve, respite,
part of Indian Parliament. In this respect remission of punishment in cases of (a)
Court Martial (b) offences against laws made
l he can prorogue or summon the houses
under the Union and Concurrent lists (c)
of Parliament, dissolve the Lok Sabha
and summon the Joint session of the death sentences. He also appoints judges
two houses of Parliament in case of a of the Supreme Court and High Courts
deadlock. through an integrated consultative process.
l he gives his assent to all bills passed by
5. Diplomatic Power : As the highest
the Parliament to become a law. constitutional dignitary, the President
l he addresses either or both houses of
appoints ambassadors to foreign countries
Parliament, at the first session of the and receives diplomatic delegates of
lower house after each general election foreign countries.
and at the commencement of first 6. Financial Power : It is President who
session each year. causes to laid before the Parliament, the
annual budget. Money Bill can be Fundamental rights except Articles 20 and
introduced only with his prior 21 can be suspended by the President.
recommendation. Uses :
7. Emergency Power : President is assigned Firstly 1962-1968
three kinds of emergency powers under Secondly 1971-1977
Article 352, 356 and 360.
Thirdly 1975-1977 (internal disturbance)
Under Article 352, called National Article 356 called President’s Rule in
Emergency State
It provides that ‘‘The President may proclaim ‘‘If the President is of the opinion (on the basis of
national emergency if he is of the opinion that report of Governor or otherwise) that the
there exists a grave threat to the security of India Constitutional machinery of the State can not be
or any part thereof; whether by war, external carried on in accordance with the provisions of the
aggression or armed rebellion.’’ Emergency can be Constitution he can declare President’s rule.
declared even in view of imminent threat. It can be In such cases, the President may
imposed only on a written advice from the Cabinet
l dissolve the State Legislature
(44th Amendment). Every such proclamation ceases
l suspend the legislature
to exist at the expiration of one month of
proclamation unless approved by resolution of both l entrust the Parliament to exercise the power
the houses of Parliament. The validity period is of state legislature.

six month but can be increased by resolution of l assume all or any function of the state or
Parliament (six months at a time). The resolution direct the Governor to exercise the
approving proclamation was to be passed by executive functions.
majority of total membership of the House and not Any such proclamation ceases to operate after
less than two-thirds of members present and voting two months unless approved by both the Houses
separately in each House. The President can modify of Parliament by simple majority. It will remain in
or revoke the emergency by a separate operation for a period of six months from the last
proclamation. It can be withdrawn if Lok Sabha day on which houses pass the resolution approving
desires. For this a special session of Lok Sabha the same. Such proclamation can be approved for
may be called by the President (if the Lok Sabha six more months. The maximum duration is three
is not in Session) or the Speaker if a notice years, but must satisfy two conditions.
addressed by 1/10th of membership of the House (a) A proclamation of emergency is in
is given to them. A special session must be held operation.
within 14 days of receiving of such a notice. (b) Election Commission certifies that such
resolution is necessary to hold elections
Effects under existing conditions.
l Centre can give directions to states
Effects
l Parliament can legislate on State list
l Distribution of power is suspended l State Government is dismissed
l Term of Lok Sabha may be extended by l Executive power exercised by Governor
law of Parliament for a period not l Legislature is suspended or dissolved
exceeding one year at a time. In S.R. Bommai Case (1994) SC held that
l Fundamental freedoms under Article 19 will court can enquire into the manner in which
be suspended automatically (except when President formed his opinion. It may direct
the ground is ‘armed rebellion’). Other reinstallation of the Government.
Uses : Parliament for reconsideration. If the Parliament

re-passes the bill, the President has to give his assent.
Firstly in Pubjab and since then used many times.
As this type of veto has the impact of suspending the
Article 360 Called Financial Emergency enactment of the law. It is known as suspensive veto.
In pocket Veto the President instead of giving
‘If the President is satisfied that a situation has
assent to the bill or sending it back to the
arisen whereby financial stability or credit of India
Parliament for reconsideration, takes no action on
or any part thereof, is threatened’ he may proclaim
the bill. After the lapse of the stipulated period the
financial emergency.
bill automatically lapses. In short the President
Such proclamation shall cease to be in can kill a bill by simply pocketing it.
operation after 2 months unless approved by the
Parliament. Once approved, it shall remain in Uses :
operation unless revoked by the President.
Not used so far.
Effects Criticism : of Emergency Powers
l Centre can give directions to state to 1. Destroys federal scheme
observe such canons of financial propriety 2. Inhibits Authoritarian tendencies
as may be specified in the directions of the 3. Erodes Autonomy of State
President. 4. Endangers Fundamental Rights
l Salaries and allowances of the
constitutional functionaries and civil Position of the President
servants may be reduced. The issue of Presidential stature has been raged
l Governor may reserve all money and into debate on a number of time by Dr. Rajendra
financial bill passed by the state legislature Prasad, K. Subba Rao and V.V. Giri. According to
for consideration of the President. Ambedkar ‘the title of functionary reminds one of
l Distribution of financial resources between the Presidents of the United States. But beyond
centre and state may be suspended. identity of names there is nothing in common
between the form of Government prevalent in
PRESIDENTIAL VETO America and the form of Government proposed
It is a device available with the President to check under the Draft Constitution. Under the Presidential
hasty and ill-considered legislation by the system of America, the President is the chief head
Parliament. Veto has been classified in three of the executive. Under the Draft Constitution the
categories on the basis of its impact, viz, Absolute President occupies the same position as the King/
Veto, Suspensive Veto and Pocket Veto. If the Queen under the British Constitution.’’ He further
President refuses to sign the bill passed by the added that ‘‘The President of the Indian Union
Parliament and stops the passage of law, it is known will be generally bound by the advice of his
as absolute veto. Actually the President of India ministers. He can do nothing contrary to their
can use absolute veto in two cases (i) on private advice, nor can he do anything without their
members bill; and (ii) if the Council of Ministers advice.’’
tenders resignation after the bill has been passed Later on the Supreme Court in following cases
by the Parliament and before the President gives l Ram Jawaya Vs State of Punjab
his assent. In this case, the new Cabinet usually l R.C. Cooper Vs Govt. of India
advises the President to reject the bill. l Samsher Singh Vs State of Punjab
Suspensive veto implies after the bill is passed Observed that the President is not the real
by the Parliament and it is sent the President for executive. It is the Council of Ministers which is
his assent. The President can refer back the bill to vested with real executive power.
42th Amendment Act (1976) made it binding Position : Second highest Constitutional
on the part of President to act on the advice of dignitary.
Council of Ministers. ‘‘There shall be a Council of Tenure : Five years from the date on which he
Ministers with the Prime Minister at the head to enters upon his office.
aid and advice the President who shall, in the Before entering upon his office, the VP is
exercise of his functions, acts in accordance with required to take an oath before the President or
such advice.’’
some person appointed by him.
44th Amendment Act (1977) added a provision
Salary : 4,00,000 (Proposed) + daily
in Article 76 which now reads, ‘‘There shall be a
allowances.
Council of Ministers with the PM at the head to
aid and advice the President who shall, in the The Constitution does not fix any emoluments
exercise of his functions, act in accordance with for the Vice President of India. He is entitled to a
such advice. Provided that the President may require salary as the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. When
the Council of Ministers to reconsider such advice, he ‘acts’ as President, he is entitled to get the
either generally or otherwise, and the President emoluments equivalent to that of the President.
shall act in accordance with the advice tendered Removal : Article 67(b) called removal
after such reconsideration.’’ because less formal procedure is followed without
any charges he can be removed.
Conclusion The Vice President may be removed from his
From above, it can be observed that the President office by a resolution of the Rajya Sabha passed
does not rule but represents the country. His by effective majority and agreed to by Lok Sabha
position is like that of British King/Queen who by simple majority.
carries influence and respect but not authority. However, such a resolution can be moved only
Nevertheless, he enjoys discretion in certain by giving at least fourteen day’s notice.
marginal cases, as regards appointment of PM (in Functions : The Vice President does not have
case when no party commands majority), dissolving any function to perform as Vice President of India.
Lok Sabha etc. which are very important for
effective functioning of Parliamentary democracy The Vice President acts either as an ex-officio
in the age of coalition politics. Chairman of the Rajya Sabha or, as an acting
President when the office of the President is vaccant
VICE PRESIDENT by reason of his death, resignation or removal.
As an officiating President when ‘the President
Apart from having a President, Indian Constitution is unable to discharge his functions due to absence
provides for a Vice President. But, he does to have or illness’. As an Ex-Chairman of Rajya Sabha he
any function in his capacity as Vice President. conducts all its proceedings except when resolution
Nevertheless, he remains the second highest for his removal is under consideration.
Constitutional dignitary. Ordinarily, he does not vote but when the
Election : The Vice President is elected by an house is divided equally on any issue, he exercises
electoral college consisting of all the members of casting vote.
Parliament (both the house), including nominated
ones. Election for the post of Vice President is Vice Presidents of India
conducted at a joint sitting of both the houses of
1. S. Radhakrishnan
Parliament. The procedure of joint sitting done
away with 11th Amendment Act 1961. 2. S. Radhakrishnan
Qualification : Must be 35 years of age 3. Zakir Hussain
qualified to be member of the Rajya Sabha, 4. V.V. Giri
does not hold any office of profit 5. G.S. Pathak
6. B.D. Jatti Council of Ministers, by whatever name called,

7. M. Hidayatullah and includes a Deputy Minister.’’
8. R. Venkataraman Council of Minister consists of 3 different
9. Shankar Dayal Sharma categories of Ministers : 1. Cabinet Minister, 2.
Minister of State, 3. Deputy Minister
10. K.R. Narayanan
11. Krishan Kant The Cabinet rank ministers are the head of
their departments. They attend the Cabinet
12. Bhairon Singh Sekhawat
meetings as a matter of right. However, a person
13. Md. Hamid Ansari can be appointed Cabinet Minister without a
14. Md. Hamid Ansari portfolio. The 44th Constitution Amendment Act
15. M. Venkaiah Naidu (1978) has conferred Constitutional status on the
Cabinet Ministers.
THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS The Ministers of State are formally of Cabinet
The basic idea underlying Parliamentary system is Status and are paid the same salary as the Cabinet
that the head of the state is the nominal executive, Ministers and they hold independent charge of
the real executive power lies with the Council of their departments. But, they attend the Cabinet
Ministers. The Council of Ministers are collectively meeting only when invited.
responsible to the lower house of the Parliament. The Deputy Ministers work under Minister of
As a consequence of conventions, Indian President State and have no separate charge of a department.
is vested with all executive power, but we exercise They get lesser salary than Minister of State or
these power duly on the advice of Council of Cabinet Minister. They assist the Minister in charge
Ministers. The real Executive is the Council of of a Department or Ministry and takes no part in
Ministers headed by the Prime Minister. Their Cabinet deliberations.
collective responsibility ensures that they remain
in office as long as they enjoy the confidence of Size of the Council of Minister
the Parliament. They swim and sink together. The original constitution did not provide for
limiting the size of ministry. As a result, it remained
Appointment of Ministers
the discretion of Prime Minister to increase or
While the Prime Minister is selected by the decrease the number of Council of Ministers.
President, the other ministers are appointed by the Recently, Parliament has limited the size of
President on the advice of the Prime Minister ministry not to exceed 15% of the effective
[Article 75(i)] and the allocation of portfolios strength of the lower house in Parliament and
amongst them is also made by him. President’s Assemblies in States.
power of dismissing an individual Minister is
virtual power at the hands of the Prime Minister. Qualification
In selecting the Prime Minister, the President must
A Minister must be a member of either House of
select the leader of the party in majority in the
the Parliament. A non-member can also be
Lok Sabha, or, a person who is in a position to win
appointed as Minister but he must get himself
the confidence of the majority in that House.
elected to either House of Parliament before the
A Composite Body expiry of a period of six months commencing from
The Constitution does not classify the members of their appointment.
the Council of Ministers into different ranks. All Collective Responsibility
this has been done informally, following the English
practice. Salaries and Allowances of Ministers Act, In essence, Indian Constitution follows in the
1952, defines Minister as a ‘‘Member of the British Principle except as to the legal
responsibility of individual Ministers for acts done 2. Financial Powers : The Cabinet controls
by or on behalf of the President. the financial policy of the Union. It is the
According to Article 75(3) of the Constitution Finance Minister who submits the budget
—‘‘The Council of Ministers shall be collectively to Parliament. Parliament approves the
responsible to the House of People.’’ So, the budget expenditure and revenue items in
Ministry, as a body, shall be under a constitutional its original form with support of a
obligation to resign as soon as it loses the subservient majority.
confidence of the popular House of the Legislature. 3. Executive Powers : The Council of
The collective responsibility is to the House of the Ministers is the executive of the Union.
People even though some of the Ministers may be The Ministers preside over the various
members of the Council of States. departments of the government and give
direction to the administration. The
Individual Responsibility Cabinet brings about co-ordination of
The principle of individual responsibility of the policy among various departments and
head of the State is embodied in Article 75(2)— settles their conflicts. The Cabinet
‘‘The Minister shall hold office during the pleasure formulates foreign and defence policies of
of the President.’’ The result is that, though the the country and executes the five year plans.
Ministers are collectively responsible to the
Legislature, they shall be individually responsible CABINET SYSTEM
to the Executive head and shall be liable to In a Parliamentary form of government, the Council
dismissal even when they may have the confidence of Ministers is collectively responsible to the lower
of the Legislature. But since the Prime Minister’s house of the Parliament. The Council swims and
advice will be available in the matter of dismissing sinks together. To ensure unanimity and team work,
other Ministers individually, it may be expected a small but composite body within the Council i.e.
that this power of the President will virtually be, Cabinet has grown into significance. With the
as in England, a power of the Prime Minister. growing instrumentality of the government,
Usually, the Prime Minister exercises this power Cabinet today wields more power and is seen with
by asking an undesirable colleague to resign, which suspicion. The principle of majority rule has
the latter readily complies with, in order to avoid enhanced this tendency.
the odium of a dismissal.
Composition and Structure
Powers and Functions of the
The composition of the cabinet reflects a concern
Council of Ministers for a degree of regional balance and for the
The Council of Ministers forms the Government of representation of important communities—
the Union. It is headed by the Prime Minister, who Muslims, Sikhs, SCs, STs and OBCs. They are
is the head of the Union Government. Its powers heads of their departments.
and functions may be discussed as below : The Cabinet has four major functions; to
1. Legislative Functions : The Council of approve all proposals for the legislative enactment
Ministers controls the legislature of the of Government policy, to recommend all major
Union Government, i.e., Parliament. It appointments, to settle interdepartmental disputes
formulates its policy, submits and explains and to co-ordinate the various activities of the
it to Parliament for approval. Since it holds Government and oversee the execution of its
majority in Parliament, it is always sure of policies.
the acceptance of its policy. The entire Only members are entitled to attend the weekly
legislation of importance passed by meetings of the Cabinet, but ministers of State,
Parliament is initiated by the Ministers. Chief Ministers and technical experts may be
invited to attend discussions of subjects with which 2. Closely connected to fragmented party
they have special concern. Votes are rarely taken politics is the politics of coalition which
in the Cabinet; decisions usually are reached after has become more than a reality in Indian
discussion by a sense of the meeting. Only major context. The members of Cabinet represent
issues are referred to the Cabinet, and frequently different political party, region and socio-
even these, such as the preparation of the budget, economic milieu. Hence, there has arisen a
are decided by the appropriate minister in politics of compromise and
consultation with the Prime Minister. accommodation. Perhaps no Government
Speaking about merit of Cabinet system, can inhibit and promote authoritarian
Herman Kiner says ‘‘on the whole the Cabinet tendencies.
system offers quick, vigorous, thoughtful and 3. There has increased the role and influence
responsible leadership.’’ of PM as coordinator and leader. He remains
first among equals and ensures that
Rise of Cabinet Dictatorship and Government survives and continues to
Decline of Parliament perform. In this perspective, he exercises
In recent times, there have been talk of decline of restraints and accommodates different
Parliament and rise of cabinet dictatorship. Such perspectives and voices.
tendencies are seen in relation to the disciplined 4. The role of second chamber in a federal
party system and effective majority system. In polity like India have also checked cabinet
Parliamentary system, the party or coalition dictatorship. The Government is criticized
commanding majority in the lower House forms for its acts of omission and commission.
the Government. This ensures the Government Barring few financial and money matters,
commanded by the Cabinet to have virtually all the Rajya Sabha enjoys co-equals powers
its wishes carried by the Parliament. with the Lok Sabha. Similarly, Articles 244
While Jawaharlal Nehru promoted free and 312 confer it special powers with regard
discussions and debate among ministers, Mrs. Indira to federal structure.
Gandhi tried to consolidate the position of PM. 5. The enlightened public opinion and mass
But post 1989 phase and era of coalition and media have enhanced the mechanism of
minority Governments marked some decline in the democratic control. Every issue have come
authoritarian position of Prime Minister. to be debated to evolve national consensus
In India, the notion of Cabinet dictatorship is and no Government can ignore them.
relative and not absolute. Cabinet has not shown Despite these optimism, it can not be denied
tendencies that are contrary to the norms of that the powers of the Parliament have been usurped
democracy. Following points support the evidences. by the Cabinet. Both, the constitutional provisions
1. Party System : The fragmented and and the practical reality confirm to such suspicion.
increasingly federalized party system with Constitutional Provision : Article 74–which
divergent ideologies and programmes have provides that the President shall exercise his powers
rendered it impossible for a single political only with advice of the Council of Ministers. He
party to command absolute majority. can return a matter for reconsideration, only once.
Unlike Britain where two party system with In Article 352, a provision was added by the
disciplined party workers and fixed 44 Amendment. It provides that the President can
electoral votes, India has witnessed impose national emergency only when the Cabinet
transformation in her party system from one recommends it in writing.
party dominance system to multiparty Practical Reality : It is a matter of everyday
coalition politics. experience wherein one witnesses that the whole
business of the Parliament are allocated to affairs Position : So, important is his significance
of Government for either policy making or its that Morley described him as ‘‘Primus inter pares’’
criticism through debates and discussion. or first among equals. He has also been hailed as
Nevertheless, the powerful position of the ‘‘Inter Stellar Luna Minores’’ or little moon among
Cabinet in India should not be described as its stars and ‘‘key stone of the Cabinet Arch.’’
‘dictatorship.’ But, one can not refuse to accept Provision : According to Article 74(1) of the
that there have been continuous decline in calibre Indian Constitution, ‘‘there shall be a Prime
of our Ministers. They have become rubber stamp Minister to head the Council of Ministers.’’ Hence,
of vested interests. without the Prime Minister, the Council can not
function. The very fact that he is a Prime Minister
PRIME MINISTER means that he is superior to others. That is why
Ramsay Muir compared cabinet to the steering
The office of the Prime Minister which remains an wheel of the state and the Prime Minister to the
integral part of the Parliamentary system is a British ‘steers Man.’’ Ivor Jennings called him as ‘‘the sun
contribution to the realm of politics. Indians around which the planets revolve’’ and Hinton
adopted Parliamentary system with the office of said that the Prime Minister was an ‘‘elected
Prime Minister from Britain. Monarch.’’
PRIME MINISTERS OF INDIA
Name Party Tenure

Jawaharlal Nehru Congress 17 Aug., 1947 to 27 May, 1964
Guljarilal Nanda (Working) Congress 27 May, 1964 to 9 June, 1964
Lal Bahadur Shastri Congress 9 June, 1964 to 11 Jan., 1966
Guljarilal Nanda (Working) Congress 11 Jan., 1966 to 24 Jan., 1966
Indira Gandhi Congress 24 Jan., 1966 to 24 March, 1977
Morarji Desai Janata Party 24 March, 1977 to 28 July, 1979
C.C. Singh Janata Party 28 July, 1979 to 14 Jan., 1980
Indira Gandhi Congress 14 Jan., 1980 to 31 Oct., 1984
Rajeev Gandhi Congress 31 Oct., 1984 to 1 Dec., 1989
V.P. Singh Janata Dal 2 Dec., 1989 to 10 Nov., 1990
Chandrashekhar SJD 11 Nov., 1990 to 21 June, 1991
P.V. Narsimha Rao Congress 21 June, 1991 to 16 May, 1996
A.B. Vajpayee BJP 16 May, 1996 to 31 May, 1996
H.D. Deve Gowda Janata Dal 1 June, 1996 to 20 April, 1997
I.K. Gujral Janata Dal 21 April, 1997 to 18 March, 1998
A.B. Vajpayee BJP 19 March, 1998 to 13 Oct., 1999
A.B. Vajpayee BJP 13 Oct., 1999 to 22 May, 2004
Dr. Manmohan Singh Congress 22 May, 2004 to 26 May, 2014
Narendra Modi BJP 26 May, 2014 to till date
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—21
Powers and Functions countries functions on the basis of majority party

working under the leadership of the Prime Minister.
1. Head of the Government : While the
His position is of pre-eminence and is more
President is head of the state, the Prime
powerful than the President in Presidential system.
Ministers is head of the Government. In
theory all major executive functions are In recent times, there has been increasing use of
vested in the hands of the President, but the term ‘Prime Ministerial’ as synonymous with
exercises them only with aid and advice of ‘Parliamentary’ Government. This change has
the Council of Ministers headed by the occurred due to continuous widening of the powers
Prime Minister. of the Prime Minister.
2. Leader of the Cabinet : According to Ivor So important is the stature of the office, that
Jennings, ‘‘he is a sun around which other every Parliamentary elections are the Prime
ministers revolve like planets.’’ He selects Ministerial elections. Every party puts its leader as
ministers of his council and distributes probable Prime Ministerial candidate. He is leader
portfolio amongst them. He acts as of majority party in the Lower House. In his capacity
Chairman of the Cabinet. He can ask for he garners support of his party colleagues on
resignation of an individual Minister or various issues and have his way. The whole system
can get him dismissed by the President. of Government is under his control and he is the
3. Leader of the Parliament : In this capacity, real Executive. He is the chairman of the Cabinet
the Prime Minister which itself is formed on his advice. Apart from
l determines the dates of meeting, as also these provisions, the practical politics of the day
its programmes for the session. have increased his discretion. The growing instru-
l chief spokesperson of the government mentality of government and measures like
in the Parliament. delegated legislation have also enhanced the power
l announces the major policy decision of of the executive. There have been instances when
the government. the Prime Minister’s office resembled the U.S.
l can participate and intervene in all President’s executive office.
debates in the Parliament. However, the politics of coalition, federalized
4. Leader of the Majority Party in the Lok political party, effective opposition and mass media
Sabha : In Parliamentary democracy, have increasingly transferred the aura of PM’s
usually the leader of majority party in the office. He now has to work under a lot of pull and
Lower House is appointed as the Prime pressure and even resort to accommodation and
Minister. However, in case no party gets compromise for survival of the Government. In
majority, the President may appoint a England the Prime Minister wields a lot of influence
person whom he may deem fit to garner the because of the disciplined two party system which
support of majority. either forms the government or remain in
5. Chairman of the Planning Commission : opposition. On the contrary, Indian polity has been
In this capacity he becomes a chairman of a federal one with a lot of strong regional political
super cabinet wherein all chief ministers of parties paving way for era of coalition. And, this
states and administrators of Union trend is likely to survive for some time.
Territories are represented. It covers all
developmental activities undertaken by the Facts and Definition
centre as well as states.
‘‘A PM must be member of Lok Sabha’’
Prime Ministerial System The provision dealing with a minister’s
The Parliamentary system of government as appointment is provided in Article 75. A person
practised in the United Kingdom and other must either be a member of Parliament (either
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—21-II
House) or get elected to it within six months of his The Lok Sabha
appointment as minister. Same is the provision for
Composition : The members of Lok Sabha are elected
a PM. However, notion of democracy would be directly by people from their respective constit-
better strengthened if PM is drawn from Lok Sabha. uencies. Under the provision of the constitution.
l Not more than 530 members to be chosen
THE PARLIAMENT
from territorial constituencies in the states.
To Edmund Burke ‘‘Parliament is not a Congress l Not more than 20 members to represent
of ambassadors from different and hostile interests, the Union Territories.
but it is a deliberative assembly of one nation.’’ l Not more than 2 members to be nominated
The Constitution of India adopts a from the Anglo-Indian community by the
Parliamentary form of government like the British President, if the latter is of the opinion
Westminster model. However, it is not sovereign that they are not adequately represented in
in the British sense. Instead, it was expected to the house.
suit the requirements of federal polity and acts as The total strength of the house can not exceed
an instrument of governance, change and social 552. At present it consists of 545 members due to
transformation. It is specifically outlined in Part V delimitation of constituencies so as to ensure that
of the Constitution from Article 79-123. ‘‘the ratio between the number of seats and the
The Indian Parliament or the Union Legislature population of any state is, as far as possible, same
in India consists of the President and the two for all states.’’
houses viz, the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha. Term : The term of Lok Sabha is of 5 years
Unlike the Presidential system that is promised on from the date appointed for its first meeting. It
the principle of separation of powers, the may be dissolved before the expiration of its full
Parliamentary system envisage a scheme of term by the President if the government loses the
interrelationship between executive and legislative confidence of the Lower House and there are no
other alternative to form the government. The term
branch of government.
of Lok Sabha can be extended (not necessarily).
Composition When a proclamation of emergency is in force, for
a period not exceeding one year at a time and not
1. The President. exceeding a period of six months after the
2. The Lok Sabha or the Lower House or the proclamation of Emergency cease to operate.
House of People. Qualifications : To be a member of the Lok
3. The Rajya Sabha or the Upper House or Sabha a person should be
Council of State. l an Indian Citizen
l Completed 25 years of age
Functions
Disqualifications : A member of the Lok Sabha
1. To enact laws for the administration of the can be disqualified if the person
country. l holds any office of profit under the
2. To reflect federal sentiment of the Indian Government of India or the State.
polity. l is of unsound mind and stands so declared
3. To exercise control over the government by a competent court.
and ensure limited government. l is an undischarged insolvent
4. To provide forum for deliberation on issues l is not a citizen of India, or has voluntarily
concerning affairs of the polity. acquired the citizenship of a foreign state.
5. To integrate the polity by providing l is to be disqualified by or under any law
membership to the representatives. made by Parliament.
164  Political Science
Representation of States in the Lok Sessions : The Lok Sabha is to meet at least
Sabha twice a year and the interval between two
consecutive sessions shall be less than 6 months.
State Number of Representative A special session of the Lok Sabha can be
Andhra Pradesh 25 called if a notice in writing signed by not less than
one-tenth of members of the Lok Sabha is given
Arunachal Pradesh 02
to the Speaker. When such a notice is given to the
Asom (Assam) 14 President he must summon the session within 14
Bihar 40 days.
Goa 02 Speaker : The Speaker is the presiding officer
Gujarat 26 of the Lok Sabha who is elected from amongst the
Haryana 10 members by a simple majority. His office is an
Himachal Pradesh 04 office of much dignity, honour and prestige.
Karnataka 28 Election : Governed by Article 93. Under the
Kerala 20 influence of convention that has developed in
India, a candidate of the ruling party is elected
Madhya Pradesh 29 unopposed to the post of speaker of Lok Sabha.
Maharashtra 48
Removal : Article 94. A speaker can be
Manipur 02 removed only by a resolution passed by effective
Meghalaya 02 majority after 14 days notice of moving of such a
Mizoram 01 resolution has been given.
Nagaland 01
Powers and Functions
Odisha 21
Punjab 13 The speaker is endowed with a wide range of
powers. His powers are
Rajasthan 25
1. To see that there is decorum and discipline
Sikkim 01
in the House.
Tamil Nadu 39
2. To decide who shall hold the floor and
Tripura 02 speak in deliberations of the House.
Telangana 17 3. To safeguard the rights and privileges of
Uttar Pradesh 80 the members of the House.
West Bengal 42 4. To put the motion of the vote to announce
Chhattisgarh 11 the result. He does not vote but in case of
Jharkhand 14 a tie, he casts his vote.
Uttarakhand 05 5. To act as administrative head of the Lok
Andaman and Nicobar 01 Sabha Secretariat.
Chandigarh 01 6. To accept resignations sent by members of
Dadra and Nagar Haveli 01 Lok Sabha.
Delhi 07 7. To protect the House from unnecessary
executive intrusion.
Jammu and Kashmir 05
8. To allot time for each item on the agenda
Daman & Diu 01 of the House.
Lakshadweep 01
Some of his special powers are
Puducherry (Pondicherry) 01
9. To certify whether a particular Bill is a
Ladakh 01 money Bill or not (Article 110).
Indian Constitution  165
10. To preside over joint sitting of both the PARLIAMENTARY PRIVILEGES

houses of the Parliament.
Certain privileges and immunities are granted to
11. To admit a vote of no-confidence against members of the Parliament to enable them to work
the Government. freely and efficiently. They are as follows :
Position : In early days the speakers like G.V. 1. Freedom of speech.
Mavalankar (first speaker of Independent India)
2. Freedom from arrest in civil cases for
and M.A.S. Ayangar were highly respected for their
duration of session of Parliament and 40
act. But, of late party politics is crawling into his
days before and after.
office and severely damaged its prestige and
honour. Recurring instances of ex-speakers being 3. To sum m on any person to produce
offered highly prestigious and ceremonial positions documents or to answer charges for
has maligned the stature of speaker’s position. If contempt of the house.
Parliamentary democracy is to survive and continue 4. Right to exclude outsiders from the
with vigour, speakers need to shed complacency. proceedings of the house.
He need to be impartial in conducting affairs of 5. Power to punish for breach of privileges
the House, as his British counterpart. committed, mode or outside the Parliament.
Besides speaker there is a deputy speaker 6. Right to regulate its ow n internal
(usually from opposition party) who presides in proceedings without interference from any
the absence of speaker. executive or judicial authority.
DURATION OF DIFFERENT LOK SABHAS
Term DATE
From To
First Lok Sabha 13 May, 1952 4 April, 1957
Second Lok Sabha 10 May, 1957 31 March, 1962
Third Lok Sabha 16 April, 1962 3 March, 1967
Fourth Lok Sabha 16 March, 1967 27 December, 1971
Fifth Lok Sabha 19 March, 1971 18 January, 1977
Sixth Lok Sabha 25 March, 1977 22 August, 1979
Seventh Lok Sabha 21 January, 1980 31 December, 1984
Eighth Lok Sabha 15 March, 1985 27 November, 1989
Ninth Lok Sabha 18 December, 1989 13 March, 1991
Tenth Lok Sabha 9 July, 1991 15 May, 1996
Eleventh Lok Sabha 22 May, 1996 4 December, 1997
Twelfth Lok Sabha 23 March, 1998 26 April, 1999
Thirteenth Lok Sabha 20 October, 1999 February, 2004
Fourteenth Lok Sabha 17 May, 2004 18 May, 2009
Fifteenth Lok Sabha 23 May, 2009 22 May, 2014
Sixteenth Lok Sabha 23 May, 2014 23 May, 2019
Seventeenth Lok Sabha 24 May, 2019 till date
SPEAKERS OF LOK SABHA

Name Tenure
1. G.V. Mavlankar 15 May, 1952 to 27 February, 1956
2. M.A. S. Ayangar 2 March, 1956 to 10 May, 1957
3. M.A. S. Ayangar 11 May, 1957 to 16 April, 1962
4. Hukum Singh 17 April, 1962 to 16 March, 1967
5. Neelam Sanjeev Reddy 17 March, 1967 to 19 July, 1969
6. Dr. G.D.S. Dhillon 8 August, 1969 to 19 March, 1971
7. Dr. G.D.S. Dhillon 20 March, 1971 to 1 December, 1975
8. Baliram Bhagat 5 January, 1976 to 25 March, 1977
9. Neelam Sanjeev Reddy 26 March, 1977 to 21 July, 1977
10. K.S. Hegde 21 July, 1977 to 21 January, 1980
11. Dr. Balram Jakhad 22 January, 1980 to 15 January, 1985
12. Dr. Balram Jakhad 15 January, 1985 to 18 December, 1989
13. Ravi Roy 19 December, 1989 to 9 July, 1991
14. Shiv Raj Patil 10 July, 1991 to 21 May, 1996
15. P.A. Sangma 22 May, 1996 to 23 March, 1998
16. G.M.C. Balayogi 24 March, 1998 to 21 October, 1999
17. G.M.C. Balayogi 22 October, 1999 to May, 2002
18. Manohar Joshi 10 May, 2002 to February, 2004
19. Somnath Chatterjee 4 June, 2004 to 31 May, 2009
20. Meira Kumar 1 June, 2009 to June 2014
21. Sumitra Mahajan 6 June, 2014 to 17 June, 2019
22. Om Birla 19 June, 2019 to till date
THE RAJYA SABHA Term : The Rajya Sabha is a permanent body,

not subject to dissolution. The term of the members
Also called Upper House or Council of States.
of the house is six years. Nearly one-third of the
Composition : Article 80 of the Constitution members of the Rajya Sabha retire after every two
outlines that years.
 Not more than 238 representatives to be
Method of Election : Except for a few members
sent from States and Union Territories. (twelve) who are nominated by the President, the
 Twelve members to be nominated by the members are elected indirectly by proportional
President having special knowledge or representation by means of single transferrable vote.
practical experience in the field of science, They are elected by an electoral college consisting
art, literature and social service. of elected members of the state Legislative
Total = 250 Assemblies. Union Territories elect through the
However, the Parliament by law has fixed the same method by special electoral college.
total strength of Rajya Sabha to be not more than Qualification : A person seeking membership
245 (233 elected + 12 nominated). of Rajya Sabha must be 30 years of age.
Representation of States and Union the other hand, consists of 12 nominated and
Territories in Rajya Sabha indirectly elected members. They are elected by
elected representatives of respective states and
State Number of Seats similarly by Union Territories. As such have been
Andhra Pradesh 11 termed as the House of People and Council of
State. This contrast between the two houses is also
Telangana 7
reflected in the domain of Parliamentary powers
Asom (Assam) 07 and functions.
Bihar 16 The contrast between the power of two houses
Goa 01 can be studied under following headings.
Gujarat 11 1. Finance
Haryana 05 2. Legislation
Kerala 09 3. Control over Executive
Madhya Pradesh 13 4. Election
Tamil Nadu 18 5. Impeachment
Maharashtra 19 6. Constitutional Amendments
Karnataka 12 7. Approval of proclamation of Emergency
Odisha 10 1. Finance : A money Bill or a Financial Bill
Punjab 07 can only be introduced in the Lok Sabha.
A Money Bill when passed by Lok Sabha
Rajasthan 10 is returned from Rajya Sabha with certain
Uttar Pradesh 31 recommendations, may or may not be
West Bengal 16 accepted by the Lok Sabha. It can delay
Jammu and Kashmir 04 Money Bill by 14 days only. Its power is
only of advisory character. Speaker of Lok
Nagaland 01
Sabha was the sole power to decide whether
Himachal Pradesh 03 a Bill is Money Bill or not.
Manipur 01 2. Legislation : As regards ordinary legislation
Tripura 01 both the houses enjoy co-equal powers. In
Meghalaya 01 case of disagreement between the two
Sikkim 01 Houses on ordinary bill, there is provision
of joint sitting of both the Houses to resolve
Mizoram 01 the deadlock. However, Rajya Sabha suffers
Arunachal Pradesh 01 due to numerical strength.
Delhi 03 3. Control Over Executive : Article 75(3)
Puducherry (Pondicherry) 01 provides that ‘‘Council of Minister shall
Chattisgarh 03 be collectively responsible to the Lok
Sabha.’’ A vote of censure, no-confidence
Jharkhand 06
motion or confidence can be introduced
Uttarakhand 03 and passed only in the Lok Sabha.
4. Election : Both the houses have co-equal
Comparison Between Two Houses :
powers in the election of President and Vice
The Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha President.
The Lok Sabha is represented directly by elected 5. Impeachment : Both the houses enjoy
representatives of the people. The Rajya Sabha, on equal power in the impeachment of
President. According to Article 61 of the Secondly, Under Article 372 Rajya Sabha by
Constitution the resolution for the removal a resolution supported by not less than two-thirds
of the President must be passed by each of the members present and voting provide for
House by a majority of not less than two- creation of all Indian services.
thirds of the total membership of each
House separately. But, a resolution seeking Conclusion
removal of Vice President can be introduced A brief survey of powers of the two houses reveal
only in the Rajya Sabha. that though Lok Sabha is assigned important
6. Constitutional Amendments : In the realm powers in a number of areas, but even Rajya Sabha
of amendment of Constitution both the enjoys important powers at the exception of Lok
houses have been placed at par. There is no Sabha. The incompatibility between the powers of
provision of joint sitting in case of two houses is due to their role expectations. Rajya
deadlock between the two houses. Sabha being a Council of States has been assigned
important powers that affect the federal structure.
Constitutional Amendment Bill must be
Lok Sabha retains crucial powers by virtue of being
passed by both the houses sitting
a directly elected deliberative body.
separately.
7. Approval and Disapproval of National Evaluation of the Role of Rajya Sabha
Emergency : The two houses have equal The Constitution makers created a second chamber
power so far as the approval of proclamation with the intention to promote the federal spirit and
of emergency under Article 352, 356 and promote the interest of state. But, today serious
360 is concerned. Moreover, if Lok Sabha criticisms have been levelled against it :
stands dissolved or is dissolved within the 1. It has charged that the Rajya Sabha
period of proclamation of emergency, a represents the inferior/second grade party
resolution approving the proclamation is workers. Party politics has kept into
passed by the Rajya Sabha, the corridors of the Upper House and states
proclamation would be legally upto a interests are compromised in view of party
maximum of 30 days from the date on discipline and party whip.
which the Lok Sabha assembles after its 2. The basis of states representation is on
reconstitution. population. States are not represented on
However, Article 352 (National Emergency) equal basis. This mitigates against the
provides that a resolution seeking disapproval of democratic norms.
the continuance of national emergency can be 3. Even in its task of advisory, delaying
introduced and passed only in the Lower House. character or checking hasty legislation, the
Besides above provisions, there are two other performance of Rajya Sabha has been
provisions which confer special power upon the dismal.
Rajya Sabha to discharge its function of federal 4. The process of nomination has at times
character. They are been influenced by criteria other than
Firstly, The Rajya Sabha may by a resolution excellence and qualifications.
supported by not less than two-thirds of the However, the efficacy of the second chamber
members present and voting confer the power on can not be dismissed outrightly. It has significant
the Parliament to legislate on matters cited in State achievement to its credit.
list in view of national interest (Article 249). Such Firstly, As Palmer has pointed out ‘‘The level
a resolution may be in operation for one year but of discussion and debate in the Rajya Sabha has
may be increased for one year at a time by passing been consistently high. It is more orderly but no
separate resolution. less interesting assembling than the Lok Sabha.’’
Secondly, Despite limitation imposed by party Parliament except bills under Article 3, these bill
attachments, Members have shown concerns for does not require prior recommendation of the
the state. The NDA Government which has majority President.
in the Lok Sabha withdrew President rule in Bihar Both houses enjoy equal legislative
in view of opposition from Rajya Sabha. jurisdiction over ordinary bill. The ordinary bills
Thirdly, It has proved itself as able and are passed by simple majority.
efficient co-partner of the Lok Sabha in dealing In case of deadlock between the two houses,
with expedient situations. a joint sitting is convened by the President.
President enjoys the right to send the ordinary
Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha
bill for reconsideration only once.
Name Term The draft of the proposed bill has to be sent
to the Secretariat of the House. The presiding
S.V. Krishna Moorthy Rao 1952-1962 officer of the house, after consulting the Business
Violet Alva 1962-1969 Advisory Committee determines the day and time
when the Bill is to be moved in the house.
Bhaurao Dewaji Khobragade 1969-1972
On the appointed day and time after receiving
Godey Murahari 1972-1977 the assent of the presiding officer, the mover reads
Ram Niwas Mirdha 1977-1980 the title of the bill and gives a short speech
highlighting the aims and objectives of the Bill.
Shyam Lal Yadav 1980-1984 If there is no opposition from any one, the Bill is
Najma A. Heptulla 1985-1986 supposed to have been passed in the first reading.
But when the opposition is not prepared to even
M.M. Jacob 1986-1986 consider the Bill, the presiding officer allows a
Pratibha Devisingh Patil 1986-1988 full debate and then the Bill is put to vote. If the
house approves it, the Bill is supposed to have
Najma A. Heptulla 1988-2004
been passed in the first reading.
K. Rahman Khan 2004-2012 At the second reading (after two days), there
P.J. Kurien 2012-till date is a general discussion and after this there are three
alternatives.
Legislation or Law Making in Parliament 1. The house may decide to discuss the Bill
The primary function of the parliament is in details, clause by clause and also vote
legislation. It has an exclusive power to legislate each and every clause.
on the subjects mentioned in the Union list as well 2. The house may decide to circulate the Bill
as all the residuary subjects. for eliciting the public opinion. Then the
It shares the power of legislation on subjects Bill is published on the Government Gazette
in the concurrent list with the state legislature. In inviting public reactions.
case of conflict, the law of parliament prevails to The gist of the public opinion is there
the extent of inconsistency. circulated among members. The House
It may legislate with respect to any subject in discusses the Bill in details in the light of
the state list in circumstances when the subject the public opinion and then votes it clause
assumes national importance or during emergency. by clause.
3. The House may decide to refer the Bill to
Ordinary Bill a select committee even President can not
Provisions regarding ordinary bill are contained in convene joint sitting. Other House can
Article 10. It can be introduced in either house of delay an ordinary Bill for six months.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—22
Select Committee consisting of such members l declaration of any expenditure to be

of the House as may have special interest in the expenditure charged on the consolidated
subject. The Presiding officer constitutes such a fund or increment in the amount of any
committee consisting of 20-30 members. The such expenditure.
committee makes a thorough scrutiny and submits l The receipt of money on account of the
a report to the House. The House then discusses Consolidated Fund of India or the Public
and votes the Bill clause by clause. Account of India or the custody or issue of
At the third reading, there is only a general such money or the audit of the accounts of
discussion and no amendments, excepting some the Union of a State or
verbal exchanges is permitted. If the House l any matter incidental to the above
approves the Bill, the Bill goes to the other House. mentioned points.
In the Other House, the Bill undergoes all the Article 110 also provides that
stages as in the originating House subsequent to declaration of the Speaker that a Bill is a
its introduction. It may money Bill, shall be final.
(i) Reject the Bill altogether-joint sitting Art l A money Bill can be introduced only in
108. Lok Sabha with the recommendation of
(ii) Pass the Bill with Amendments the President. It is passed by simple
majority.
If other house accepts-goes to President.
l If RS rejects, passes or not acts upon the
If other house does not accept-joint sitting. Bill for 14 days, the Bill is deemed to
(iii) Not take any action for more than 6 months have been passed by both the houses.
joint sitting. Article 108 l There can be no deadlock over passage of
At the joint sitting if the Bill is passed by the money Bill in between two houses.
majority it is treated to be passed by the two l The President can not withhold his assent
houses. in case of a Money Bill.
If President withholds his assent, there is end l In case of deadlock provision of joint
to Bill. If President returns the Bill for sitting.
reconsideration and the houses pass the Bill with
or without amendments, the President shall have Annual Financial Statement Or ‘Budget’
no power to withhold his assent from the Bill. Article 112
Money Bill : Provisions are contained in l The Budget is a statement of the estimated
Article 110 : A Bill is money if it deals exclusive receipt and expenditure for the coming
only with one or more of money matters mentioned. year.
Under Article 110 of the constitution. They l It is the duty of the President to cause
include : Annual Financial statement to be brought
l the imposition, abolition, remission, before the Parliament.
alternation or regulation of any tax. l It is prepared by the Finance Minister.
l the regulation of borrowing of money by l It also shows the ways and means of
Government. meeting the estimated expenditure.
l the custody of Consolidated Fund and the l Budget has two parts
Contingency Fund of India deposition and – Revenue part
withdrawal. – Expenditure part
l appropriation of money out of the l The revenue part comes to be known as
Consolidated Fund of India. the Financial Bill.
l The expenditure part comes to be known After the general discussion, the estimates are
as the Appropriation Bill. submitted to the House of People in the form of
l Appropriation Bill consists of separately demands for grants under particular heads. They
are put forward by the Ministries of the respective
– expenditure charged on the
department. Speeches from members may follow
Consolidated Fund
and amends may be moved to refuse or reduce the
– Sums required to meet other expenditure amount. The Speaker in consultation with the leader
proposed to be met from Consolidated of the House, allots in definite number of days for
Fund of India prepared in the form of discussion and voting. On the last day-5 O’clock-
demand for grants. the Speaker must stop all discussions and put all
l Charged expenditure can be discussed but the remaining demands to a vote of the House
not voted upon. which will be at liberty to accept them or to throw
l Demand for grants are put to vote in the
them out. It will now have no opportunity to modify
Lok Sabha which shall have power to them in any way.
assent to any demand, or to assent to any After the demand for grants is made, a bill
demand subject to reduction of that called Appropriation Bill is introduced in the
amount, refuse to assent to any demand. House. The bill like any other Bill must be passed
by both houses.
l The LS shall have no power to suggest an
increase in demand for grants. Any amendment as regards fixing quorum in
the house can be effected by simple majority.
l No money can be withdrawn from the
consolidated fund except under an Amendment Bill
Appropriation Act.
A Constitution is a living document, which has to
l Both, the Appropriation Bill and Financial adapt itself to the changing socio-economic
Bill are passed as money Bill. conditions.
l No demand for grant is made without the I. The constitution makers provided for an
recommendation of the President. easier mode for changing those provisions
l Demand for grants are presented under which did not primarily affect the federal
particular heads and voted separately. system.
l Council of state has no business with There are about three dozen articles which
Budget beyond the general discussion. can be altered by simple majority and were
On a stated day the budget is laid before both not to be deemed to be the amendment of
the constitution. It could be done by simple
the Houses. While presenting the budget, the
process of legislation.
Finance Minister makes an exhaustive explanatory
speech clarifying all the important issues involved Under this procedure comes
in the proposals. There is no discussion on the day (a) Names boundaries of states
on which it is presented to the house. (b) Creation or abolition of Legislative
The second stage in regard to the budget is a Council
general discussion on its proposals subsequent to (c) Codification of Parliamentary
presentation. No item of expenditure is exempted privileges
from his general discussion and even items that (d) Fixing quorum in Parliament
are charged on the consolidated fund can come (e) Salaries and allowances of President,
within the purview of the criticism of the Governor, Judges
legislatures. At this stage no motion is moved nor The Process of Amendment is prescribed in
does voting takes place on any item. Article 368.
II. For certain category of constitutional PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEES

provisions a special majority is required.
l appointed or elected by the House or
Such an amendment must be passed by nominated by the Speaker/Chairman.
each house by a majority (i.e. more than
l works under the direction of Presiding
50%) of the total membership of the House
officer.
and by a majority of not less than two-
l presents its report to the house or presiding
thirds of the members of that house present
and voting. officer.
l has a Secretariat provided by the House.
Ratification of States in case of
Constitutional amendment bill is must l holds office generally for a year.
before being presented to the President for l expected to contain representative of all
his assent. parties in the House.
24 Amendment Act has made it obligatory l enables legislature to work on ‘Division of
for the President to give his assent to Labour.’
Constitution Amendment Bill. l not constitutional bodies, but mention is
Under this category comes majority formed in Article 88 & 105.
Constitutional provisions. l have been brought into existence under
III. In case of certain amendments, besides the the rule making power of the Parliament.
special majority mentioned above, There are consultative committees attached to
ratification by not less than half of the serious department and ministries but are not
states is required. This has to be done before Parliamentary Committees.
presenting the Bill for President’s assent.
Under this category comes The kinds-Ad hoc and Standing
(a) procedure for election of the President Committee
(b) executive power of Union and States Ad hoc Committees are constituted by the House
(Art 73, 162) or the speaker as and when the need arises and
(c) SC and HC (Art 241, Ch-IV of Part V, cease to exist as soon as they complete the work
Ch-V of Part VI) assigned to them.
(d) Distribution of legislative power (Chap Also referred to as select committee.
I Part XI) The number is not fixed.
(e) any list in seventh schedule Ex : The Select or joint committees on Bills
(f) Representation of State in Parliament or a bill.
(Art 80-81) Joint Parliamentary Committee - a specific
(g) Provisions of Art 368 itself subject.
l a bill can be introduced in either House Ad hoc Committees are also referred to as
l no provision of joint sitting. select committee. Standing Committee are of
permanent nature.
l previous sanction of President is not
required. Standing Committees are elected by the house
or appointed by the Speaker/Chairman every year
l 24th Amendment Act 1971 has made it
as from time to time.
obligatory on the President to give his
assent to a Bill for amendment. Article of permanent nature
Parliamentary committees are not Ex : Financial - (1) DAC (2) estimates (C)
constitutional bodies but have been brought into Com. on public undertaking Dept. related standing
existence under the rule making power of committees.
Parliament. House Committees
Enquiry Committees l reports on what economies, improvement

Scrutiny Committees in Organisational efficiency or
Services Committee administration reform may be effected.
l Scrutinises the expenditure effected by the
Strength Government
l report is not debated.
Business Advisory Committee — 15
l carries its examination throughout the year.
Estimates Committee — 30 (not RS)
Committee on Public Account — 22 While DAC has to examine accounts quite
some time after the expenditure was actually been
Committee on Petitions — 15
incurred.
Committee on Welfare of SC/ST — 30
Committee on estimates is concerned with the
The Chairman of all committees are appointed working of different ministries during the course
by Speaker, except that of Joint Committee on of the financial year.
salaries and allowances of members of Parliament, Committee on Public undertakings is
who is elected by the Committee itself. mentioned in Fourth schedule and consists of
In 1993 Parliament set up 17 standing members from both the houses.
committees to secure more accountability of
Executive to the legislature. Committee on Public Undertakings
Mainly to Scrutinise Budgets. l Consists of 15 members.
Report of Estimates Committee is not debated. l 10 members from LS. and 5 from RS.
l elected by system of proportional represen-
Public Accounts Committee tation.
l Committee of House of people. l Chairman is appointed by the Speaker.
l Consists of not more than 15 members. l mentioned in 4 schedule.
l Representation of States in the Lok Sabha l involve both pre and post expenditure
l Elected on the basis of proportional phases.
representation.
COMMITTEE SYSTEM HAS HELPED
l RS members are treated as associate, can
not vote. EXERCISE LEGISLATIVE CONTROL
OVER EXECUTIVE
l Chairman is a member of opposition party.
l Scrutinises appropriation accounts of GOI. Not more than one no-confidence motion can be
admitted in one session of the Parliament. But as
l Scrutinises the report of CAG.
regards confidence motion, there is no limit on the
l Ensures that money is spent in accordance number of times it can be introduced in one
with the Parliaments decisions. session.
l Investigations are in the nature of post
mortem. PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURES
Estimates Committee No Confidence Motion
l Committee of House of People. It is
l Consists of 30 members l introduced only in LS by opposition.
l Chairman is appointed by speaker. l to discuss all acts of Omission or
l Constituted after presentation of Budget. Commission of Government
l when admitted, takes precedence over all Reasons : The major reasons for decline of
pending business of the house. Parliament in India have been
l if adopted by LS, Govenment is expected 1. Growing authority of the Cabinet.
to resign. 2. Changing socio-economic composition.
l not more than one in one session of 3. Changing quality of debate and irrational
Parliament. conflict and hatreds among members.
l wider in scope. 4. Lack of enlightened public opinion to
l firstly in 1963. enforce accountability on representatives.
5. Political populism and nepotism.
Confidence Motion
6. Lack of accommodative as well as assertive
It has emerged as a part of Parliamentary practice posture on the part of leadership in view of
in India coalition politics.
l with the formation of minority Government, 7. Growing penetration of elites and vested
it has become imperative for the President interests in the main stream of the political
to direct Government to prove its majority arena.
within a specified time period.
8. Elections becoming a costly affair have
l if defeated, Government is obliged to rendered the genuine leaders taking
resign. recourse to social activities instead of
l no limit on number of times, it can be political participation.
introduced in one session. 9. Lack of provisions in the Constitutions
® First Government to lose confidence governing the power and privileges of
motion was V.P. Singh’s. Parliamentarians. The failure to fully
acknowledge the dimension of society and
Question Hour economy have problematized the
l first item of business in each house, begins functioning the Parliament.
at 11 O’ clock.
l two types of questions; starred and
Conclusion
unstarred. Despite limitations, Parliament has been able to
® Starred questions are answered by survive with ups and down. The problem is not
ministers orally. with the institution but with the people
® Unstarred questions are meant for mechanising the instrumentality of the institution.
written answers for which minister get Perhaps the survival of Parliamentary institution
sufficient time. can be explained best in terms of people’s faith in
them. But, to make it an effective deliberative
DECLINE OF PARLIAMENT body to deliver the requirements of socio-economic
justice, the intellegentia, youth and conscious
India’s experience with Parliamentary form of
sections of the society will have to come forward.
Government is closely intertwined with the British
Only then Parliament can become the supreme
system. For, India adopted the Westminster Model
temple of democracy and freedom.
as it was deemed necessary remedy for evils
confronting Indian Society. But, in recent years FACTS AND DEFINITION
Parliamentary system has shown tendencies that
have belied the expectations. It is more and more Parliament : It is a legislative branch of
becoming a hand maiden of Cabinet under the government wherein executive is drawnout. The
leadership of the Prime Minister. British Parliament is the mother of Parliament. It
is logical outcome of representative form of l to meet unforeseen expenditure by

government and the word is derived from French Government
term Parler which means to ‘talk.’ Guillotine : Due to lack of time, if the Lok
‘‘Its President a part of Parliament?’’ Sabha accepts demands for grant made by various
Despite the fact that the President does not sit ministries without any discussion on them is known
in the Parliament he is a part of Parliament because as application of Guillotine.
l he has many functions to perform. Application of Guillotine is passed only in
l all bills need his assent.
Lok Sabha.
l summon, prorogues and dissolves lower
Cut Motions : A legislative device used to
house. exercise financial control over executive when a
demand is made by a minister, a cut may be
l appoints protem speaker and acting
proposed in it by any member.
Chairman of R.S.
The motion for cut comes in the form of an
Protem Speaker : A temporary official of the
amendment and is intended to bring reduction in
Lok Sabha who is appointed by the President soon
the expenditure.
after the Constitution of new Lok Sabha. He
supervises the oath of newly elected members and National Government : A government formed
election of the Speaker of the Lok Sabha. by all the political parties or almost all the political
parties represented in the Parliament.
Public Account of India : It is a constitutional
fund where money received by Government of Shadow Cabinet : It is formed by main
India are credited. It includes all Public money opposition party in the Parliament Members are
other than money deposited into consolidated fund. assigned specific portfolio to lead debates
l it gives an effective opposition
It includes PF deducted from the salary of
civil servants. l it trains the M.P’s in the art of governance
It is placed at the disposal of Parliament. l also known as Cabinet in waiting.
Moreover, each state has a public account of l functions well when there is two party
its own. system in U.K. non-existent in India.
l introduced in LA of Haryana in 2000.
CONSOLIDATED FUND OF INDIA Lame Duck Session : Last session of old
Article 266(1) provides for a constitutional fund. Parliament held after the election of new Parliament.
It is the largest fund Members of old Parliament who could not get
l placed at the disposal of Parliament.
elected to the new Parliament are called lame
duck M.P’s. Lame duck session is not relevant in
l includes all revenues received, all taxes
Indian context. For election to LS takes place only
collected and all loans raised by
after dissolution of the house. Possible in R.S.
Government of India.
where seats to be vacant are elected a month in
l each state has a consolidated fund to its
advance.
own.
Crafter Government : A Government comes
CONTINGENCY FUND OF INDIA into existence only if government loses confidence
of LS or PM passes away or resign.
Article 267 provides for Interim Government : A Government formed
l statutory fund called contingency fund. during transitional phase.
l Its upper limit is Rs 50 crore. Minority Government : A Government which
l It is placed at disposal of President does not enjoy the confidence of the Lower House.
It survives with outside support of other parties. the legislature. It is comparatively a recent
Coalition Government : A Government which phenomenon that has come into operation with
is formed by coalition of two or more political growing complexity of the government. It has
parties with some common goals to be achieved. severely restricted the power of legislature.
Since 1989 we are witnessing an era of coalition Delimitation : Is an electoral procedure by
government. which electoral constituencies are readjusted in
Ordinance : They are orders of the President view of changing population in a region. It is
which has the same effect as an act of the done by a Delimitation Commission constituted
Parliament. These orders are issued only when the by an act of Parliament after each census.
Parliament is not in the session. It ceases to remain Hung Parliament : When no political party
in force, six weeks after Parliament reassembles, or coalition of political parties enjoys the majority
unless approved by it. in L.S. after a general election. Under such
Delegated Legislation : An informal circumstances it becomes difficult for any party to
legislative device by which the executive fills the form a government. It paves way for coalition and
details of legislative policies, broadly outlined by minority governments.
THE JUDICIARY
Supreme Court
High Court (in each state)
District
District & Session’s Judges Court Metropolitan Area
CIVIL PROVINCIAL CRIMINAL Metropolitan City civil & Presidency

Subordinate small cause court of Magistrates sessions small cause
Judges Courts court session courts courts court
Munsif Nyaya Subordinate Panchayat

courts Panchayats Magistrates Adalats
court
Judicial Executive
Magistrates Magistrates
SUPREME COURT In Supreme Court Advocates on Record

Association (SCARA) Versus Union of India 1993,
The Constitution makers of India adopted the
the Supreme Court held the opinion that
concept of Supreme Court from the United States
appointment of Judges is an ‘‘Integrated
of America. However, unlike the U.S.A., the
Participatory Consultative Exercise.’’ There must
Supreme Court in India is not the sovereign body.
not be any appointment to the higher Judiciary
It is endowed with vast powers and functions
against opinion expressed by Chief Justice of
including the power of judicial review. In the last
India.
55 years of its working, the court has helped in
strengthening democracy, protecting people’s right In case of appointment of Chief Justice of
and checked authoritarianism. It is vested with India, it is usually the senior most judge who is
administrative powers over courts lying below it. elevated to the post. But, this convention was
Indian constitution provides for a single integrated broken in 1977 when A.N. Ray superseded three
judiciary with the Supreme Court, at the top of colleagues (J.M. Shelat, K.S. Hedge, A.N. Grover).
hierarchy. In 1977, Mirza Hamidullah Beg supreseded H.R.
Khanna. However, since 1980 senior most judge is
Composition appointed as Chief Justice.
The Supreme Court at present consists of Chief An acting CJ may be appointed by President
Justice and 30 other Judges. In 1950, it had only in case a vacancy arises.
eight Judges. Parliament was, however, authorised The Chief Justice of India with the prior
to change the number of its Judges. On account of consent of President may appoint a Judge of High
the increase in its work load, the strength of the Court to sit and act as Judge of Supreme Court
Supreme Court judges has been raised from time provided, it the session of the Supreme Court
to time. In 1956, the Parliament passed the Supreme cannot be held or continued for want of a quorum.
Court Number of Judges Act, which raised the (Article 127).
total strength to 11. In 1960, the Supreme Court Similarly, when there is pending business
number of Judges Amendment Act was passed before the Supreme Court, the Chief Justice, with
further raising the strength of the Court Judges to the consent of the President may request in writing
14 including the Chief Justice. Its strength was the attendance of a retired Judge of SC to act as
further increased to 18 in 1977 and 25 in 1986. In Judge of SC.
2008, it was increased to 30. Salary : Provided in Second Schedule
Appointment : Article 124 a judge of the Chief Justice : 2.80 Lakh
Supreme Court is appointed by the President in Other Judges : 2.50 Lakh
consultation with such of the judges of the
In addition, each judge is also entitled to a
Supreme Court and of the High Court in the States
free House and certain other allowances and
as the President may deem necessary for the
privileges. Neither the salary, allowances, and
purpose. In the Case of appointment of a Judge
privileges, nor his rights in respect of leave of
other than the Chief Justice, the Chief Justice of
absence or pension can be varied to his
India must be consulted. In practice, the
disadvantage after his appointment. However, the
appointment of the Chief Justice of India as well
salaries of the Judges may be reduced by a law of
as of the other judges of the Supreme Court is
Parliament during a grave financial emergency
recommended by the Home Ministry and after the
proclaimed by the President.
matter has been examined by the Appointments
Committee of the Indian Cabinet and the decision Qualifications : A person shall not be qualified
receives the blessings of the Prime Ministers, it is for appointment as a Judge of the Supreme Court
formalised by the Indian President. unless he is a citizen of India and :
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—23
(a) has been for at least five years a Judge of Procedure for Removal
a High Court or of two or more such courts
A resolution seeking removal of a Judge can be
in succession; or
introduced in either House of the Parliament. In
(b) has been worked for at least ten years as an Lok Sabha it must be supported by not less than
advocate of a High Court or of two or 100 and Rajya Sabha not less than 50. An Enquiry
more such courts in succession; or Committee consisting of Judges may be constituted
(c) is, in the opinion of the President, a by the House to investigate charges.
distinguished jurist. The Report of Committee is not binding on
The inclusion of the last provision which the House. Moreover, if there is no charge
would enable the President to appoint a against the Judge, further proceedings will not go
distinguished jurist on the Supreme Court, even if around.
he did not qualify by a specified number of years In 1991 proceedings were started for removal
of practices at the Bar, was intended to open a of Justice Ramaswami, for alleged financial
wider field of choice. irregularities and misuse of High Court funds in
Tenure his capacity as Chief Justice of Punjab and Haryana
High Court. Impeachment proceedings were started
No minimum age is prescribed for appointment as in 1993 but fell on account of abstention of
a Judge of the Supreme Court, nor any fixed period Congress (I).
office. Once appointed, a Judge of the Supreme
Court may cease to be so, on any one of the INDEPENDENCE OF SUPREME COURT
following grounds (other than death);
To ensure the independence of Supreme Court
(a) on attaining the age of 65 years; following steps have been undertaken
(b) on resigning his office by writing
l Appointment of judges by the President in
addressed to the President;
consultation with CJI and such other judges
(c) on being removed by the President upon
as he may deem fit.
an address to that effect being passed by a
l Fixed tenure and removal only on ground
special majority of each House of
of proved misbehaviour or incapacity and
Parliament.
address by both houses of Parliament by
Seat of Supreme Court special majority.
The Supreme Court ordinarily shall sit at Delhi l The terms and conditions of Service of a
but it can sit at such other places as the Chief judge can be varied to his disadvantage
Justice of India may, with the approval of the after his appointment (Article 125).
President, from time to time decide. l The Salaries and allowances of the judges
as well as of the staff are charged on the
Removal consolidated fund of India and not
A Judge of the Supreme Court can be removed subjected to vote in Parliament (Art 146).
from his position only on the ground of proved l No discussion can take place in the
misbehaviour or incapacity. He can be removed Parliament, with respect to conduct of any
from his office by an order of the President passed judge in the discharge of his duties except
after an address from each House of Parliament, when a resolution for his removal is under
supported by a majority of the total membership consideration (Article 121).
of that House and by a majority of not less than l No person who has held office as a judge
2/3rd of the members present and voting. of the Supreme Court can plead or act in
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—23-II
any court or before any authority within provided in Article 136; the Supreme Court
the territory of India. has discretionary powers to take cases from
Court of Record : Article 129 provides The High Courts.
Supreme Court shall be a Court of record and shall Article 134 of the Constitution for the first
have all powers of such a Court, including the time provides for an appeal to the Supreme
power to punish for contempt itself. A Court of Court from any judgement, final order or
record obviously is one where the acts and Judicial sentence in a criminal proceeding of a High
proceedings are kept for memory and testimony. Court, as of right, in two specified classes
As a court of record the Supreme Court has power of cases—(a) where the High Court has on
to punish those who are adjudged as guilty of an appeal reversed an order of acquittal of
contempt of court. The Court has taken up the an accused person and sentenced him to
cases for their contempt. death; (b) where the High Court has
Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court : Indian withdrawn for trial before itself any case
Supreme Court enjoys a number of powers evident from any Court subordinate to its authority
in its jurisdiction. They are of following kinds and has in such trial convicted the accused
1. Original and sentenced him to death. In these two
classes of cases relating to a sentence of
2. Writ
death by the High Court, appeal lies to the
3. Appellate Supreme Court as of right.
4. Advisory Moreover, an appeal may lie to the Supreme
5. Revisory Court in any criminal case if the High Court
1. Original Jurisdiction : Article 131 of certifies that the case is a fit one for appeal
Indian Constitution provides for original to the Supreme Court.
jurisdiction that deals with disputes (i) 4. Advisory Jurisdiction : Under Article 143
between the Government of India and one of the Constitution, President can seek
or more States, (ii) between the Government advisory opinion of the Supreme Court
of India and any State or States on the one when it appeals to him that a question of
side and one or more other States on the law or fact has arisen, or is likely to arise,
other, or (iii) between two or more states. which is of such a nature and of such public
However, disputes arising out of the importance that it is expedient to obtain
provisions of treaties with the former Indian the opinion of the Supreme Court upon it.
States or to which any such State is a party The President is not bound to accept the
are excluded from the Original Jurisdiction opinion of the Supreme Court. The Court
of the Supreme Court. is not bound to give its advice.
2. Writ Jurisdiction : Supreme Court enjoys 5. Revisory Jurisdiction : Under Article 137,
powers under Article 32 for the enforcement the Supreme Court can revise its own
of Fundamental Rights. It is exercised in judgement, order or direction. Besides,
the nature of writs, viz; Habeas Corpus, Article 138 and Article 139 provides that
Mandamas, Certeorari, Quo Warranto and Parliament by law can extend the
Prohibition. jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
3. Appellate Jurisdiction : The Supreme
Court is the highest court of appeal in all JUDICIAL REVIEW
Civil, Criminal and Constitutional cases. Judicial review is the power of Supreme Court and
Moreover, under ‘‘special leave to Appeal’’ High Court to declare a law as unconstitutional
and void if it is inconsistent with one or more Originated in Australia

provisions of the constitution to the extent of such
A PIL can be filed up by publicity spirited
inconsistency.
individual or organisation not directly interested
Under this, it can examine legislature in the case. It is the privilege of the court to
enactments and their constitutionality. entertain or not the application for PIL
It can examine the validity of any order of the l has democratised the judiciary.
executive or any law of the legislature.
l Supreme Court has vastly expanded the
It is the Supreme Court to declare what the
scope of FR by liberally interpreting Art
provisions of the Constitution mean.
32, 226.
The Supreme Court has power to review any
judgement or order made by it earlier. LOK ADALATS
The power of judicial review is more implicit
— First held in 1985.
and traceable to Article 82, 226 and also under
Article 13. — Given statutory status under Legal Service
Authorities Act 1987.
Based on Three Principles — Aims at providing speedy and economical
l Concept of Limited Government. service to poor.
l It maintains harmony with different — Eliminate delay and speed up clearance of
provisions i.e. if two interpretations of law pending cases.
is possible, one leading to validation of — Organised by state or district bodies.
Constitutional provision would prevail. — Case goes to LA if two parties make joint
l Ordinarily, the Court shall not interfere application.
with and pronounce the validity of a law — Given powers of Civil Court.
until it comes into effect.
Objectives FEDERALISM
l maintain Supremacy of Constitution. Definitions of Federalism
l maintain balance between various organs. Robert Garran : “a form of government in which
l maintain division of power, essential for sovereignty or political power is divided between
federation. the central and local governments so that each of
them within its own sphere is independent of the
PUBLIC INTEREST LITIGATION others”.
Pro bono Public 6 Livingsten : “From of political and
PIL is one of the most potent weapons. The constitutional organization that unites into a single
Judiciary, in India has acquired in recent times to polity a number of diversified groups of component
enforce legal obligations of executive and polities so that the personality and individuality
legislature. of the component parts are largely preserved while
Its objective is Public good, group interest creating in the new totality, a separate and distinct
and not individual interest for which FR are political and constitutional unit.”
provided. It emanates from the power of Judicial
review. INDIAN FEDERALISM
The Supreme Court through its various Theory and Practice : Like many other
decisions has evolved rules governing Public conceptions of organizing institutions of
Interest Litigation. governance, federalism is comparatively a modern
conception. Its genesis is traced to American Indian federation is not an outcome of agreement
Political system constituted mainly after the by constituent units and Secondly; the units have
Philadelphia convention. Its growth is inevitably no right to secede from it.
linked to the increase in size of the state and Why Confusion : The confusion and
change in its demographic elements. Most of the scepticism over India’s federation is done to two
states have opted to organize their polity on federal reasons; firstly, there is no agreed definition of
principle so as to ensure equality of different federalism and secondly, inherent tendency of
regions or groups without compromising the modelling American federal system as of true kind.
prospects of unity and integrity. Some of the
federally constituted states are India, Australia, UNITARY FEATURES
Canada, Switzerland etc.
1. Single Citizenship : Generally, under a
Reasons : Founding fathers of the Indian federal government there is double
Constitution opted for Parliamentary system of citizenship, a citizenship of the Union as a
government with federal one. However, they opted whole and citizenship of each constituent
for a system of Parliamentary Paramountancy with state. In the United States the dual polity
a limited federal component. In today’s context, is followed by dual citizenship (the
India offers a interesting case for federalism because citizenship of the United States and that of
it is unique in many ways. The reasons were the individual state). The Indian federation
1. Prevalence of subversive tendencies in provides for a single citizenship for the
states. whole of India. There is no state citizenship.
2. Partition of the newly independent country Every Indian has the same rights of
and riots. citizenship, no matter in which State he
3. Desire to preserve the unity and integrity resides.
of the Nation. 2. A Strong Centre : The Union Government
4. Planned economic development to tackle is a government which has power even over
the problems of poverty, illiteracy, hunger and the State governments and has the
alike. residuary power over the whole territory.
3. Single Constitution for Union and States
OPINION OF EXPERTS : USA, the States have their own
1. K.C. Wheare : ‘‘Quasi federal’’ constitutions separate from that of the
Union. The Indian Constitution, on the
2. Prof. Alexandrowicz : ‘‘Sui generis’’or
contrary, embodies not only the
novel type
Constitution of the Union but also those of
3. Gravinille Austin : ‘‘Co-operative the States.
federalism’’
4. Centre can change name and boundaries
4. Ivor Jennings : ‘‘Federation with of States : In a Federation the Centre has
strong centralizing no right whatsoever to change the
tendency.’’ boundaries of the States. But in India the
Provision and Justification : Article 1 of the Centre has a right to change the boundaries
Indian Constitution says that ‘‘India, that is Bharat of the States and to carve out one State out
shall be Union of States.’’ But, India is a ‘federation of the other (Art 3). In fact, this has been
of a special kind. done in India, not only once but several
The use of the word ‘Union’ were justified by times. There is perhaps no State whose
Dr. Ambedkar, on following grounds; Firstly, boundaries have not been changed at one
stage or another. The right of the Centre to Union Government to exercise control over
change the boundaries of the States is the State administration.
against the federal set-up. 10. Appointment of the High Court Judges by
5. Single Judiciary : In the United States the the President : Appointments to the High
states have their own judicial systems Court are made by the President, and the
unrelated to and uncoordinated with, the Judges of the High Courts, can be
federal judiciary. But in India the Courts transferred by the President from one High
form a single integrated judicial system. Court to another.
They have jurisdiction over cases arising 11. The Office of the Comptroller and
under the same laws, constitutional, civil Auditor-General : The Comptroller and
and criminal. The civil and the criminal Auditor-General of India has an organisation
law are codified and are applicable to the managed by the officers of the Indian Audit
entire country. To ensure their uniformity, and Account Services, a central service,
they are placed in the Concurrent List. who are concerned not only with the
6. Unitary during Emergencies : The accounts and auditing of the Union
Indian Constitution is designed to work as government but also those of the States.
a federal government in normal times, but 12. Centralized Electoral Machinery : The
a unitary government in times of Election Commission, a body appointed
emergency. The effect of declaration of by the President, is in charge of conducting
emergency is that administration of the elections not only to Parliament and to
State is taken over by the Centre, which is other elective offices of the Union, but also
not in keeping with the spirit of federal to those of the State legislatures.
polity at all. 13. Flexible Constitution : In an ideal
7. Common All-India Services : The federation there should be rigid
Constitution has certain special provisions constitution, which implies that the
to ensure the uniformity of the Constitution cannot be easily amended. So
administrative system. There is All-India that the Centre shall not be in a position to
Services such as the Indian Administration easily amend the Constitution. In the USA
and Police Services and placing the the Constitution is very rigid. But the
members of these services in key Indian Constitution is not very rigid. Many
administrative positions in the States. parts of the Constitution can be easily
8. Inequality of Representation in the amended.
Council of States : In the Council of States, 14. Special Powers of Council of States over
States have not been given equal State List : Under Article 249 the Parliament
representations. Here population system has is also authorised by the Constitution to
been followed and bigger States have been make laws on any subject mentioned in the
given greater representation than the smaller State List, if the Council of States passes a
ones. In the USA, the Senate, which is the resolution by a two-thirds majority
upper House of US Congress, has equal declaring a particular subject or subjects to
representation from all the States. be of national importance. Similarly,
9. Appointment of Governor by President : Parliament can pass laws on the items of
The Heads of the State—the Governors— State List, if it is deemed essential by the
are appointed by the President. They hold government of India to honour an
office during his pleasure. This enables the international obligation. In short, in India
the Centre can encroach on the field Concurrent List. Like the Canadian
reserved for the States as and when it feels constitution, the residuary powers have been
necessary. vested in the Central Government.
15. Control Over State Laws : Certain laws 2. Written Constitution : In a federal polity,
passed by the State Legislature cannot a written constitution ensures that each
come into operation unless they have been sphere of government should remain
reserved for the approval of the President concerned with its own affairs. It minimizes
of India. Thus, all the laws concerning the the chances of conflicts and disputes
acquisition of property, all laws on between the two levels of government.
Concurrent List which are contrary to the 3. Supremacy of Constitution : India does
laws passed by the Parliament; and the laws not have supremacy of either Parliament or
concerning the sales-tax on essential the Supreme Court. Rather, there is
commodities, etc. need the approval of the Supremacy of Constitution.
Central Government. Moreover, the 4. Rigidity of the Constitution : Most of the
Governor of a State reserves the right to federal features of the Indian Constitution
reserve any bill passed by the State can not be changed easily. Such provisions
Legislature for the consideration of the can be amended only if the amendment is
President. The President may accord his passed by a two-thirds majority of the
approval to such a bill or may withhold his members present and voting in the
assents. Parliament (which must also constitute the
16. Financial Dependence of States : In a absolute majority of the total membership)
federation, as far as possible, States should and ratified by at least one-half of the states.
be financially self-sufficient so that they 5. Independent Judiciary : There is separation
enjoy maximum autonomy. But in India of powers as regards relationship between
the States depend on the Centre for all legislature or executive and the judiciary.
development. They have much less source Every effort has been made to ensure that
of income but many more needs of the Judicial system is independent and
expenditure. This financial dependency has impartial. The judges can not be removed
very much hindered the growth of States easily by the executive and their salaries,
on federal lines. allowances can not be changed to their
disadvantage.
FEDERAL FEATURES
6. Bicameral Legislature : Indian Parliament
1. Division of powers or Dual Polity : Clear consists of two Houses : Lok Sabha and
cut division of powers between centre and Rajya Sabha. The representatives of the
units ensures that in the federation, the two states are provided membership in the Rajya
do not encroach upon the functions of each Sabha.
other. The seventh schedule provides for
three lists; viz; Union, State and Concurrent FEDERAL DYNAMICS
lists. The Union Government enjoys
In earlier days of the working of federal system,
exclusive power to legislate on the subjects
clear bias towards the centre was clear cut sign of
mentioned in the Union List. The State
Indian Political system.
government have full authority to legislate
on the state list under normal circumstances. The reasons were:
Both, the Centre and State government can 1. Centralized party system with dominance
legislate on the subjects mentioned in the of Congress party till 1967
2. Centralized planning with Prime Minister 3. President’s rule and Governor’s role in the
as the Chairman politics of State.
3. Dominant personality of Prime Minister 4. Working of Planning Commission and
4. Majority Governments at the Centre recommendations of Finance Commission
5. Period of Emergencies in the wake of are generally based on demography. It
Chinese aggression, Pakistani aggression follows the principle of uniformity keeping
and internal emergency. in mind the population. However, in such
cases the prospects of well performing states
Contemporary Trends : From 1989 onwards
are compromised and needs of poor
the state governments have stretched their arms.
performing states are neglected.
The growth of regional parties and dominant
leadership at the state level have federalized the Conclusion
polity. The following factors have enhanced this
trend. A contemporary insight of the federal dynamics
suggests that India is moving towards a relatively
1. Politics of Coalition and Role of Regional
more federalized functioning. Perhaps, the most
parties.
crucial variable in this direction has been
2. Judicial Review and Activism of the transformed party system.
Judiciary evident in Bommai Case (1994)
Neverthless, other factors have been crucially
that introduced check a misuse of Article
significant. If anything, this trend is to survive for
356.
the time being.
3. Dynamism shown by Election Commission
in the electoral process. FACTS AND DEFINITION
4. Varied party background by President and
Bargaining Federalism : A model of federalism
Governors due to varied composition of
prevalent in the third world countries. The
the Parliament. Moreover, they have shown
multiplicity of political parties together with
flexibility in taking decisions.
gaining ascendance of regional/provincial parties
5. Democratic decentralisation through 73 and have made this model a dominant one.
74 Amendments.
Usually, the regional parties form the
6. More effective functioning of federal government in various provinces/states and they
agencies like National Development start political bargaining with the party in power
Council and Inter State Councils. at the centre.
7. Rise of OBC’s and regional bourgeoisie
Cooperative Federalism : A federal model
and professional middle class.
that had its genesis in Australian constitution has
8. Economic liberalization. become a role model for all federal polity. It
9. Accommodative and restrained posture of essentially means co-ordination between centre and
the Prime Ministers. states and not confrontation.
Problems According to K.C. Wheare ‘‘if each regional
government keeps completely to itself, many
1. Fiscal dependence of states for its matters will suffer from diversity of regulation
developmental programmes. and government itself will be less efficient
2. Regional disparity among the states have because the experience of other states will be
placed certain states vulnerable to undue neglected.’’ Granville Austin places Indian
interference and effective participation in federalism within the category of co-operative
Federal agencies. federalism.
1. Assertion (A): In Parliamentary democracy, 2. The political executive is a part of the

interpretation keeps civil servants on their legislature
toes and alert. 3. It has the power to devide all policy matters
Reason (R): Every action of the administration Codes:
has policy/financial implications over which (a) only 1 (b) 2 and 3
the legislature has control. (c) 1 and 3 (d) only 3
Codes: 6. Assertion (A): In a parliamentary democracy
(a) A and R are true and R is the correct like India the Government goes out of power
explanation of A if the lower house passes a no-confidence
(b) A and R are true but R is not the correct motion against the Government.
explanation of A Reason (R): The Constitution of India
(c) A is true but R is false provides for the removal of the Prime Minister
(d) A is false but R is true through a no-confidence motion passed in the
2. Which one of the following has precedence Lok-Sabha.
over every other motion? Codes:
(a) Calling Attention (a) A and R are true and R is the correct
(b) An-hour discussion explanation of A
(c) Half an hour discussion (b) A and R are true but R is not the correct
(d) A resolution by both the Houses jointly. explanation of A
3. The legislature exercises control over (c) A is true but R is false
administration in various ways, which one of (d) A is false but R is true
the following is not one such a way? 7. “There is excessive parliamentary interference
(a) Budgetary Control in Public Administration of India”. This has
(b) Debates and discussion on departmental been the conclusion of the:
performance. (a) Bothalingam Committee Report
(c) Raising questions on the activities of the (b) Hanumanthaiya Commission Report
administration (c) Raja Chelliah Committee Report
(d) Issuing injuctions against a public servant (b) None of these
and preventing him from doing 8. The most effective instrument of the executive
something. control over administration is:
4. Mainly, corruption involves : (a) Civil Service code
(a) Misuse of official position or authority (b) Communication
(b) Deviation from rules, laws and norms (c) Rule-making power
(c) Non-action when action is required and (d) Power of appointment and removal
personal gain for selfish motives 9. On which of the following does the
(d) All of the above effectiveness of executive control over public
5. Which of the following constitute the basic administration depend?
on which the legislature exercises control over 1. The relationship between the civil servants
the executive in a democracy? and ministers
1. It represents the people who have the 2. The experience and capabilities of the
sovereign power minister.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—24
3. The nature of political system existing in 13. Which of the following are reasons for judicial
the country. control over administration being imminent?
4. The constitutional position of the civil 1. Administrators usurp authority
servants 2. Rights of citizen have to be protected
Codes: 3. Officers fight for exercise of authority
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 4 4. There is need to uphold the law of the
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4 land.
10. Executive control over administration is Codes:
exercised through which of the following? (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
1. Formulation of administrative policy (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4
2. Discussion on “Demands for Grani” 14. From which one of the following does the
3. Approval of the decision of the judicial control over administration emanate?
subordinates (a) Judicial conventions
4. Periodic review mettings (b) Administrative orders
Codes: (c) Acts of legislature
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (d) The Rule of law
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4 15. To exercise effective control over
11. Which one of the following is the most administration, the citizen requires mostly:
effective means of executive control of (a) A high level of education
administration? (b) A high degree of Political consciousness
(a) Appointment and removal of top official (c) An adequate standard of Public
(b) Subordinate Legislation spiritedness
(c) Financial Administration (d) An adequate knowledge of administrative
(d) Political direction. theory
12. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct 16. Assertion (A): Public Administration can be
answer using the codes given below the lists: successful if it is easily accessible to its
List-I List-II citizens.
A. Writ of Mandamus 1. Prohibition of an Reason (R): Redressal of grivances of citizens
action is rendered easier by close contact between
B. Writ of Injuction 2. Direction to the citizen and administration.
official for the Codes:
performance (a) A and R are true and R is the correct
of a duty. explanation of A
C. Writ of Certiorari 3. Trail of the right to (b) A and R are true but R is not the correct
a title or explanation of A
elective (c) A is true but R is false
office. (d) A is false but R is true
D. Writ of Quo 4. Transferring of case 17. Which of the following cannot be regarded as
Warranto from lower court to means of public control over administration?
a court of higher 1. System of election
jurisdiction 2. System of recall
Codes: A B C D 3. Consultative committees
(a) 2 1 4 3 4. Parliamentary committees
(b) 1 2 3 4 Codes:
(c) 3 4 2 1 (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(d) 4 3 1 2 (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4
18. Which one of the following statements is NOT (c) The council is the supreme administrative
correct? court
(a) Parliamentary control over administration (d) The council exercises general supervision
by its very nature tends to be weak and over administration but do not posesses
discontinuous ultimate authority over the discipline of
(b) Executive control over administration is civil servants.
the best gurantee of efficiency and 23. Arrange the following stages in the enactment
integrity of Budget in the proper order;
(c) Judicial control over administration is not 1. General Discussion
a contradiction in terms 2. Appropriation Bill
(d) Redressal of citizens’ grievances does not 3. Financial Bill
constitute control over administration. 4. Voting of the Demand
19. In short, political crime can be described as : 5. Presentation to legislation
(a) Crime by politicians Codes :
(b) Politically motivated law-breaking (a) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (b) 5, 1, 4, 2, 3
behaviour by altruistic individuals (c) 5, 1, 4, 3, 2 (d) 5, 1, 3, 4, 2
(c) Crime committed in pursuit of politics 24. The function of the Estimates committee is
(d) All of the above mainly:
20. The Parliamentary commissioner of UK will (a) to prepare the estimates of the government
entertain a complaint from a citizen only Departments
under certain circumstances, which of the (b) to finalise the estimates of the government
following are among such circumstances? Departments
1. When it has been referred to him by a (c) to determine the financial policy
Member of Parliament (d) to suggest measures for economy and
2. When a complaint has exhausted all the efficiency in administration
opportunities of appeal 25. “Parliamentary is the chief citadel of
3. When it has been recommended by the opposition to delegation of power, the need
speaker of the House of Commons. for which is the worst shortcoming of Indian
4. When the Minister concerned certifies that Administration.” This statement is made by:
the relevant records and information will (a) Gorwala Report
be made available. (b) Appleby Report
Codes: (c) Gopalaswamy Ayyangar Report
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (d) ARC Report.
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4 26. The Parliamentary Commissioner for
21. Which Article of the Indian Constitution Administration was appointed in U.K. in:
describes the suability of the state of India? (a) 1957 (b) 1959
(a) Article 100 (b) Article 200 (c) 1967 (d) 1968
(c) Article 300 (d) Article 310 27. The first committee to recommend for the
22. Which of the following statement is not correct establishment of an Ombudsman type of
about conseil d’ Etat of France? institution in India was:
(a) The council stands at the head of the (a) Gorwala Committee
system of administrative courts. (b) Santhanam Committee
(b) The council is the Government’s advisory (c) Kripalani Committee
body on legislation (d) Administrative Reforms Commission
28. Which of the following is a specialised 34. Which of the following is not a tool of
institution existing in India for redressal of executive control over public administration?
citizens grievances: (a) Power of appointment and removal
(a) Lokayukt (b) Line Agencies
(b) High Courts (c) Appeal to public opinion
(c) Supreme Court (d) Civil services code
(d) Lokpal 35. The judicial control over administrative acts
29. The techniques of citizens control over stem from the Doctrine of:
administration are: (a) Separation of Powers
1. Election (b) Judicial Review
2. Public opinion (c) Rule of Law
3. Pressure groups (d) Delegated Legislation
4. Advisory committee 36. Which of the following is not correctly
5. Recall matched?
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (a) Ombudsman — 1809
(b) 2, 3 and 5 (b) Central Vigilance Commission — 1964
(c) 3, 4 and 5 (c) Parliamentary Commissioner — 1969
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 (d) Lokayukt — 1971
30. The Central Board of Revenue has been set 37. The Committee on Public Undertakings was
up by set up on the recommendation of:
(a) the constitution (a) Administrative Reforms Commission
(b) the order of the Finance Minister (b) Lanka Sundaram
(c) a Law of Parliament (c) Krishna Menon Committee
(d) a Presidential order (d) Chagla Commission
31. The Parliamentary Commissioner for 38. The chairman of which of the following
Administration in the U.K. enjoys a status committee is generally from the opposition
similar to the: party:
(a) Speaker of House of Commons (a) Estimates Committee
(b) Cabinet Secretary (b) Committee on Public Undertaking
(c) Cabinet Minister (c) Public Account Committee
(d) Comptroller and Auditor General (d) Committee on Assurances
32. The Chairman of which of the following 39. The Power of courts to hold any law or
Parliamentary ommittee invariably form the executive order unconstitutional or utlra-vires
members of ruling party? on the ground that it is in conflict with the
(a) Committee on Public Undertakings constitution is known as:
(b) Public Accounts Committee (a) Rule of Law
(c) Estimates Committee (b) Delegated Legislation
(d) Committee on Delegated Legislation (c) Judicial Law
33. Which of the following is not a formally (d) Judicial Review
prescribed advice available to the member of 40. Which of the following committees is not a
Parliament? means of judicial control over Administration?
(a) Question Hour (a) Committee on Assurance
(b) Zero Hour (b) Committee on Delegated Legislation
(c) Half-an hour discussion (c) Committee on Public Undertaking
(d) Short duration discussion (d) Estimates Committee
41. Which of the following is not a means of 46. Who said that “Power corrupts and absolute
judicial control over Administration? power corrupts absolutely”:
1. Civil and criminal cases against the Public (a) L.D. White (b) Lord Cornwallis
official (c) Lord Hasting (d) Lord Action
2. Extraordinary remedies in the form of Writs
47. Arrange the following countries which have
3. Statutory Appeals
created Ombudsman-like institutions in the
4. Judicial review of administration acts
proper order:
5. Suits against the government by a private
party 1. Denmark 2. Norway
3. Finland 4. Sweden
42. Which of the following is a Quasi Judicial 5. England 6. New Zealand
Authority?
(a) High court of a state (a) 4, 1, 3, 2, 5, 6 (b) 4, 2, 1, 3, 6, 5
(b) Lokayukt in a state (c) 4, 3, 1, 2, 6, 5 (d) 4, 1, 2, 6, 3, 5
(c) Central Vigilance Commission 48. Assertion (A): Several countries in the world
(d) Administrative Tribunal including, India have adopted the
43. In public interest litigation: Ombudsman like institution.
(a) Only an aggrieved person can approach Reason (R): It acts as a bulwark of democratic
the court for redress. government against the tyranny of officialdom.
(b) Public officials can approach the court if Codes:
wrong allegations are imposed against (a) A and R are true and R is the correct
them. explanation of A
(c) Only certain social welfare organisations (b) A and R are true but R is not the correct
can approach the court for seeking justice explanation of A
on behalf of aggrieved citizens. (c) A is true but R is false
(d) Citizens as well as any public spirited (d) A is false but R is true
organisation can lodge complaints in court
49. Assertion (A): The judicial control over
against administrative injustice being done
administrative acts stems from the Doctrine of
to other people or a group or a community.
Judicial Review.
44. Mandamus is a Writ issued by the court: Reason (R): The doctrine of rule of law finds
(a) enquiring into the legality of claim of any its classic exposition in the writings of A.V.
person to public office. Dicey.
(b) asking a person who has detained any
Codes:
other person unlawfully or illegally to
(a) A and R are true and R is the correct
produce before the court
explanation of A
(c) asking a public official or any authority
to perform legal duties (b) A and R are true but R is not the correct
(d) against any lower court not to do any acts explanation of A
in excess of their jurisdiction (c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
45. Which one of the following devices draw the
attention of Minister towards a matter of 50. Assertion (A): The British Monarch is
public importance? completely immune from legal liability in
(a) Special discussion respect of any of his or her acts done in public
(b) Budget discussion or private capacity.
(c) Calling attention motion Reason (R): “The king can do no wrong”, is
(d) Meeting of committee of petitions a legally accepted phrase in England.
Codes: 54. Match the following—

(a) A and R are true and R is the correct List-I List-II
explanation of A A. Short duration discussion 1. 1965
(b) A and R are true but R is not correct B. Calling attention notice 2. 1962
explanation of A C. Zero Hour 3. 1953
(c) A is true but R is false D. Committee on Public
(d) A is false but R is true Undertakings 4. 1954
51. Assertion (A): Legislative control over the Codes: A B C D
administration is one of the basic tents of (a) 4 3 1 2
democratic government (b) 3 4 2 1
Reason (R): The legislature frames laws and (c) 4 2 1 3
rules and approves the budget. (d) 3 2 4 1
Codes: 55. Match the following—
(a) A and R are true and R is the correct List-I List-II
explanation of A A. Central Vigilance 1. Constitutional
(b) A and R are true but R is not the correct Commission
explanation of A B. Lokayukta 2. Resolution of
(c) A is true but R is false govern-ment of India
(d) A is false but R is true C. Central Bureau 3. Statutory Appelas
52. Match the following— of Investigation
List-I List-II D. High Court 4. Resolution of Home
A. No Confidence 1. Executive control Ministry
Motion Codes: A B C D
B. Budget 2. Judicial control (a) 3 2 1 4
C. Mandamus 3. Legislative control (b) 3 1 2 4
D. Lokayukta 4. Citizens control (c) 2 3 4 1
Codes: (d) 1 4 1 3
A B C D
56. What is meant by Judicial Review?
(a) 2 1 4 3
(b) 4 1 2 3 (a) Parliament’s right to ask the Judiciary to
(c) 3 1 4 2 review judgements
(d) 3 1 2 4 (b) The President’s right to seek the opinion
of the Supreme court on the
53. Match the following— constitutionality of law passed by
List-I List-II parliament
A. Rule of law 1. France
(c) Judiciary’s power to pronoune upon the
B. Judicial review 2. U.S.A.
constitutionality of laws passed by the
C. Administrative order 3. Britain
legislature and orders issued by the
D. Procurator system 4. USSR
executive
Codes: (d) Judiciary’s right to review judgements
A B C D passed by lower courts
(a) 2 1 3 4 57. Central Vigilance Commission was set upon
(b) 1 2 3 4 the recommendation of:
(c) 3 1 2 4 (a) Administrative Reforms Commission
(d) 3 2 1 4 (b) Law Commission
(c) Kothari Committee 65. The correct statements about Zero Hour
(d) Santhanam Committee. includes:
58. The system of influencing the Government 1. It is the first hour of every sitting in both
through pressure groups is most prevalent in: the Houses of Parliament
(a) France 2. It is mentioned in the Rules of Business of
(b) Britain the Houses of Parliament
(c) U.S.A. 3. During this time, matters are raised without
(d) India any permission or prior notice.
4. It is the time immediately following the
59. Administrative Ethics, in Public Question Hour in both the Houses of
Administration, evolved first in: Parliament
(a) U.S.A. (b) Russia 5. It is an Indian innovation in parliamentary
(c) U.K. (d) France procedure since 1964
60. The institution of Lokayukt was created for Codes:
the first time in 1971 the state of: (a) 2, 3 and 4 (b) 3 and 4
(a) Orissa (c) 1, 2 and 5 (d) 2, 3 and 5
(b) Bihar 66. Which of the following is not correctly
(c) Punjab matched?
(d) Maharashtra (a) Central Bureau of Investigation 1963
61. Which of the following is not a formal (b) Special Police Establishment 1942
instrument of executive control over (c) Prevention of Corruption Act 1947
administration? (d) Central Vigilance Commission 1964
(a) Political direction 67. Who made the comment that the caste system
(b) Personnel management is not merely a division of labour, it is a
(c) Ordinances division of labourers?
(d) Professional ethics (a) M.N. Srinivas
62. The word Ombudsman is derived from the
(b) B.R. Ambedkar
root ‘ombud’ which is swedish and which mean:
(c) C.N. Annadurai
(a) Conscience-keeper
(b) A person who acts as a respresentative
of another person 68. The correct statements about Calling
(c) Upholder of law and morality Attention Notice are—
(d) All of the above 1. It is a device of calling the attention of a
minister to a matter of urgent public
63. In the context of judicial control over importance
administration, malfeasance stands for: 2. Its main purpose is to seek an authoritative
(a) Error of law statement from the minister
(b) Error of fact-finding 3. It does not involve any censure against
(c) Abuse of authority government
(d) Error of procedure 4. It is an Indian innovation in the
64. Which one of the following is not a means of parliamentary procedure since 1952
executive control over Administration? 5. It is not mentioned in the Rules of
(a) Civil service code Business and Procedure
(b) Advisory agencies Codes:
(c) Appeal to public opinion (a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 4 and 5
(d) Statutory appeal (c) 1, 2, 3 and 5 (d) 1, 2 and 3
69. Which among the following Indian states have 75. Assertion (A): The Writ jurisdiction of the
the largest number of poor in absolute terms? Supreme court and High courts in India is
(a) Bihar same.
(b) Orissa Reason (R): Both, the Supreme court and the
(c) Uttar Pradesh High court can issue the Writs of Habeas
(d) None of the above Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari and
70. The recommendations of Santhanam Quo-Warranto.
Committee on prevention of corruption (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
includes: explanation of A
1. Amendment of Article 311 of the (b) Both A and R are true but R is not the
constitution correct explanation of A
2. Amendment of the Indian Penal Code (c) A is true but R is false
3. Creation of Central Vigilance Commission (d) A is false but R is true
4. Amendment of Defence of Indian Bill 76. Assertion (A): In democracy, the ultimate
5. Establishment of an Ombudsman type of responsibility of administration is to the
Institution people.
Codes:
Reason (R): The democratic government is
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4
based on the principle of popular sovereignty.
(c) 2, 3 and 5 (d) All of these
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
71. Which of the following governmental explanation of A.
programmes are aimed at eradication of (b) Both A and R are true but R is not the
poverty? correct explanation of A.
(a) Integrated Rural Development (c) A is true but R is false.
Programme (d) A is false but R is true.
(b) Jawahar Rozgar Yojana
(c) Employment Assurance Scheme 77. Assertion (A): Democratic administration
(d) All of the above means much more than electing the
representatives who make policies.
72. Which of the following Writs is not
Reason (R): It ensures people’s participation
specifically provided in the constitution of
in the administrative process.
India?
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
(a) Prohibition (b) Mandamus
explanation of A.
(c) Quo Warranto (d) Injunction
73. No-Confidence Motion, to be admitted in the correct explanation of A.
Lok Sabha, needs the support of: (c) A is true but R is false.
(a) 80 members (d) A is false but R is true.
(b) 140 members
(c) 160 members 78. Patronage Bureaucracy is also known as:
(d) 50 members (a) Caste Bureaucracy
(b) Feudal Bureaucracy
74. In India the basic criterion for estimating the
number of people below poverty line is : (c) Guardian Bureaucracy
(a) A person's nutritional requirements in (d) Spoil Bureaucracy
terms of calories 79. The traditional home of Patronage
(b) Per-capita gross domestic product Bureaucracy is:
(c) Human Development Index (a) U.K. (b) France
(d) All of the above (c) Russia (d) U.S.A.
80. The concept of neutrality of civil service was (a) 1958 (b) 1956
developed most in: (c) 1957 (d) 1959
(a) U.S.A. (b) France 90. The training courses generally do not include:
(c) Germany (d) U.K. (a) Job aspects
81. Regionalism means : (b) Economic aspects
(a) Love of a particular region or state in (c) Human aspects
preference to the country as a whole (d) Organisational aspects
(b) Giving precedence to local issue over 91. Which type of training is usually imparted by
national issues the more experienced officers of the
(c) Love of the community in preference to department itself?
the nation (a) Background training
(d) Both (a) and (c) (b) Departmental training
82. Who of the following gave the fourfold (c) Skill training
classification of Bureaucracy? (d) Central training
(a) Max Weber (b) F.M. Marx 92. Public Administration was included as a full
(c) John A. Vieg (d) Willoughby subject both at the preliminary test and the
83. Advancement in rank and status, usually main examination in:
accompained by increase in emolument is: (a) 1986 (b) 1987
(a) Advancement (b) Promotion (c) 1988 (d) 1989
(c) Reassignment (d) Transfer 93. The Ramspect Act (in U.S.A.) was passed in:
84. The Administrative staff college of India was (a) 1940 (b) 1950
established in: (c) 1945 (d) 1960
(a) 1957 (b) 1958 94. The first preliminary examination under the
(c) 1959 (d) 1962 new scheme was held in:
85. The first country in modern times to have (a) 1976 (b) 1978
evolved a sound recruitment system was: (c) 1979 (d) 1981
(a) U.K. (b) Russia 95. The chairman of the National Council of Joint
(c) China (d) U.S.A. Consultative Machinery is:
86. In India, the merit principle has been in (a) Personnel Secretary
existence since the year: (b) Home Secretary
(a) 1850 (b) 1847 (c) Finance Secretary
(c) 1853 (d) 1857 (d) Cabinet Secretary
87. Britain adopted the merit principle in the year: 96. Which of the following service is not an All
(a) 1854 (b) 1857 India Service?
(c) 1859 (d) 1855 (a) Indian Administrative Service
(b) Indian Police Service
88. In 1947, the Government of India started the
(c) Indian Forest Service
Indian Administrative Service Training School (d) None of these
at:
97. Which of the following are the merits of Rank
(a) Mussoorie (b) New Delhi
classification?
(c) Shimla (d) Mount Abu
1. It uphold the principle of equal pay for
89. The Lal Bahadur Shastri Academy of equal work
Administration started functioning at 2. It clearly defines the contents of any job
Mussoorie from: in detail
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—25
3. It is easy to understand and administer 99. Who said “If positions are the raw material
4. It promotes loyalty to the totality of the of classification, the class is the operating
Civil Service rather than to a specific post unit”?
in it. (a) L.D. White (b) E.N. Gladden
(a) 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) F.N. Nigro (d) Glann Stahl
(c) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (d) 3 and 4 100. The classification of service in India is
98. Position classification is the classification of: governed by the:
(a) Salaries (a) Civil Service Rules, 1950
(b) Duties (b) Civil Service Rules, 1935
(c) Departments (c) Civil Service Rules, 1930
(d) Personnel status of incumbents (d) Civil Service Rules, 1960
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(a) (c) (d) (d) (a) (c) (d) (d) (b) (d)
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
(a) (a) (a) (d) (b) (a) (c) (d) (b) (a)
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
(c) (d) (b) (d) (b) (c) (b) (a) (d) (c)
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
(d) (c) (b) (b) (c) (c) (c) (c) (d) (d)
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
(d) (d) (d) (c) (c) (d) (c) (a) (d) (a)
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
(a) (d) (d) (b) (c) (c) (d) (c) (b) (d)
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
(d) (b) (c) (d) (b) (b) (b) (d) (c) (d)
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
(d) (d) (d) (a) (d) (a) (a) (d) (d) (d)
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
(a) (b) (b) (a) (b) (c) (b) (b) (d) (b)
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
(b) (b) (a) (c) (d) (d) (d) (b) (d) (c)
lll
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—25-II

Unit
5
Public Administration
GROWTH OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS A DISCIPLINE &

NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
MAN WORKS
Henri Fayol 1. General and Industrial Management (1916)
2. The Administrative Theory of the State (1923)
3. General Principles of Administration (1908)
Mooney and Reiley 1. Onward Industry (1931)
2. Principles of Organisation (1939)
Max Weber 1. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
2. The Theory of Social and Economic Organisation
Gulick and Urwick Papers on the Science of Administration (1937)
Urwick 1. Management of Tomorrow (1933)
2. The Elements of Administration (1944)
3. The Making of Scientific Management (1945-50)
4. The Patterns of Management (1956)
M.P. Follett 1. The New State (1920)
2. Creative Experience (1924)
3. Dynamic Administration (1941)
Roethlisberger and Management and the Worker (1939)
Woodrow Wilson 1. The Study of Administration (1887)
2. Congressional Government (1885)
3. The State (1889)
F.J. Goodnow Politics and Administration (1909)
L.D. White Introduction to the Study of Public Administration
(1926)
W.F. Willoughby Principles of Public Administration (1927)
195
MAN WORKS
F.W. Taylor 1. A Piece-Rate System (1895)
2. Shop Management (1903)
3. The Art of Cutting Metals (1906)
4. The Principles of Scientific Management (1911)
Frank Marini Towards a New Public Administration: The Minnow-
brook Perspective (1971)
Dwight Waldo 1. The Administrative State (1948)
2. Ideas and Issues in Public Administration (1953)
3. Comparative Public Administrative: Prologue, Problems
and Promise
4. The Enterprise of Public Administration
5. Perspectives on Administration
6. The Study of Public Administration
7. Temporal Dimensions of Development Administration
(1970) (edited)
8. Public Administration in a Time of Turbulence (1971)
Vincent Ostrom The Intellectual Crisis in American Public Adminis-
tration (1974)
Andrew Aroto and Eike Gebhardt The Essential Frankfurt School Reader (on critical
perspective) (1978)
David Osborne and Ted Gaebler Reinventing Government (1992)
GROWTH OF PUBLIC concerned. In its narrowest sense, it denotes the

ADMINISTRATION operations of the administrative branch only.”
D. Waldo : “Public Administration is the art
Public administration has been an integral aspect and science of management as applied to the affairs
of civilization since the ages. However, as a of the State.”
discipline, it is of recent origin. About its origin
as Peter Self points out : ‘‘developed as an offshoot M.E. Dimock : “Administration is concerned
of Political Science or Public Law and until with ‘what’ and ‘how’ of the government. The
recently, administration as an academic subject ‘what’ is the subject matter, the technical
was the very plain step-sister of these older knowledge of a field which enables the
discipline.’’ administrator to perform his tasks. The ‘how’ is the
technique of management, the principles according
Definitions to which cooperative programmes are carried to
The term Public Administration has been defined success. Each is indispensable; together they form
differently by a number of people. the synthesis called administration.”
F. Willoughby : “The term administration may John A. Veig : “Administration signifies the
be employed in Political Science in two senses. In organisation, personnel, practices and procedures
its broadest sense it denotes the work involved in essential to effective perform of civilian functions
the actual conduct of governmental affairs, entrusted to the executive branch of the
regardless of the particular branch of government government”.
Public Administration l 197
P. McQueen : “Public Administration is M. Marc : “Public Administration has come

administration related to the operations of to signify primarily the organization, personnel,
Government whether central or local.” practices and procedures essential to effective
Merson : ‘‘The science of Public performance of the civilian functions entrusted to
Administration is an enquiry as to how policies the executive branch of the government.’’
may best be carried into operation.”
Corson and Ham’s : “Public Administration Origin and Evolution
is the action part of the government, the means by As an academic discipline it has its origin in the
which the purposes and goals of the government work of Dr. Woodrow Wilson of U.S.A who
are realized.” published an article entitled ‘‘The study of
F.A. Nigro : “Public Administration (i) is Administration’’ (1887). However, soon after a
cooperative group effort in a public setting; (ii) tortuous and unending debate started on its
covers all the three branches—executive, legislative disciplinary character. It has taken several strides
and judicial, and their inter-relationship; (iii) has in the form of scientific management movement
an important role in the formulation of public followed by Human Relations approach of Elton
policy and is thus part of the political process; (iv) Mayo, decision making approach of Herbert Simon
is different in significant ways from private as well as system and structural functional
administration; and (v) is closely associated with approaches. But Public Administration has been
numerous private groups and individuals in retaining the dynamism with need of the hour. The
providing services to the community.”
sources of dynamism have been the actual changes
Woodrow Wilson : “Public Administration is in the real world of governance under the sweeping
detailed and systematic execution of law. Every social changes and the effort of scholars for new
particular application of law is an act of adminis- conceptual and methodological tools in the
tration.” discipline. The instances have been such that to
L.D. White : “Public Administration consists some Public Administration is dead and to some
of all those operations having for their purpose the the discipline is now full blown and autonomous.
fulfilment or enforcement of public policy.” For a student of discipline it is logical to analyse
Luther Gulick : “Public Administration is that the stages of its growth.
part of the science of administration which has to
do with government and thus concerns itself PHASES OF EVOLUTION
primarily with the executive branch where the work
of government is done.” Broadly speaking there are six phases of its
development.
Simon : “By Public Administration is meant
in common usage, the activities of the executive FIRST PHASE—1887–1926
branches of the national, state and local
government.” Prof. Woodrow Wilson is said to be the father of
J.M. Pfiffner : ‘‘Public Administration consists discipline. In his article entitled ‘‘The Study of
of getting the work of government done by Administration (1887)’’, he emphasised the need
coordinating the efforts of the people so that they for a separate study of Public Administration as a
can work together to accomplish their set tasks.” distinct from Political Science. He thus initiated
E.N. Gladden : “Public Administration is Politics-Administration dichotomy which
concerned with the administration of the dominated the scene for quite some time. In 1900
government.” Goodnow published his work ‘Politics of
H. Walker : ‘‘The work which the government Administration’ in which he developed this idea
does to give effect to a law is called Public further. He said that Politics has to be concerned
Administration.’’ with the laying down of the policies which
administration has to execute. In 1914, American such principles are in fact Proverbs of
Political Science Association published a report administration.
recognising Public Administration as an important In 1947, Robert Dahl also challenged the
sub-area of Political Science. In 1926, L.D. White proposition that Public administration is a science
wrote the first text book on the subject by on following grounds :
‘Introduction to the Study of Public (a) Science is value-free, but administration
Administration.’ It stressed the point that politics can not be so
and administration are two different activities and (b) Human personalities differ
the latter has to emphasize efficiency and economy (c) Social framework differ.
in executing policies.
FOURTH PHASE—1947–1970
SECOND PHASE—1927-1937
This period had been one of crises for the public
The dominant theme of the period was principles administration. The brave new world promised by
of Public Administration. The main belief was that the thinkers of the ‘Principles’ era stood shattered
there are certain principles of administration and and future appeared to be little uncertain. The rise
the main thrust was to try to discover them and of new nations added to the problem.
apply them. In 1927, W.F. Willoughby wrote Many scholars wanted to return to the fold of
‘Principle of Administration’ followed by a number the mother science viz., Political Science but found
of publications, e.g. H. Fayol’s ‘Industrial and that there was domination of Political Science over
General Management’; Mooney and Reiley’s Administration. They also felt that the political
‘Principles of Organisation’, Mary Parker Foulet’s science not only discouraged the appearance of
‘Creative Experience’, Gullick and Urwick the Public administration as a separate discipline
published ‘Papers on Science and Administration’ but did not encourage the growth and development
(1937), they coined the acronym POSDCORB. of the discipline within its own fold.
Scientific management to efficiently manage Public Administration, however, enhanced its
the business of administration was emphasized. relation with other disciplines and outcome was
Politics as practised by politicians became Comparative Public Administration—1952
irrelevant structure and process of organisation Development Public Administration—1953
were put to rigorous analysis.
This period is called the Golden Age of FIFTH PHASE—1970-1990
Principles and in this period Public administration
The scientific or logical positivist approaches
achieved high degree of respectability. Its products
robbed public administration of its goal making,
were in great demand. welfare and social justice available to the man,
woman, children in the course of achieving overall
THIRD PHASE—1938–1947
socio-economic development. Outcome was
The universality of the principles of administration Minnowbrook Conference in 1968 and the birth
was soon challenged. It was a period of continuous of New Public Administration. It was also thought
and mounting challenge and questioning. that the generation gap between the practitioner of
Chester I. Bernard in his ‘The Functions of the the Public Administration was also creating a lag.
Executive’ (1938) did not uphold the stand taken The term New Public Administration gained
by earlier writers. greater currency with two publications in 1971,
Herbert Simon ‘The Proverbs of (article) namely.
Administration’ (1946) ‘Administration Behaviour’ l ‘‘Towards a New Public Administration :
(1947) held that there is no such thing as principles Minnowbrook Perspective’’ edited by
of administration, what have been taken as to be Frank Marini (1971)
l ‘‘Public Administration in a time of with client ‘needs as expectations’ as well as

Turbulence’’ edited by Duright Waldo assessment of impact of program’s effects. This
(1971) required involvement of values in the policy
However, the seeds of these publications can making process.
be located in Freedom and individual dignity were to be
1. The Honey Report of Higher Education for protected through administration.
Public Service 1967.
SIXTH PHASE—1991–TILL TODAY
2. The Conference on the Theory and Practice
of Public Administration 1967 However, the so called NPA movement, which had
Chief Features of the New Public triggered hopes and aspirations of the Negroes and
Administration : The chief characteristics of New feminists in America, proved to be monstrously
Public Administration are unsuccessful in catering to the expectations of the
1. Relevance : There had been renewed socially deprived class. At the Boston Annual
emphasis on being sensitive to the societal Conference (1987) of the American Society of
problems. The scholars were of the opinion Public Administration, it was decided to hold
that Public Administration can not be Minnowbrook Conference II in 1985 to facilitate
instrumental in vacuum. Instead it should a general examination of the future of Public
actively engage itself in the problem Administration and to determine whether important
confronting society. discipline differences exist between people who
entered Public Administration in 1960’s and those
2. Values : New Public Administration
who entered in the 1980’s.
brought values back into the realm of Public
Administration. It emphasised on achieving Watergate Scandal increased the already
right things in the right way through right existing cyculcism towards government, and
techniques. propelled the students to think in terms of ‘less of
government’ moves to cut out waste corruption
3. Equity : The performance of public
and control over bureaucracy were emphasised.
administration was to be judged not in terms
The concept of positive state started giving way to
of growth but it had to be sensitive to the
regulatory state.
aspect of equity. It had to see that no one
was left behind in the affairs tackled by More privatisation, contracting out more
administration. voluntarism, more third party government became
watchwords.
4. Change : As opposed to status quo, the
new Public Administration emphasized In 1994, a conference of Common Association
change. It included reorientation of policy for Public Administration and Management in
issues and decisions, affecting citizens. Canada synthesized the foundation of New Public
Management. It seeks to reorient the public
The concept of cutback management was
administration to suit the changing dynamics
ushered with emphasis on terminating unneeded
brought about by liberalisation and Globalization.
or ineffective organisation.
The theoretical formulations of New Public
An active and participative citizenry is Management were concretized in work of J.V.
recognised as the benchmark for effective public Ostram ‘‘Calculus of a Concept’’ etc.
Administration.
George Frederickson in ‘New Public Conclusion
Administration’, 1980 points out ‘‘organisations The study and practice of public administration
function fundamentally in the realm of values’’, has taken many strides from classical, politics,
The New Public Administration was concerned administration dichotomy to contemporary New
Public Management. Apart from certain setbacks Taylor is regarded as the father of Scientific
on account of its temptations to be exclusive, it Management, for it was he who first advocated the
has shown results. If it is to remain relevant in the systematic adoption of method of science to the
Globalized world, Public Administration need to problems of management.
take cognizance of multidimensional aspect of His contribution to the theory has been
administration. outlined in following works
It need to acquaint itself with new tools to l A Piece Rate System (1895)
analyse the impact of culture and ethos of the
l Shop Management (1903)
society where it is instrumental. This has become
l The Art of Cutting Metals (1906)
more warranted in a globalized world.
l The Principles of Scientific Management
THEORIES OF ORGANIZATION (1911)
Avasthi and Maheshwari in their work ‘Public Philosophy of Management

Administration’ holds that ‘‘there are three theories Taylor’s philosophy of Management is based on
of organization. four basic principles :
1. The Classical Theory of Organisation : it 1. the development of true science of work;
includes (a) The Scientific Management
2. the scientific selection of the workmen;
Theory (b) The Bureaucratic Theory (c) The
Formal Organisation Theory. 3. scientific education and development of
workmen;
2. The Human Relations Theory
4. intimate and friendly co-operation between
3. The Bureaucratic Theory.’’
the management and the man.
THE SCIENT IFIC MANAGEMENT Methods of Research
THEORY : F.W. TAYLOR
These principles are accompanied by following
The Scientific Management Theory is the first methods.
systematic theory of organization. It is developed
1. Time and Speed : Micro analysis of each
by Fredrick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) who
work.
carried out a well planned research in industrial
management. 2. Functional Foremanship : Divided working
system into ‘shop’ and ‘office’ each divided
Prevailing State of Affairs into four parts.
Taylor found administration or management in his 3. Piece Rate System : Paying work, not
time in a highly unsatisfactory state of positions.
development, no better than a haphzard set of 4. Standardization of Machines, Work and
rules of thumb. There was no standardization of Procedures : Use of charts, graphs and
work. The workers were left entirely to themselves. direction manuals etc.
They followed their own method and brought their
own equipments. The work in the factory was
Mental Revolution
completely unplanned. The goal of scientific management can be achieved
Taylor felt the need for the management to only if it is accompanied by a complete ‘Mental
discharge their additional responsibilities and do Revolution.’ It includes
the work for which it was best suited, such as 1. Take the attention of the work force away
planning, organising, controlling, determining and from the amount of surplus and go on
co-ordinating. increasing that amount.
2. Instead of individual judgement/opinion in HUMAN RELATION THEORY : ELTON

all matters relating to work, the decision MAYO
should draw upon the scientifically arrived
The Scientific Management theory emphasised the
views.
aspect of efficiency, economy and productivity
3. Friendly cooperation between management but lacked analysis of human aspects of the
and work force. organisation. This aspect was taken care by Human
Criticism Relation School led by Elton Mayo.
Elton Mayo (1880-1949) is among the
1. An efficiency and initiative oriented theory foremost administrative thinkers of our time and
with an overall emphasis on output, it made had enormous influence in the development of
man a machine in the factory system. industrial sociology and psychology. An Australian
2. It neglects the impact of informal by birth, he studied medicine. His work took him
organisation on workers and work environ- to Scotland from where, he returned to his native
ment. place, Australia. His most productive period began
3. Simon in his ‘‘Organisation’’ accuses Taylor in 1926 when he accepted associate professorship
of emphasising physiological need only. at the Harward Business School in USA. In 1927
4. It has insufficient scientific basis. For, its Mayo launched his famous Hawthorne researches.
analysis lacks complete analysis of an He spent the evening of his life in England where
enterprise. Rather, it is limited to the level he died in 1949 at the age of sixty nine.
of shop floor activity. The term human relations mostly refers to
5. According to Marxists, the workers are relations between workers and employers which
are not regulated by legal norms. These relations
reduced to be part of factors of production,
are connected with moral and psychological rather
‘a cog in a wheel.’
than legal factors.
Influence and Significance Works : Works of Mayo are
1. Its emphasis on efficiency as a primarily 1. The Human Problems of an Industrial
goal of administration and management has Civilization (1933)
been acknowledged widely. 2. The Social Problems of Industrial
2. Provided theoretical base for future Civilization (1945)
studies. 3. The Political Problems of Industrial
Civilization (1947)
3. Its method and techniques were used
extensively by Germany, England, France, Howthorne Experiment
USSR, Japan in their period of growth.
This theory emerged from a number of set of
4. Its values and methods are commensurate
extended experiments conducted by Elton Mayo,
with idea for reforms in government and
Fritz Roethlisberger and others at the Howthorne
administration.
plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago
5. Helped in minimising wastage of resources. from 1927-32. In all his research programmes Mayo
focussed his attention on the behaviour of the
Conclusion
workers and their production capacity, keeping in
Despite limitations, Taylor’s work remain view physiological, physical economic and
important. He was pioneer in the study of human psychological aspects. He called this approach as
beings at work. In brief, he combined theory and Clinical Method. The outcome was ably discussed
practice, thought and experiment and doing and in ‘‘Management and Workers’’ by Reothlisberger
teaching all in one person and in one life. and Dickson (1939).
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—26
Findings of Howthorne Experiment : From Influence/Significance of Human

the Howthorne experiments following conclusions Relations Theory
were drawn
1. Mayo emphasises that non-economic
(i) Productivity is affected not by physical rewards and sanctions are significant
stamina and strength but by social and determinants of workers motivation and job
psychological factors. satisfaction has been accepted in many
(ii) Non-Economic regards and sanctions are quarters.
significant determinants of the employee’s 2. His contention that socio-psychological
motivation and job satisfaction. factors influence productivity can not be
(iii) Basing division of work too stringently on denied.
specialisation is not necessarily the most 3. Informal organisation of workers have
efficient approach. crucial bearing on the relationship between
(iv) Employees may react to the management management and work force is illumi-nating
and work itself as members of the formal aspect in administrative studies.
organization rather than as individuals.
Conclusion
Mayo’s Concerns
Howthorne experiment and its theoretical
Mayo’s central concern is to treat workers as human manifestation in the Human Relation Theory of
beings. The results of the experiment indicated Elton Mayo gave a new direction to the domain
that when great attention was paid to the employees of administration by emphasising hitherto sidelined
as a human beings, it increased his self-esteem non-formal aspect. At a time when there occurred
driving him to work more. It proved further that a lot of malpractices, it gave a fresh insight into
the employees socialise with one another and the managerial premises and worker’s motivations,
formed groups which Mayo called ‘Informal thereby providing a safe outlet for the crises and
Organisations.’ tension in enterprises.
The Howthorne experiment proved that men
are not inert and isolated creature. On the contrary, MAYO AND TAYLOR : A COMPARISON
they react in their own way. These studies proved F.W. Taylor and Elton Mayo who represent the
that an organisation was also a social systems, a two schools of thought to solve the industrial
group of people behaving. problems shared some attributes but differed in
others.
Criticism
1. Loren Baritz and others have criticized Similarities
Mayo and Human Relationists for being 1. Both saw cooperation as a medium to
anti-union and pro-management. resolve the conflict between workers and
2. Peter Drucker attacked Human Relationists management.
for their lack of awareness of economic 2. Both laid emphasis on higher productivity.
dimension. 3. Both believe in the capacity of elite to
3. Daniel Shell dubbed the methodology of bring harmony and increase production.
Human Relationists as defective. ‘‘They 4. Both were interested in efficiency and
displayed a lack of awareness of larger increased production. So, they discovered
social and technical systems.’’ the causes of obstruction and ways to
4. W.H. Whyte accuses Mayo for encouraging overcome it.
employers to interfere in the private lives 5. Both approach the aspect of management
of individual workers. with the tool of Science.
Differences :
Taylor Mayo
1. Focussed on individual as a worker Focussed on worker as a group member
2. Not concerned with interpersonal relations Mayoists were more concerned with the
interpersonal relations
3. Neglected the psychological and social Psychological and social variables are the
variable of organizational behaviour cornerstone of Human Relation Theory
4. Regarded economic reward as the crucial Discouraged the lure of money and stressed
motivating factor group membership
5. Regarded worker as completely hostile to Did not think so.
management
FORMAL THEORY : FAYOL AND OTHERS acquire an ability and accuracy by which
he can do more work with the same effort.
Henri Fayol (1841-1925) has been the main
advocate of Formal Theory, also known as the 2. Authority and Responsibility : According
Mechanistic Theory or the Structural theory of to Fayol authority and the responsibility
Organization. He started his career as a French go hand in hand. Authority is not to be
conceived apart from responsibility and
mining engineer and for some time acted as a
wherever authority is exercised
Chief Executive. He was awarded Nobel Prize in
responsibility arises.
1921. His famous work is ‘‘General and Industrial
Management (1916).’’ 3. Discipline : It involves obedience by
employees. To Henri Fayol, discipline
Elements of Organization constituted one of the significant principles
for an organization. The disciplinary
According to Fayol there are six elements in an attitude of the workers in their work, helps
organization. in reducing time for the completion of work
1. Technical (Manufacture/Production) i.e. it increases efficiency as well as the
2. Commercial (Buying and Selling) quality of the work. It depends upon good
3. Financial (Provision of Capital) supervision, clear and free agreements, and
4. Security (Safeguarding/protection of judicious application of penalties.
property) 4. Unity of Command : Every subordinate
should receive orders and be accountable
5. Accounts (including statistics)
to only one superior. Dual or multiple
6. Management (planning, organizing, command is a perpetual source of conflict.
commanding, coordinating and controlling) It undermines authority, puts discipline in
But, he laid emphasis on the Managerial jeopardy.
activity as the most important activity in the 5. Unity of Direction : According to this, each
organisation. group of activity having same objective
must have one head and one plan. This
Principles of Organization principle, seeks to ensure unity of action.
Fayol listed fourteen principles of organization It refers to the functioning of the corporate
that are as follows : department.
1. Division of Work : It promotes 6. Subordination of Individual Interest :
specialization and enables a person to Although it is true that individual interest
can never be sacrificed, but for Fayol they removed from the job before he gets
should be minimised and should not prevail accustomed.
over the interest of the organization as it 13. E-spirit-de-corps : This refers to the
hampers the growth and success of the harmony and mutual understanding among
organisation in every possible way. Group the members of an organisation.
interest should be subordinated to the Administration should maintain team spirit
common good. and co-operation among employees. Unity
7. Remuneration of Personnel : The amount among the personnel can be developed
of remuneration and the methods of through proper communication and
payment should be just and fair and should coordination.
provide maximum possible satisfaction to 14. Initiative : It refers to the freedom to think
both employees and employers. for one-self and use of discretion in doing
8. Centralisation : For Fayol, there should be work. It develops the interest of employees
centralisation in an organization. Its in their job and provides job satisfaction to
objective is to promote the optimum them.
utilisation of all faculties of the personnel. To facilitate his idea of principles to be
9. Scalar Chain : Henri Fayol, favoured the adopted by various organisations, Fayol stressed
idea of scaler chain in a organization. the need for the management teaching and training
According to him, division of authority in schools and universities.
should follow hierarchical structure. Henri Fayol described certain qualities of good
10. Order : There should be order and peace in managers :
an organisation as it ensures an environ- 1. Physical Fitness (health, vigour, address)
ment where workers can perform their task 2. Mental Alertness (Judgement, adaptability)
most efficiently and effectively in an 3. Moral part of character (loyalty, tact
organisation, there should be a place for willing-ness to accept responsibility)
everything and everyone. This kind of order
4. General education
requires precise knowledge of human
requirements and resources of the concern 5. Special Knowledge
so that balance may be created between 6. Experience
them.
Other Contribution to Formal Theory
11. Equity : It implies that employees should
of Organizations
be treated with justice and kindness.
Administrators should be fair and impartial Later on contributions came from other thinkers
in their dealings with subordinates. They like Mooney, Urwick and Luther Gullick. Mooney
should adopts sympathetic and unbiased in his books ‘‘Onward Industry.’’ ‘‘The principles
attitude towards workers. It helps to create of Management’’ described various principles of
cordial relation between Administration and Administration but is different from Urwick.
workers. A significant contribution to the classical
12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel : The theory was made by Luther Gullick and L. Urwick
tenure of a personnel should be stable if in their ‘‘Papers on the Science of Administration’’
not fixed as it creates a feeling of (1937). They considered organization as a machine.
responsibility in them. Moreover, if the In their quest to find out universal principles of
personnel are removed from their post more administration, they outlined seven such principles
frequently, it destabilises the whole widely known by acronym POSDCORB. It includes
organisational set up. An employee can Planning : outlining things to be done and
never render worthwhile service if he is methods to achieve the purpose of the organization.
Organization : arranging work through the Coordinating : interrelating the various parts
use of formal authority. of work.
Staffing : recruiting and training the staff. Reporting : informing the subordinates.
Directing : framing general rules and Budgeting : fiscal planning, accounting and
implementing them as leader. control.
TAYLOR & FAYOL : A COMPARISON

Taylor Fayol
1. His analysis was mainly concerned Mainly interested in the management or the
with the shop floor management top level of the Organization
2. More concerned with inventing methods and More concerned with outlining general
tools to increase the efficiency and productivity principles of Management
3. Study was based on scientific observation Study was based on commonsense and personal
experience
4. Contributes for micro level Contributes at Macro level
Criticism economist. But, a systematic treatment of the term

was done by Gaetano Mosca, ‘The Ruling class.’
1. The theory holds a mechanistic view of He regarded Bureaucracy as fundamental to all
organization. Wherein individual is like a great empires and classified political systems either
cog in the organisational machine. as feudal or bureaucratic. Later on Karl Marx,
2. It is atomistic and ignores the environment Roberto Michels and Max Weber widened use of
and role of group lives in shaping the term ‘Bureaucracy.’
individual motivations.
3. Some of the principles are contradictory in Definition of Bureaucracy
themselves. The principle of unity of According to Weber ‘‘bureaucracy is a socio-
command conflict with principle of logical concept meant for the rationalistic
Division of Work. organization of collective life.’’
4. It does not take note of any non-economic Influences on Weber : He was influenced by
incentive. following events.
1. Unification of Germany
Conclusion 2. Rapid Industrialization
In spite of severe limitations, the theory has been 3. Expansion of state activities in welfare
a significant one. Judged in the context of its time, provisions
it had many novel elements for organizational life. However, Weber saw it as a universal
Moreover, many of its features like, Unity of phenomenon. To him, ‘‘with the growing
Command, Delegation of Authority, Span of complexity of the modern life, there is only one
Control have more or less transcended the form of organization and that is bureaucracy. There
limitations of time. It continues to provide insight can be no escape from it.’’
for further enquiry on the idea of organization.
Characteristics of Bureaucracy
BUREAUCRATIC THEORY 1. Impersonality : The official staff members
The word ‘Bureaucracy’ was coined by Mr. are personally free, observing only the
Vincent de Gournay (1712-59), an eminent French impersonal duties of their offices.
2. Hierarchy : There is a clear hierarchy of Secondly, has inherent tendency to usurp

offices. The functions of the offices are the goal setting function which belongs to
clearly specified. area of politics.
3. Permanence : The officials are appointed Thirdly, reflects the class structure of the
on the basis of a contract. society.
4. Expertise : The officials are selected on 4. Robert Presthms holds that Weberian model
the basis of contract qualifications, ideally is a product of alien culture, not suitable
substantiated by a diploma gained through for the developing societies.
competitive examination. 5. F.W. Riggs said that Weber’s ‘‘Ideal type’’
5. Money Salaries : They have a money salary construct of Bureaucracy assumes a
and usually pension rights. The salary is relatively autonomous system. This is not
suitable for developing societies because
graded according to position in the
here administrative structures are intricately
hierarchy.
dependent on the social structure.
6. Rules : The official can always leave the
6. Carl Friedrich holds that ‘‘Weber sets forth
past and under certain circumstances can his ideal types as mental construct which
also be terminated if violates the terms of are neither derived from a process of
contract. deductive rationalisation from higher
7. Exclusiveness : The officials post is his concepts, nor built up from empirical data
role or major occupation. by relevant inference, non-demonstrably
8. Career System : There is a career structure, developed as working hypotheses from
and promotion is possible either by such data.’’
seniority or merit, and according to the
Influence/Significance of Bureaucratic
judgement of superiors.
Theory
9. Discipline and Control : The official
may appropriate neither the post nor 1. Aspect of universality has been proved.
the resources that go with it. He is 2. Its aspect of selection/recruitment through
subject to unified control and disciplinary merit, technical qualifications, imperso-
system. nality have been widely appreciated and
implemented.
Criticism 3. Present day bureaucracy reflects almost all
1. Robert K. Merton accuses Weber of making chief characteristics of Weberian model.
‘‘rules more important than the game.’’ 4. Provide theoretic base for future enquiry in
This leads to rigidity, formalism and even the realm of administration.
ritualism. Conclusion
2. Michel Crozier, ‘‘The Bureaucratic Pheno-
The relevance of Bureaucratic model of
menon’’ characterized bureaucracy as a
organization can not be minimized. Though there
rigid organization that can not correct its
is contracting out of public sector and more and
behaviour by learning from its errors. more areas are opened to the market, Weberian
3. David Beetham ‘‘Max Weber and The model is deemed to survive as long as
Theory of Modern Politics’’ points out that organizational life exists. For, he does not outline
Weber concept of bureaucracy : a single model. Instead, his conception is one of
Firstly, is only a technical instrument and ideal types from which diverse models could be
nothing more. created.
number of administrative phenomenon. They have

PRINCIPLES OF ORGANISATION
become inevitable in studies on administration.
Despite lack of agreement on the relative There are various reasons for their continued
importance of different principles of organization, importance. Koontz and O’Donell give following
various writers agree that there are certain reasons :
fundamental principles underlining the l To increase organizational efficiency
organizational lives. l To crystallize the nature of organizations
job
Definitions
l To improve research in organization
Pfiffner : “Organisation consists of the relationship l To attain social goals
of individual to individuals and of group to groups
which are so related to bring about an orderly Different Views
division of labour.”
According to Gullick and Urwick, Fayol,
L.D. White : “Organisation is the arrangement
Willoughby and others ‘‘there are some general
of personnel for facilitating the accomplishment
principles which can be taken as more or less
of some agreed purpose through allocation of
proven truths.’’
functions and responsibilities.”
Simon held that principles are nothing but
Chester Barnard : “Organisation is a system
proverbs of administration.
of consciously coordinated activities or forces of
two or more persons.” L.D. White felt that they are only working
rules with wide experience seem to have validated.
J.M. Gaus : “Organisation is the relating of
efforts and capacities of individuals and groups Different Principles : Some of the important
engaged upon a common task in such a way as to principles of organization are, Hierarchy, Span of
secure the desired objective with the least friction Control, Unity of Command, Integration and
and the most satisfaction for whom the task is Disintegration, Authority and Responsibility, etc.
done and the engaged in the enterprise.”
Hierarchy : As a Principle of
Mooney : “Organisation is the form of every
Organization
human association for the attainment of a common
purpose.” Hierarchy has been a hallmark of all organizations
Simon : “By organisation we mean a planned in modern age. According to L.D. White ‘‘Hierarchy
system of cooperative effort in which each consists in the universal application of the superior-
participant has a recognised role to play and duties subordinate relationship through a number of levels
and tasks to perform.” of responsibility reaching from the top to the
Gulick : “Organisation is the formal structure bottom of structure.’’ It means the control of higher
of authority through which work sub-divisions are over the lower. Mooney also calls it a ‘‘Scalar
arranged, defined and coordinated for the defined Principle of Organisation.’’
objective.” Chief Features :
Gladden : “Organisation is concerned with
the pattern of relationships between persons in an Features of hierarchy are
enterprise, so constructed as to fulfil the Firstly, exhibit division of administration into
enterpriser’s function.” units and sub-units.
Secondly, pyramidal structure with wide base,
What are Principles? tapering towards the top.
In essence, the principles are not fixed laws but Thirdly, flow of command and authority from
inductive generalizations drawn from a large top to bottom.
It can be depicted as Graicunas did geometrical calculations to find

the appropriate number of subordinates. He gave
Secretary
the formula in (2n–1+n–1) where n refers to the
Deputy supervisor. To him, the ideal number is six.
Secretary The recent studies points out that there can
Under not be clear cut rule governing the span of control.
Secretary In fact, organization and its structure, personality
of supervisor and his function has crucial bearing
in this respect.
Merits
The revolution in the realm of science and
Advantages of Hierarchy are technology and new communication and media
1. Replaces chaos by order and consensus. networks have facilitated the greater span of
2. Provides channel of communication. control. Similarly, new methods of techniques of
3. Makes clear cut division of authority and persuasion, bargaining, threat of penalty are
responsibility. increasingly being used. The growth of managerial
4. Promotes specialization and division of sciences have also facilitated this trend.
labour.
UNITY OF COMMAND : As a Principle
5. Facilitates smooth delegation of authority. of Organization
Demerits The principle of unity of command is a tool to
Disadvantage of Hierarchy are underline everyone’s responsibility in the
organization. It addresses the issue of confusion
1. Creates rigidity and formalism not sensitive
and conflict by clearly outlining the command
to dynamic aspect.
system. Pfiffner and Presthus hold that ‘‘The
2. Plagued by Red-tapism. concept of unity of command requires that every
3. Ill feelings of Superior and subordinates. member of an organisation should report to one
and only one leader.’’ Fayol points out that the
SPAN OF CONTROL : As a Principle of
principle of unity of command means that ‘‘an
Organization
employee in the organization should receive orders
Span of control is a necessary corollary to the from one superior only.’’
principle of Hierarchy. It simply means the number
of subordinates that an administrator can personally Different Views
direct. According to Dimock, ‘‘the span of control Henri Fayol is the staunch advocate of the
is the number and range of direct, habitual principle of unity of command. A violation of the
communication contacts between the chief principle results in uneasiness in the organization.
executive of an enterprise and his fellow officers.’’ The principle of dual control can not be effective.
However, there is no unanimity among the scholars If things are done otherwise, either the dual control
as regards the length of the span or the number of is removed or the organization suffers.
subordinates an individual can direct.
F.W. Taylor preferred the principle of dual or
Different Views multiple supervision. He favoured a worker’s
supervision by eight persons.
For Urvey—Five
Hamilton—Six Contemporary Reality
J.C. Worthy—Twenty The reality of duality and multiplicity command
Dale—Sixteen is often found in operation. Seckler and Hudson
point out that ‘‘...the old concept of one single 7. furnishes means by which conflicts of
boss for each person is seldom found...the jurisdiction may be avoided or adjusted.
administrator in government has many bosses and Growth of administration together with
he can neglect none of them. From one he may continued stress on administrative machinery
receive policy orders; from another, personnel; from demands unified efforts. For, independent agencies,
third, budget; from the fourth, supplies and it created, may be more interested in catering to
equipments.’’ vested interest, the aspect of performance and
Perhaps the best view is summed up by Herbert reforms.
Simon. Though, he recognized the need of dual
supervision, he favoured unity of common. For, it THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE
would resolve the conflict arising out of duality.
All nations are governed by administrative system
The contemporary realities are in favour of
wherein chief executive remains at the top of the
multiplicity of common. Its best example is the
office of collector. This need not threaten the hierarchy.
organization as long as a worker does not receive Form of government : there are two types: one
dual or multiple command on the same subject. is chief executive (real and titular) and other is
presidential system marked by a single executive
INTEGRATION AND DISINTEGRATION : vested with all executive powers.
As a Principle of Organization
Integration means unification of different parts.
An integrated administrative system is one where
a single person wields all executive authority. On
the other hand, a disintegrated administrative
system is marked by distribution of executive
authority.
Contemporary Reality Collegiate Type of Chief Executive operators

in Switzerland is a mix of parliamentary and
Administrative system of all shades exhibits the Presidential model, wherein seven members of the
characteristics of both; integration and Federal council executive function on rotation basis.
disintegration. The difference between the two is
of degree rather than of kind. While India offers a Functions of Chief Executive
good example of integrated system, United States
has a disintegrated administrative system. The major functions of the Chief Executive in the
area of administration are as follows (mainly as
Merits listed by L.D. White).
However, the integrated system has certain 1. Formulation of Policies : Besides being
advantages that are summed up by Willoughby master of most the policy issues in the
1. correlates various services into one. legislature (as in parliamentary system) or
influencing the members of Congress (as in
2. provides effective administration.
Presidential System), the process of
3. makes authority and responsibility clear. delegated legislation has enormously
4. helps in achieving cooperation among increased the function of Chief Executive.
those working in the same field. 2. Create Organizations and Outline its
5. helps in eliminating duplication of efforts. Structure: While Presidential Chief
6. facilitates standardization of all Executive has feeble power of creating
administrative processes. smaller agencies and merge them with
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—27
others, cabinet wields more power in this 5. CO = Cordinating : It involves

respect. reconciliatory task so as to avoid
3. Personnel Administration: All confrontation, duplication of efforts. It is
administrative officials are appointed and the essence of administration.
dismissed by the Chief Executive, President 6. R = Reporting : It involves regular
of U.S.A. has more power than cabinet of appraisal of works through research and
Parliamentary system. In Parliamentary supervision.
system there are constitutional arrangement 7. B = Budgeting : It involves a crude
for appointment and removal of some financial functions wherein he/she is
public officials. directly involved.
4. Commands Administration: A number of
directives, proclamations, orders are bound Evaluation of the Role of Chief
to comply with the statutory enactments. Executive
5. Investigation and Enquiries: In order to Thus, a lot of functions have been entrusted in the
check abuse of power and malpractices of hands of the Chief Executive. The dynamics of his
administration, a number of attempts are functions have become more complex in recent
undertaken by the Chief Executive. times. He discharges these functions aptly with a
6. Budgetary responsibilities: In Parliamentary large number of officials. In this way the
system the titular head causes the budget Administrative Organization has the counting
to be laid before the Parliament. But, in functions. Nevertheless there always remains tough
Presidential System Congress had the tasks before the Chief Executive because he does
budgetary responsibility. not simply have to administer but also to see new
7. Coordination: In order to ensure efficient others to administer.
and effective functioning of the Suggestion to the Chief Executive
administrative structure, the Chief
Executive has vital task of coordinating Donald C. Stone in “New Horizons in Public
activities of various department. Administration. A symposium” provides a list of
Luther Gullick: has used the acronym suggestions to the Chief Executive. These include.
‘POSDCORB’ to describe the administrative Firstly, To create an environment conducive
functions of the Chief Executive. to convert effort in pursuing the objectives of the
1. P = Planning : It means that the Chief organization.
Executive will select objectives and the Secondly, No interference of the heads in
actions to achieve them. decision making at lower levels of the organization
2. O = Organizing : It involves establishing for which different officials are responsible,
structures for administrative tasks. His aim Thirdly, Act in economical fashion even if
is to create an environment for human they have a large grant of legal authority,
performance. Fourthly, He should be aware of activities in
3. S = Staffing : It involves recruitment, the organization and to be in position to act on the
training appraising of personnel and issues which require his personal attention,
creating congenial environment for their Fifthly, To act predominantly as a catalyst in
working. the works of the department.
4. D = Directing : It involves leadership role Sixthly, To have sufficient knowledge of the
on the part of Chief Executive to see that programmes so as to command the loyalty and
the work is done in sure with the respect of the specialists and lead them together as
expectations of the plan. a team.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—27-II
Different Kind of Chief Executive

Parliamentary Presidential
1. Real Chief Executive is the Prime Minister. Single Chief Executive is the President.
Cabinet is a composite body.
2. Members of the Cabinet are colleagues Secretaries of respective (fourteen) departments
of the P.M. are subordinates of the President. There is spoil
system in America.
3. Operates on the principle of collective Secretaries are appointed and can be removed
responsibility of ministers to the Lower by the President.
House of the Parliament.
4. Chief Executive is drawn from the Parliament. President is elected separately (from the
members of legislature.
5. Operates on the system of fusion of power Operates on the principle of separation of
between the executive and legislature power.
L. D. Lipson in an article “Being an Executive” LINE, STAFF & AUXILIARY AGENCY

recommends following attributes on the part of an
Though the administration of every country is
executive.
carried on by the Chief Executive, he is assisted by
Firstly, Being objective and broadminded, a number of subordinates. The Chief Executive
Secondly, Keeping the lives of authority delegates his powers to team who carry out the
straight, function under his name. Nevertheless, the supreme
Thirdly, Having people who are smarter than power of supervision, direction and control remains
him in the hands of the Chief Executive.
Fourthly, Avoid handling details by himself. The organizational system of government
R.S. Dawar in his “Creative Leadership” has consists of the line, staff of the Auxiliary agencies.
listed following qualities of a successful executive. The concept of line and Staff originated in the
They are : realm of military Services. The line is directly linked
with administrative programmes. The Staff provides
1. Courageous: It signifies “readiness to do a
specialized advice but does not command. Auxiliary
thing because he believes it to be right,
Staff provides service to both, the line and Staff.
without paying much attention to the The line agencies are central elements of any
consequences” administrative system; Staff and auxiliary agencies
2. Will Power: are necessary in a large and complex organization,
3. Emotional stability: but they are secondary.
4. Independent:
The Line
5. Knowledge:
6. Decisiveness and Initiative: They are the backbone of administrative machinery.
It signifies an unbroken vertical line through which
Conclusion authority flows from the top to the bottom of
organization.
Hence, rather being a principal agent of
administrative action the executive should be a L.D. White in his “Introduction to the Study of
catalyst in departmental activities. Instead of Public Administration” has outlined following
reaching exclusive his own powers we should incite essential functions of line agencies
activities at different levels. 1. Making decisions.
2. Taking responsibility. of administration which remains relatively

3. Interesting and depending policy and autonomous. They perform both; quasi-
operations legislative and quasi-Judicial functions and
4. Planning. remain independent from the executive
control. They are a peculiar feature of the
5. Maintaining production while seeking
American Administrative System.
both, economy and efficiency.
The Staff
Features of the Line Agencies
The Staff comprises those agencies of the
1. Associated with primary functions. administrative system that support the line agencies.
2. Vertical organization. They do not initiate or decide the matter. It is
3. Reduction of authority from top to bottom. essentially the extension of the Chief Executive
4. Concerned with decision making. himself, carrying on for him those functions which
5. Issues commands. he would do himself, if he had the time.
6. Close personal contacts between officials. Features of the Staff
7. Every person is in the direct claim of
1. Assist rather than command.
command.
2. No power of decision making.
8. Delegation of authority from top to bottom.
3. Secondary functions.
Types of Line Agencies 4. No direct dealings, remains in the
background.
1. The Department: An homogeneous unit
where work is concentrated. It is a division, 5. Purely advisory character.
branch or regiment immediately below the 6. Always attached to the line.
Chief Executive into which entire work of
the government is divided.
Kinds of Staff
U.S.A. : There are 13 departments headed A.R. Tyagi in his ‘Public Administration’ categorises
by a Secretary. following staff agencies:
U.K. : The number of department is not 1. General Staff.
fixed. It is coterminons with ministry. 2. Technical Staff.
2. The Public Corporation: A statutory body 3. Auxiliary Staff.
created for the purpose of effective organi- U.S.A. : White House, National Security
zation. As Marshall E. Dimock defines, Council.
“Public corporation is a public owned U.K.: Cabinet Office, Civil Service Department
enterprise that has been chartered under under-PMO, Planning Commission.
federal, State or local law for a particular The Auxiliary: They are the operating agencies
business or financial purpose”. Its rise is concerned mainly with the maintenance of an
closely connected with the growing existing organization.
complexity of modern governments.
While Staff agencies are concerned with
However, there remains a problem of
thinking, planning and advisory functions,
concern ‘Autonomy’ and ‘Control’ of
auxiliary agencies are not concerned with the major
public corporations. substantive functions.
3. The Independent Regulatory Commi- Willoughby called them “house keeping
ssions: A body created to assist the heads services”.
Differences between Line & Staff Agencies

Line Staff
1. Decide and Command Does not command, only assist and advice.
2. Primary agencies. Secondary agencies.
3. Directly involved Involved in assistance
4. Act Thinks
5. Functional agency Institutional agency.
6. Follow clear cut organization of Organization is not in a straight line.
authority from top to bottom.
7. Responsible. Not responsible.
Conclusion measure of legislative control over administrative

has democratic sentiment and is more effective.
Thus, the two kinds of agencies have their own
sphere of influence. However, a fully viable In a Parliamentary democracy, the Executive
administrational system would require that both is drawn from the Parliament. In the Presidential
the agencies work in tandem, they need not be form, there is clear cut separation of Executive and
limited by the conventional predicament, legislative branch. Thus, the exercise of control is
consequently, today the staff agencies are not more warranted in Parliamentary system.
purely advisory; they also exercise authority and
Measures of Legislative Control
similar is the case with the line agencies.
Some of the important measures of legislative
CONTROL OVER ADMINISTRATION control are as follows :
1. Control of Administrative Policy :
Every form of democratic government have
Legislation is the most important function
envisaged scheme/mechanisms to exercise control
of legislature. By laying down rules through
over administration. The task of administration
remains in the hand of executive branch. The legislative enactments, the legislatures limit
legislative and judicial branch have developed as well as influence the authority and
tools to ensure that the administration is policies of the government.
accountable. The growth of administrative 2. Control of Appropriations : The executive
functions has made the aspect of control more is at the mercy of legislature for all aspects
complex and interesting. For, in place of erstwhile of revenue and expenditure. No revenue
self-sufficient rural communities, today government can be levied nor can any expenditure
is called upon to perform a number of functions incurred without the sanction of the
connected with providing say, birth registration to legislature. Moreover, the budgetary
death certificate. discussion provides opportunity to the
representatives of the people to criticize
LEGISLATIVE CONTROL OVER the government on aspects that are
ADMINISTRATION unwarranted.
The basic principle underlying modern It is the most effective means of legislative
democracies is the sovereignty of the people. But, control over executive.
in real practice the representatives are elected by 3. Audit and Report : In India, the report of
the people to safeguard their interests. The CAG (Comptroller and Auditor General) of
representatives compose the legislature. So, the India helps exercising legislative control.
CAG audits all government accounts to legislative control over executive. They are
ensure that the money has been spent on as follows :
items for which it was granted and does not l Public Accounts Committee (PAC)
exceed the sanctioned amount. – examines report of CAG
4. Parliamentary Questions : The proceeding – submits its report to the Lower House
of the Parliament start with one hour
l Estimates Committee
duration question answer session. Wherein
the minister of respective department gives – scrutinizes the government expenditure
reply to query of members. The effectiveness before they are included in the budget.
of this measure is highlighted by Mr. Atlee, – carries its examination throughout the
who observes that ‘‘I always consider that year and helps in checking extravagance.
question time in the house is one of the Besides these two, there are other committees
finest examples of real democracy.’’ which help the legislature in exercising control
5. Zero Hour Discussion : Zero hour over administration.
discussion is an extra regular method that
Limitations Highlighted by Appleby
is entirely an Indian innovation since 1962.
It is invoked after question hour (with the Appleby observed that these measures are not so
consent of presiding officer) to incite effective in exercising proper control over
opinions on matter of public importance administration. He supports his view on following
which have not been listed in days business. grounds.
6. Calling Attention Motion : This device is l Report of CAG is of no relevance because
used to bring the matters of urgent it is merely concerned with technical aspect
importance on the floor of the house. of financial irregulary.
7. Short Notice Discussion : Short notice l Influence of rich businessmen.
discussion is a discretion of the speaker in l Discussion are mainly against civil servants
case of matters which does not satisfy a which does not inculcate healthy habits in
member’s question. It is resorted only with them.
the consent of the government, not
otherwise. Other Limitations
8. Adjournment Motion : A device to raise 1. Delegated Legislation
discussion on any specific question of an 2. Decreasing private members bill
urgent nature. However, this device is
3. Party politics
usually not preferred by the speaker.
4. Cabinet dictatorship
9. Debates and Discussion : Apart from the
measures cited above, there are a number 5. Lack of technical knowledge on the part of
of instances that provide opportunity to representatives as regards financial adminis-
members to discuss and debate on tration.
government policies. Conclusion
l inaugural speech of the President
Recognizing the inevitability of legislative control
l budget speech of the Finance Minister
over administration, the Parliaments has innovated
l general discussion on the budget
many novel tools. However, they have not been
l full scale discussion of Government completely successful. The failures are not due to
policies. the means and principles underlying them. Instead
10. Parliamentary Committees : There are a lack of commitment to the norms of democratic
number of committees that help exercise governance in the polity continues to paralyse
administration. The need of the hour is to 5. Extraordinary Remedies : The

rejuvenate a commitment to democratic norms and Constitution empowers the courts to
shed complacency on matters of general concern. provide extraordinary remedies in case of
Moreover, party politics and egoism should not violation of administrative acts and misuse
obstruct the pace of development. of office by way Writ Jurisdiction. Such
powers are conferred on the Supreme Court
JUDICIAL CONTROL OVER ADMINIS- by Article 32(2) and on the High Courts by
TRATION Article 226.
The judicial control over administration is Habeas Corpus
exercised mainly with view to ensure legality of
It means ‘You shall produce the body.’ It is an
administrative acts. In this way, it helps in
order issued to a person detaining another and
protecting citizens and their right which may
commanding him to produce the body of the
otherwise, be in danger or prone to encroachment. prisoner at a certain time and place. The purpose
Methods of Judicial Control is to determine whether the person seeking remedy
is denailed legally or illegaly. They are mainly
The judicial control may take following forms. directed to safeguard and put an end to arbitrary
1. Judicial Review : The Judicial system of imprisonment.
different countries show variance in the Mandamus : ‘Command’
realm of judicial review. While in U.S.A. Used for compelling Public officials and
judiciary is supreme and has absolute power Judicial bodies to carry out their legal duties. Issued
of judicial review, in the United Kingdom also against inferior court and quasi-judicial bodies.
the power of judicial review is very limited. Prohibition : Issued by a Superior Court to an
In India, the courts do not intervene with inferior court, preventing the latter from usurping
administrative acts as long as it is ultra- jurisdiction which the law does not endow it with.
vires of its scope and form. Helps in controlling tribunals.
2. Statutory Appeals : Statutes are legal Certiorari : ‘To be certified’ Issued only
enactments of the legislature. They authorize against some judicial act. The main difference
an institution (Court or Tribunal) to between certiorari and prohibition is that the former
intervene in particular cases of is both negative and positive, whereas the latter is
administrative acts. Under this provision only preventive.
an appeal shall lie to the concerned Quo-Warranto : ‘What warrant or authority.’
authority if the violation as said to have It is an ancient law writ. Its purpose is to usurps
occurred. from public office. It can be issued by a petitioner
3. Suits against Government : According to who has certain interest.
Article 300 of the Indian Constitution However, it is to be observed that the writ
provides that the state is enable. jurisdiction of High Court is wider than the
4. Suits against Public officials : President Supreme Court. The former can issue writs for
and Governors are conferred immunity in legal rights as well, which is not under the
exercise of their power and duties. Almost competence of the Supreme Court.
similar is the case with judicial officials. Limitations
As regards other officials, there is provision
of two months notice in civil proceedings 1. Court intervene only after the damage has
and previous sanction of the President or been done.
Governor in Criminal proceedings is to be 2. Very costly involving technicalities.
obtained. 3. Court can not intervene on their own.
Conclusion Peter M. Blau and Marshal W. Mayer :

‘‘Organisation designated to accomplish large scale
Mechanism of judicial control has helped in
administrative tasks by systematically coordinating
checking bureaucratic malpractices and corruption.
the task of many individuals.’’
It has helped in ensuring citizen friendly
administration. The term “bureaucracy” was first coined by
Vincent de Gourney, a French economist in 1746.
BUREAUCRACY As F.M. Marx observes “The term bureaucracy
which was first used in the French form
Bureaucracy is an important ingredient of ‘bureaucratic’ by a French minister of Commerce
contemporary public life. It refers to an in the eighteenth century to refer to the government
administrative organization which is concerned in operation, spread to Germany during the
with execution of governmental programmes and nineteenth century as ‘Burokratic’ and has since
policies. found its way into English and many other
The growth and complexity of governmental languages”. He also identifies four kinds of
function has contributed to the rise of bureaucracy. bureaucracy, indicating its existence even in earlier
To a large extent, it has become a universal times. These are as follows :
phenomenon. 1. Guardian Bureaucracy
(a) Chinese—till the Sung period before 960
Definitions A.D.
Max Weber : “Bureaucracy is a sociological (b) Prussian—1640 to 1740 A.D.
concept meant for the rationalistic organization of 2. Cast Democracy
collective life.”
3. Patronage Bureaucracy
Harold Laski : “is a system of government, 4. Merit Bureaucracy
the control of which is completely in the hands of
Though the credit for systematic enunciation
officials that jeopardizes the liberty of ordinary
of the concept of bureaucracy goes to Max Weber,
citizens.”
there were others who dealt implicitly with the
Carl J. Friedrick : “is a form of organization concept. Robert Michels in his work ‘Political
marked by hierarchy, specialization of roles and a Parties’ envisioned the possibility of organizations
high level of competence displayed by incumbents turning oligarchic which essentially signified
trained to feel these roles”. concentration of power in the hands of a few.
Morstein Marx : “...has several unmistakable Similarly, Gaetand Mosca in his “Ruling Class”
characteristics. They include as principal factors identified two kinds of political systems viz., feudal
hierarchy, jurisdiction, specialization, professional and bureaucratic. To him, bureaucracy is a “class
training, fixed compensation and performance.” of ruling elites whose power is absolute.”
Gladden : Bureaucracy is ‘‘the government Max Weber identified following causes for
by officers.’’ the rise of bureaucracy in modern times. These
MacIver : Bureaucracy is ‘‘a system of include
administration characterised by the lack of 1. Creation of Money Economy : It ensured
expertise, impartiality and humanism.’’ a secure and regular salaries to the bureau-
Arthur K. Davis : An ‘‘integrated hierarchy crats leading to a permanent organization.
of specialised offices defined by the systematic 2. Emergence of Capitalist Economy : The
rules-an impersonal routinised structure where prime principles of capitalism—
legitimatised authority rests in the office and not rationality—dictates bureaucratic form of
in the person of the incumbents.’’ organization.
3. Growth of Population : It dictates larger 3. Bureaucracy is the instrument of socio-

organizations having tendency of assuming economic transformation it wields, greater
bureaucratic form. power. Hence, it becomes authoritarian in
4. Development of modern means of long run.
Communication. 4. Written produces hierarchy etc. make the
5. Emergence of Complex administrative decision making a delatory process.
problems : It required expertise and 5. No neutrality, transfers and posting have
competence in the organization favouring become means in the hands of politicians
bureaucracy. to compel the bureaucracy to do something
6. Growth of Democratic Institutions : The as desired by them and hence neutrality
downfall of feudal elements and encourage- can not be brought about.
ment of merit based system of functional 6. Over bureaucratisation, state quiest and
rationality dictated bureaucratic unnecessary political interference have
organizations. nullified the very concept of bureaucracy
Mohit Bhattacharya identifies two set of as an instrument of social change.
characteristic of Weberian model. They are 7. Bureacracy comes from a particular social
1. Structural— system and therefore, inherits the basic
(a) division of work, (b) hierarchy, (c) values of that social system. Therefore, as
system of rules. explained by Riggs, in a prismatic society
2. Behavioural— the bureaucracy gives the impression of
(a) rationality, (b) impersonality, (c) rule corruption, red-tapism, nepotism,
orientation, (d) neutrality. favouritism etc.
Karl Marx developed his views on 8. It is a product of western ecologies.
bureaucracy in his confrontation with the Prussian Therefore, it becomes dysfunctional in third
state. In his ‘Rheinische Zetung’ he denounced world countries.
the bureaucracy as a smoke screen between the 9. The concept of impersonality may bring a
exploiters and exploited. It served as an instrument rigid rule oriented approach against value
of dominant class for the exploitation of the based administration.
dependent class. It was an instrument of class rule 10. Strict division of labour, mass effectiveness
at the hands of the bourgeoisie. and innovativeness.
He did not favoured its retention in a socialist 11. The criteria of hierarchy is more appropriate
stage. In the communist society, social and to a centerhead administration system than
economic inequality will be eliminated, class to a democratic decentralised system. It after
difference will be resolved and there won’t be a leads to generalist specialist controversy.
need for this institution. 12. Stress should be more on performance rather
BUREAUCRACY IN THIRD WORLD: than procedures and file works in the
administration of development projects and
ITS SUITABILITY TO DEVELOPMENT
programmes.
ADMINISTRATION
13. DA needs delegation, coordination and team
1. It becomes dysfunctional. work with commitments towards development
2. Weber talks about rule oriented bureaucracy goals. A rigid rule oriented and impersonal
whereas Development Administration bureaucratic model of Weber can not
demands flexibility and innovativeness. provide that (Not in tune with DA).
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—28
1. As a discipline, Public Administration: B. L. D. White 2. Administration has to

(a) is oriented toward political science do with getting things
(b) draws heavily from management science done; with the
(c) has no subject matter accomplishment
(d) is a multi-disciplinary study of public of defined objectives
policies and administration for public C. Herbert A. 3. In its broadest sense,
service and welfare. Simon administration can be
2. Which one of the following statement is defined as the activities
connected with the managerial view of of groups co-operating to
administration? accomplish common
(a) Every particular application of law is an goals
act of administration. D. Luther Gulick 4. Administration is a
(b) Public administration is directed by the determined action taken
chief executive as the General Manager. in pursuit of conscious
(c) Administration is not doing things but purpose
getting things done.
5. Administration is the
(d) Public Administration is concerned with
organization and direc-
the ends of the state.
tion of human and
3. Match the List-I with List-II— material resources to
List-I (Author) List-II (Book) achieve desired ends
A. L.D. White 1. Principles of Public
Codes: A B C D
Administration
(a) 1 3 4 5
B. W. F. Willoughby2. Introduction of
The Study of Public (b) 3 2 1 4
Administration (c) 2 1 5 3
C. E. N. Gladden 3. Administration: Its (d) 4 1 3 2
Pose and Performance 5. Given below are four definitions given by
D. Ordway Tead 4. An Introduction to four authors on Administration. Which one
Public Administration was given by Simon?
Codes: A B C D (a) Administration “consists of all activities
(a) 1 3 4 2 performed with a defined goal.”
(b) 4 2 3 1 (b) Administration consists of “the activities
(c) 2 1 4 3 of groups co-operating to accomplish
(d) 3 4 1 2 common goals.”
4. Match the List-I with List-II— (c) Administration is “a process of formulation
List-I (Author) List-II (Statement) execution, co-operation and evaluation of
A. John A. Vieg 1. Public Administration Institutional policy.”
consists of all those (d) Administration “refers of doing and getting
operations having for the things done.”
purpose the fulfillment or 6. Match the List-I with List-II—
enforcement of public List-I List-II
policy A. Marshall E. Dimock 1. Big Democracy
B. Paul H. Appleby 2. A Philosophy of (c) The managerial view of Public Administra-

Administration tion
C. L. D. White 3. The Art of (d) The integral view of Public Administration
Administration 9. The statement that Public Administration
D. Ordway Tead 4. Introduction to the consists of all those operations having for
Study of Public their purpose the fulfillment or enforcement
Administration of public policy reflects the:
5. Principles of 1. Integral view of nature of administration.
Public 2. Wider view of scope of Public
Administration administration
Codes: A B C D 3. Managerial view of nature of
(a) 4 3 2 1 administration
(b) 2 1 4 3 4. Narrower view of scope of Public
(c) 3 2 5 4 administration
(d) 5 4 3 2 Select the correct code:
7. Match the List-I with List-II— (a) 1 and 4 (b) 2 and 3
List-I List-II (c) 1 and 2 (d) 3 and 4
A. L. D. White 1. Administration is a long 10. The POSDCORB view of the scope of the
and slightly pompous study of Public Administration was criticised
word but it has a on the grounds that
humble meaning 1. They are neither the whole of
B. E. N. 2. Administration is the administration nor even the important part
Gladden direction, co-ordination of it.
and control of many 2. They are only the tools of administration.
persons to achieve some 3. The techniques of management are deeply
purpose of objective coloured by the subject media of the
C. Pfiffner and 3. Administration is a services in which they have to operate.
Presthus determined action taken 4. The specialised techniques of the various
in pursuit of conscious field of concrete administration activity is
purpose missing in the posdcorb view.
D. John 4. Administration is the Select the correct code:
A. Vieg organization and (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2, 3 and 4
direction of human and (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 3
material resources to 11. Administration would differ from one sphere
achieve desired ends to another depending upon the subject matter.
Codes: A B C D This statement explains the:
(a) 1 3 4 2 (a) Managerial view of Administration.
(b) 3 4 2 1 (b) Wider view of Administration.
(c) 2 4 1 3 (c) Integral view of Administration.
(d) 2 1 4 3 (d) Narrower view of Administration.
8. The book written by Simon, Smithburg and 12. Who coined the acronym POSDCORB?
Thompson emphasises: (a) Gulick and Urwick
(a) The legal view of Public Administration (b) Urwick
(b) The institutional view of Public (c) Gulick
Administration (d) Henri Fayol
13. Who among the following subscribe to the 18. “Administration is the direction, co-ordination
managerial view of administration? and control of many persons to achieve some
1. L. D. White purpose or objective” who stated this:
2. Simon (a) J.M. Pfiffner (b) H.A. Simon
3. L. Gulick (c) L.D. White (d) John A. Vieg
4. Smithburg and Thompson 19. Public Administration includes all the
Select the correct code : activities of the government whether falling
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 in the sphere of the legislative, executive or
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 judicial branch of the government. This
14. Administration is the sum total of all the statement reflects the:
activities –manual, clerical, managerial, (a) Integral view of administration
technical etc., undertaken in pursuit of an (b) Wider view of administration
objective in view. This is the: (c) Managerial view of administration
1. Wider view of administration (d) Narrower view of administration
2. Integral view of administration 20. Which of the following statements are correct?
3. Narrower view of administration 1. Public Administration is a broader concept
4. Managerial view of administration than administration
Select the correct code : 2. Administration is a wider concept than
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 Public Administration
(c) 1 and 4 (d) Only 2 3. Public Administration and Administration
15. Who views public administration as are synonymous
embracing the executive branch of 4. Public Administration and Government
government only? Administration are synonymous
(a) L. D. White and Luther Gulick (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(b) L. D. White (c) 2 and 4 (d) 3 and 4
(c) Luther Gulick 21. Which of the following statements are correct?
(d) W.F. Willoughby 1. According to integral view, administration
includes all the activities from top to
16. Which of the following statements are correct
bottom.
about Public Administration?
2. The integral view is a more comprehensive
1. It is the management of affairs of the
approach to administration than the
government
managerial view.
2. It is the non-political bureaucratic
3. According to integral view, administrative
machinery of the government
functions differ from one area to another
3. It operates within a political context
depending, upon the subject matter.
4. It is the action part of government
4. According to integral view, administrative
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 3 functions are uniform.
(c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 Select the correct code :
17. “Administration has to do with getting things (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 3
done; with the accomplishment of defined (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4
objectives” whose statement is it? 22. Consider the following statements —
(a) Henri Fayol 1. The terms ‘Administration’ and
(b) Woodrow Wilson Management are synonymous
(c) Luther Gulick 2. Administration is a wider term than
(d) Lyndall Urwick Administration
3. Management is a wider term than 26. Which of the following statements about
Administration Administration are correct?
4. Management is a narrower term than 1. It permeates all planned human activities
Administration 2. It is a co-operative effort
5. Administration encompasses activities like 3. The term ‘Administration’ is derived from
the spelling out of policies and the Greek word
objectivities; designing the organisational 4. It is always in pursuit of attaining desired
structure etc. ends
6. Management is concerned with those (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2, 3 and 4
operations leading an organisation towards (c) 2, and 3 (d) 1, 2, and 4
success which is the broader frame work 27. Assertion (A): To Wilson, Public
set up by Administration. Administration is detailed and systematic
Select the correct code : application of law.
(a) 1, 2, 5 and 6 Reason (R) : Every particular application of
(b) 2, 4, 5 and 6 law is not an act of administration.
(c) 3, 4, 5 and 6 Choose the correct code :
(d) 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 (a) A and R are true and R is the true
23. “The term Administration in its broadest sense explanation of A.
denotes the work involved in the actual (b) A and R are true but R is not the correct
conduct of governmental affairs. In its explanation of A.
narrowest sense, it denotes the operations of (c) A is right but R is wrong.
the Administrative branch only.” which of the (d) A is wrong but R is right.
following Administrative thinkers gave the 28. Match the List-I with List-II:
above statement? List-I List-II
(a) L.D. White (b) Luther Gulick A. Wider View 1. L. Gulick
(c) W.F. Willoughby (d) John A. Vieg B. Narrower View 2. Dimock
C. Managerial View 3. L.D. White
24. According to the Managerial view:
D. Integral View 4. H.A. Simon
1. Administration consists only of the top
Codes A B C D
level functions.
(a) 1 3 2 4
2. It adopts a broader approach to administra-
(b) 3 1 4 2
tions than integral approach.
(c) 3 4 2 1
3. Administration differs from one area to
(d) 1 2 4 3
another depending upon the subject-
matter. 29. In the context of pursuing the objectives of
4. It adopts a narrower approach to the Indian administrative system as laid down
administra-tion than integral approach. in our constitution, administrative theory
5. Administration is uniform irrespective of should address itself to the problem of:
the area of application. (a) reducing the waste of time and money
Select the correct code: needed for administration at various levels.
(a) 1, 2 and 5 (b) 1, 3 and 4 (b) strengthening the central government in
(c) 1, 4 and 5 (d) 1, 3 and 5 the context of fissiparous tendencies.
(c) transforming the administrative system to
25. The Santhanam committee on prevention of make it a dynamic and result oriented
corruption was appointed in : instrument of social change.
(a) 1961 (b) 1964 (d) safeguarding the rights and privileges of
(c) 1963 (d) 1962 the civil servants.
30. Development administration in India is (a) Law and order

concerned with: (b) Revenue mobilization
(a) development of heavy industries (c) Socio-economic reconstruction
(b) maintenance of law and order (d) Participative management
(c) promotion of economic growth and social
34. Who declared that “If our civilization fails, it
justice
(d) adjudication of disputes between citizens will be mainly because of a breakdown of
administration”?
31. Match the List-I with List-II— (a) Charles A. Beard (b) L.D. White
List-I (Author) List-II (Principle) (c) Donham (d) Ordway Tead
A. Brooks Adams 1. The chief function of
administration is to 35. The crucial roles assumed by Public
facilitate social change Administra-tion in contemporary society
B. Paul Pigors 2. If our civilizations includes:
breaks down; it will be 1. Preservation of the polity
mainly a breakdown 2. Institutionalisation of socio–economic
of administration change
C. Henri Fayol 3. Administrators are the 3. Protection of the weaker section of society
stabilizers of society 4. Management of large scale commercial
and the guardians of services
traditions. Select the correct code :
D. Wallace B. 4. Administration is a (a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3
Donham subject of universal (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
importance.
5. Administration is a 36. “Public Administration is the heart of the
moral act and adminis- problem of modern government” who stated
trator is a moral agent this:
Codes A B C D (a) W.B. Donham (b) Charles A. Beard
(a) 1 3 4 2 (c) L.D. White (d) P.H. Appleby
(b) 4 2 1 3 37. According to the Administrative Reforms
(c) 3 1 5 2 Commission, the institution of Lokpal and
(d) 2 4 3 5 Lokayukta should be characterised by which
32. Assertion (A) : Bureaucracy in the developing of the following features?
countries is likely to play a predominant role. 1. Their investigation and procedure
Reason (R) : In many of the developing should be conducted in public and
countries, political institutions are compara- should be formal in character.
tively weaker. 2. Their appointment should as far as
Codes : possible, be non political.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct 3. Their status should compare with the
explanation of A. speaker of Lok Sabha.
(b) A and R are true but R is not the correct 4. Their preceeding should be subject to
explanation of A. judicial interference.
(c) A is true but R is false. 5. They should not look forward to any
(d) A is false but R is true. benefit from the executive
33. In a developing society like that of Indian the Select the correct code :
dominant role of public administration is one (a) 1, 2 and 5 (b) 2, 3 and 4
of: (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2, and 5
38. “The state is everywhere: It leaves hardly a (b) Account-keeping and audit
gap”. This statement explains the concept of: (c) Organisational structure
(a) Democratic state (b) Federal state (d) Techniques of management
(c) Welfare state (d) Police state 43. Public Administration must scrupulously
39. Which of the following are the factors observe the principle of:
responsible for the increasing importance of (a) Differential treatment
Public Administration in modern times: (b) Internal financial control
1. Emergence of welfare state. (c) Consistency of treatment
2. Scientific and technological advancements (d) Redressal of all grievances
3. Rapid increase in population 44. Assertion (A) : Public Administration is more
4. Economic planning comprehensive than private administration
5. Nature of modern warfare. Reason (R) : Public Adminstration regulates
Select the correct code : private Administration
(a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3 Codes :
(c) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 (a) A and R are true and R is the correct
40. Assertion (A) : Public Administration is a explanation of A
great stabilizing force in the society. (b) A and R are true but R is not the correct
Reason (R) : Government often change but explanation of A
administration seldom experience violent (c) A is true but R is false
change. (d) A is false but R is true
Codes : 45. All undertaking require planning,
(a) A and R are true and R is the correct organisation, command, coordination and
explanation of A control, and in order to function properly, all
(b) A and R are true but R is not the correct must observe the same general principles”.
explanation of A This statement was made by:
(c) A is true but R is false (a) M.P. Fallet (b) L. Urwick
(d) A is false but R is true (c) Henri Fayol (d) Luther Gulick
41. Assertion (A) : Public Administration is 46. Public and private administration differ
indispensably present in all states, be they according to Appleby, in respect of :
capitalist, socialist or developing in nature. 1. Breadth of scope, impact and considration
Reason (R) : Modern Public Administration 2. Public accountability
has usurped more and more functions within 3. Consistency of treatment
its scope. 4. Political character
Codes: Select the correct code:
(a) A and R are true and R is the correct (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2, and 3
explanation of A (c) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 4
(b) A and R are true but R is not the correct 47. Who among the following administrative
explanation of A thinkers do not make a distinction between
(c) A is true but R is false public and private administrations?
(d) A is false but R is true 1. Henri Fayol 2. L. Urwick
42. Which among the following is the basic 3. Simon 4. M.P. Fallet
difference between Public Administration and Select the correct code :
Private Administration? (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(a) Different environments (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 4
48. “Who are no longer confronted with several 53. Assertion (A) : Public Administration is
administrative sciences, but with one which charactrised by an absence of profit mative.
can be applied equally well to public and to Reason (R) : The basic aim of governmental
private affairs”. This statement was given by: activities is not to maximise profit, but to
(a) Luther Gulick (b) Henri Fayol promote community welfare.
(c) M.P. Fallet (d) L.D. White Codes :
49. Who among the following administrative (a) A and R are true and R is the correct
thinkers have suported the distinction between explanation of A
public and private administration? (b) A and R are true but R is not the correct
1. Paul H. Appleby 2. M.P. Fallet explanation of A
3. Sir Josiah Stamp 4. Herbert Simon (c) A is true but R is false
Select the correct code : (d) A is false but R is true
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 54. Assertion (A) : Public Administration has
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 acquired certain distinctive features
50. “Government administration differ from all differentiat-ing it from private administration.
other administrative work to a degree not even Reason (R) : Public accountability is its half–
at faintly realised outside, by virtue of its mark; consistency of treatment and its watch
public nature, the way in which it is subject word; and consciousness of community
to public scrutiny and outcry”. This statement service, its deal.
was nade by: Codes :
(a) Fallet (b) Henri Fayol (a) A and R are true and R is the correct
(c) Appleby (d) Urwick
explanation of A
51. Assertion (A) : The difference between private (b) A and R are true but R is not the correct
and public administration is only of degree, explanation of A
not of kind. (c) A is true but R is false
Reason (R) : Many of the managerial (d) A is false but R is true
techniques are common to both.
Codes : 55. Assertion (A) : Public Administration has to
(a) A and R are true and R is the correct operate strictly according to law, rules and
explanation of A regulations.
(b) A and R are true but R is not the correct Reason (R) : Adberence to law brings in a
explanation of A degree of rigidity in operation in the public
(c) A is true but R is false sector.
(d) A is false but R is true Codes :
52. Assertion (A) : Public Administration is (a) A and R are true and R is the correct
subject to external financial control. explanation of A
Reason (R) : It is the legislature that passes (b) A and R are true but R is not correct
the appropriation Act, authorising the explanation of A
executive branch to spend money. (c) A is true but R is false
Codes : (d) A is false but R is true
(a) A and R are true and R is the correct 56. Assertion (A) : The Public Administrators are
explanation of A to be very consistend and impartial in their
(b) A and R are true but R is not the correct dealings with the public.
explanation of A Reason (R) : In Public Administration, any
(c) A is true but R is false show of discrimination will evoke public
(d) A is false but R is true censure or legislative commotion.
Codes : (d) Stresses ethics, values, innovation and

(a) A and R are true and R is the correct social equality
explanation of A. 61. According to Fred W. Riggs, the comparative
(b) A and R are true but R is not the correct public administration approach stands for a
explanation of A. distinctive orientation. Which one of the
(c) A is true but R is false. following is typical of that approach?
(d) A is false but R is true. (a) Behavioural Approach
57. The study of ‘Public Administration’ as an (b) Public Policy Approach
independent discipline originated in: (c) Ecological Approach and Empirical
(a) Britain Approach
(b) United States of America (d) Logical Approach
(c) India 62. “The field of administration is a field of
(d) West Germany business. It is removed from the hurry and
58. According to Robert Dahl, the evolution of a strife of Politics.” This was stated by:
science of public administration is a problem (a) L.D. White
because of the need to concentrate on. (b) Woodrow Wilson
1. clarification of ends (c) Dwight Waldo
2. aspects of human behaviour (d) Marshall E. Dimock
3. integrated view of politics and 63. The following quatation deals with the
administration significance of administration—
4. sociological study of administration “This is why there should be a science of
Select the correct code: administration which shall seek to straighten
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 the paths of government, to make it business
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4 less unbusinesslike, to strengthen and purify
59. What is the correct sequence of the following its organisation and to crown its duties with
landmarks in the growth and emergence of dutifulness.” The following statement was
‘New Public Administration’? made by:
1. The Minnowbrook conference (a) Frank Goodnow (b) Herbert Simon
2. The Honey Report on Higher Education (c) Woodrow Wilson (d) Dwight Waldo
of Public Service. 64. The emergence of “New Public
3. The Philadelphia conference on the Administration” is associated with:
Theory and Practice of Public (a) Comparative Administration Group
Administration. (b) Minnowbrook Conference
4. Publication of ‘Toward a New Public (c) American society of public administration
Administration: The Minnowbrook (d) National association of schools of public
Perspective’ administration.
(a) 4, 3, 1, 2 (b) 2, 3, 1, 4
(c) 2, 4, 1, 3 (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 65. The phrase ‘Developmental Bureaucracy’ was
coined by:
60. ‘New Public Administration is’: (a) La Palambora (b) Fred Riggs
(a) Closely associated with numerous private (c) Alfred Diamant (d) William Siffin
groups and individuals
(b) Concerned with bureaucracy and its 66. Which one of the following is not true about
activities the emergence of New Public Administration?
(c) Accepts a rational and deterministic view (a) It grew out of meetings of Minnowbrook
of mankind in september 1968.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—29
(b) It was a movement pioneered by the D. Urwick 4. The Social Problems of an

younger generation of American Public Industrial Civilisation
Administrations. 5. Functions of the
(c) Waldo’s book “Public Administration in a Executive
Time of Turbulence” gave impetus to it Codes: A B C D
(d) It was triggered by problems of (a) 1 4 2 3
comparative and development (b) 2 3 4 5
administration. (c) 4 3 2 1
67. Which of the following are reasons for the (d) 4 2 3 1
bureaucratic model being most useful for
70. The science of administration is the latest
comparative study?
fruit of that study of the science of politics
1. The model is set in a wide framework that
spans history and culture. which was begun some twenty-two hundred
2. Weber developed the model by following years ago. This statement was made by:
the historical method. (a) J.M. Gaus (b) Frank Goodnow
3. Bureaucracy is the most powerful (c) L.D. White (d) Woodraw Wilson
instrument of the executive in all countries. 71. Woodrow Wilson’s name is associated with
4. It focuses attention upon the chief which of the following statements?
structural functional characteristics of 1. Founder of the discipline of Public
bureaucracy. Administration.
Select the correct answer from the codes given 2. Originator of Politics-Administration
below: Dichotomy.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
3. Author of the Article “The Study of
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4
Administration.”
68. Which of the following are reasons or facts 4. “It is getting to be harder to run a
that made Goodnow separate the spheres of constitution that too frame one.”
Politics and Administration? Select the correct answer from the codes given
1. Both were separate disciplines below:
2. Separation of powers provided the basis (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 3
of distinction.
(c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
3. He was keen to promote Administration as
an independent discipline. 72. Match the List-I with List-II—
4. Politics and Administration are two List-I List-II
separate functions of government. A. Principles of 1. M.P. Follet
Choose the correct answer from the code given organisation
below: B. Creative Experience 2. Henri Fayol
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 4 C. Papers the science 3. Mooney and
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 of Administration Reilay
69. Match the List-I with List-II— D. Industrial and 4. Gulick and
List-I (Writer) List-II (Book) general management Urwick
A. Mayo 1. Elements of Administra- Codes:
tion A B C D
B. Mc Gergor 2. The Practice of Manage- (a) 3 1 2 4
ment (b) 3 1 4 2
C. Druker 3. The Human side of (c) 1 3 2 4
Enterprise (d) 4 3 2 1
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—29-II
73. Arrange the following administrative thinkers 77. “Politics has to do with the policies or
in the chronological order: expression of the state while administration
1. Chester Barnard 2. M.P. Follet has to do with the execution of these policies.”
3. Robert Dahl 4. F.W. Riggs This is attributed to:
5. Willoughby (a) L.D White
(a) 2, 5, 3, 4, 1 (b) 2, 5, 1, 3, 4 (b) Goodnow
(b) 5, 1, 2, 4, 3 (d) 5, 2, 1, 3, 4 (c) Woodrow Wilson
(d) Willoughby
74. Match the List-I with List-II—
List-I List-II 78. Which of the following is not an hindrance in
(a) Ecology of 1. Willoughby the evolution of the science of Public
Administration Administration according to Robert Dahl?
(b) Proverbs of 2. F.W. Riggs (a) Values permeating administration
Administration (b) Uncertainty of human behaviour
(c) Emparative 3. Simon (c) Intellectual capacity of Public Administra-
Administration tionists
(d) Principles of 4. Dahl (d) Sociol-cultural impact on administration
Administration 79. Herbert A Simon has described the principles
Codes: of administration as proverbs because.
A B C D 1. They are not based upon scientific research
(a) 2 3 1 4 2. They are logically in-consistent and
(b) 2 3 4 1 mutually contradictory
(c) 3 2 1 4 3. Their universal application is upheld
(d) 4 1 3 2 4. They are common sense conclusions
derived from experience.
75. What are the factors that have contributed
Select the correct code:
towards the growth of the study of Public
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 3
Administration in the U.S.A as a separate
(c) 2, 3, and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 4
academic discipline?
1. Evaluation of the concept of walfare state 80. As long as study of Public Administration
2. Scientific management movement was not comparative, claims for a science of
3. Industrialisation Public Administration would sound hollow.
4. Movement for government reform Who made this statement:
Select the corect code: (a) Herbert Simon (b) Chester Barnard
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2, 3, and 4 (c) Robert Dahl (d) F.W. Riggs
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 81. Which of the following pair is correctly
76. Which of the following is not a dominant matched?
theme of the first stage of the evolution of (a) General and Industrial Management–1914
Public Administration as a discipline? (b) Principles of Scientific Management–1912
(a) Public Administration is capable of a value (c) Administrative Behaviour–1957
free science. (d) Ecology of Public Administration–1961
(b) Politics and Administration are to be kept 82. Assertion (A) : L.D White’s “Introduction to
separate the Study of Public Administration” (1926)
(c) Importance of the structure of organisation was the first text book on the subject.
(d) The mission of Public Administration is Reason (R) : The book faithfully reflected the
economy and efficiency dominant theme of the contemprorary period.
Codes : 86. Assertion (A) : The study of comparative

(a) A and R are true and R is the correct public administration and development
explanation of A adminis-tration, a field virtually unknown
(b) A and R are true but R is not the correct before the IInd World War has broken through
explanation of A cultural barriers in the study of Public
(c) A is true but R is false Administration.
(d) A is false but R is true Reason (R) : F.W. Riggs pioneered a new
83. Assertion (A) : The principal thesis of Simon administrative vocabulary to describe different
is that there is no such things as principles societalty pologies, administrative cultures and
administration. administrative system.
Reason (R) : What are paraded as principles Codes :
are in truth no better than proverbs. (a) A and R are true and R is the correct
Codes: explanation of A
(a) A and R are true and R is the correct (b) A and R are true but R is not the correct
explanation of A explanation of A
(b) A and R are true but R is not the correct (c) A is true but R is false
explanation of A (d) A is false but R is true
(c) A is true but R is false 87. According to Woodrow Wilson, there should
(d) A is false but R is true be a science of administration:
84. Assertion (A) : Public Administration is both 1. To straighten the path of government
field of activity and a field of systematic study. 2. To make its business less unbusiness like
Reason (R) : The evolution of Public 3. To strengthen and purify its organisation
Administration as a specialised field of study 4. To crown its duties with dutifulness
falls into a number of critical stages. (a) 1 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 4
Codes: (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(a) A and R are true and R is the correct 88. Arrange the following stages in the evolution
explanation of A of Public Administration as a discipline in the
(b) A and R are true but R is not the correct chronalogical order:
explanation of A 1. Principles Approach.
(c) A is true but R is false 2. Public Policy Approach.
(d) A is false but R is true 3. Administrative Behaviour.
85. Assertion (A) : Public Administration is 4. Politics–Administration Dichotomy.
primarily a science of observation rather than 5. Ecological Approach.
of experiment. (a) 4, 1, 5, 3, 2
Reason (R) : It is so with all social sciences, (b) 4, 1, 3, 2, 5
because social problems do not admit of (c) 4, 1, 3, 5, 2
laboratory experiment under artificially (d) 4, 1, 2, 3, 5
produced conditions. 89. Which of the following pairs is not correctly
Codes : matched?
(a) A and R are true and R is the correct (a) Dynamic Administration — M.P. Follet
explanation of A (b) Personality and Organisation—Chris
(b) A and R are true but R is not the correct Argyris
explanation of A (c) Ecology of Public Administration—F.W.
(c) A is true but R is false Riggs
(d) A is false but R is true (d) Human Side of the Enterprise—Elton Mayo
90. Which of the following pairs is not correctly 2. Industrial and General Management
matched? 3. Principles of Organisation
(a) New Public Administration—Dwight 4. Introduction to the Study of Public
Waldo Administration
(b) Development Administration—Edward 5. Papers on the Science of Administration
Weidner Select the correct code:
(c) Comparative Public Administration—F.W. (a) 1, 3, 4 and 5 (b) 1, 4 and 5
Riggs (c) 1, 3, and 5 (d) 1 and 5
(d) Administrative Development—Robert
96. “Politics has to do with the policies or
Dahl
expressions of the state whereas administration
91. Which of the following is described as has to do with the execution of these policies.”
antitheoretic, anti–positivist and anti– This statement expresses the :
hierarchical? 1. Interaction between Politics and
(a) Development Administration Administration
(b) New Public Administration 2. Dichotomy between Politics and
(c) Comparative Administration Administration
(d) Administrative Development 3. Principles of Administration
92. The term “Development Administration” was 4. Interdependence of Politics and
coined by: Administration
(a) Edward Weidner 5. Principles of Politics
(b) Montgomery Select the correct code:
(c) Goswami (a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 2, 3 and 5
(d) F.W. Riggs (c) 2 and 3 (d) Only 2
93. According to F.W. Riggs, the trends in 97. Who said that “Bureaucracy can exist only
comparative public administration are : where the whole service of the state is removed
1. Normative to Empirical from the common political life of the people,
2. Ideographic to Nomothetic its chiefs as well as its rank and file:
3. Empirical to Normative (a) Max Weber (b) Woodrow Wilson
4. Ecological to Non–ecological (c) R.K. Merton (d) L.D. White
5. Non–ecological to Ecological
98. Match the List-I with List-II—
Select the correct code:
List-I List-II
(a) 1, 2, and 4 (b) 2, 3, and 5
A. Development 1. Dwight Waldo
(c) 2, 3, and 4 (d) 1, 2, and 5
Administration
94. The ecological approach in the study of public B. Administrative 2. Rebort Dahl
administration was initiated (In the order) by: Development
(a) J.M Gaus and R.A. Dahl C. New Public 3. Edward Weidner
(b) F.W. Riggs and R.A. Dahl Administration
(c) R.A. Dahl and F.W. Riggs D. Comparative Public 4. F.W. Riggs
(d) F.W. Riggs and J.M. Gaus Administration
95. Which of the following were published Codes: A B C D
between 1927 and 1937, the period in which (a) 3 4 2 1
the central belief was that there are certain (b) 3 4 1 2
principles of administration? (c) 4 3 2 1
1. Principles of Public Administration (d) 2 1 4 3
99. The incorrect statements about Central 5. It receives complaints directly from
Vigilance Commission are: aggrieved persons.
1. It was set up on the recommendation of (a) 1, 2 and 5 (b) 3 and 5
Administrative Reforms Commission. (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 5
2. It is headed by the Central Vigilance
100. “Politics and Administration dichotomy is a
Commissioner appointed by the Prime
misleading distinction which had become a
Minister.
stereo type in the winds of theorists and
3. Its functions, in certain cases, overlap
with the functions of the UPS(c) practitioner alike.” Who said this:
4. It is certainly a substitute for an (a) M.E. Dimock (b) C.J. Friedrick
Ombudsman. (c) P.H. Appleby (d) Dwight Waldo
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(d) (c) (c) (d) (b) (b) (d) (c) (c) (b)
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
(c) (c) (d) (d) (c) (d) (c) (c) (b) (c)
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
(b) (b) (c) (c) (d) (d) (c) (b) (c) (c)
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
(a) (a) (c) (c) (d) (c) (d) (c) (d) (a)
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
(b) (a) (c) (b) (c) (d) (d) (b) (c) (c)
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
(a) (a) (a) (a) (b) (a) (b) (a) (b) (d)
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
(c) (b) (c) (b) (c) (d) (c) (d) (c) (d)
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
(d) (b) (b) (b) (d) (c) (b) (c) (d) (c)
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
(d) (b) (a) (b) (a) (b) (d) (c) (d) (d)
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
(b) (c) (d) (a) (d) (d) (b) (b) (c) (b)
lll
Unit
6
International Relations
The cold war that ravaged the world from 1945 to Implications/Significance of End of Cold
1990 was marked by a continuous rivalry and War
confrontations between the two power blocs with
The end of cold war indicated following trends in
the third force of non-aligned countries virtually
the international relations.
insignificant in the international arena.
Firstly : It indicated a growing inter-
The process of end of cold war started in the
dependence among states free from
second half of the 1980’s. The leadership of the
military alliances and confrontations.
two blocs softened their stands and became more
conciliatory and accommodative of each others Secondly : Renewed commitment to United
posture. Nations and its working.
Thirdly : Emergence of a new kind of world
Major Land Marks in the End of Cold order with trends towards integration
War of economies.
l Malta Summit, 1984—First sign of Fourthly : Renewed emphasis on arms control
political cooperation between US and and disarmament through common
USSR. efforts.
l Dismantling of Berlin Wall, 1989 and Fifthly : Focus on issues of development,
Unification of Germany 1990 environment protection, hunger,
disease, human right and other social
l Washington Summit, 1990—A number of
issues.
steps at disarmament.
Sixthly : World wide wave of democratization
l NATO Summit at London, 1990—Formal
and protection of human rights.
announcement of end of cold war by
NATO states. Seventhly : Declining intensity as well as
instances of conflict and
l End of WARSAW Pact in 1991.
confrontations and limiting their
l Disintegration of the U.S.S.R. 1991—Gave range to regional or local levels.
a final burial to the end of cold war.
Eighthly : Growing hegemony of western values
l Afghan Treaty in 1991 whereby U.S.A. and and institutions in the emerging
U.S.S.R. agreed to establish peace in the global order at the cost of other
region. equally legitimate values and ideals.
231
GLOBALIZATION Scholte, “globalization is linked to the growth

of ‘superterritorial’ relations between people, a
The term globalization is a recent entrant in the
reconfiguration of social space in which territory
realm of discourses on politics and society. In
matters less because an increasing range of
essence, it is a process of worldwide integration of
connections have a ‘transworld’ or ‘transborder’
economies. Though economic contracts between
the nations have been evident since the time character”.
immemorial, an ideal globalization is Andrew Heywood, “globalization is the
comparatively a new phenomenon. The emergence of a complex web of interconnectedness
accumulatively effect of revolutions in science that means that our lives are increasingly shaped
and technologies has given effect to this trend. As by events that occur, and decisions that are made,
Andrew Heywood has observed “It is a product of at a great distance from us .... it highlights the
technological revolution. Its is connectivity ..... deepening as well as the broadening of the political
There is no escape from it.” process, in the sense that local, national and global
In its politic-economy manifestation, events (or perhaps local, regional, national,
Globalization has also been labelled as a cyber International and global events) constantly
capitalism, mediated through communication interact.”
technology and media networks wherein capital Globalization marks a new wave of capitalism
moves on a global scale. However, much of the wherein capital flows in the role of market for
apprehensions flow from the prospect of social generating financial assets. The Global institutions
and cultural integration endangering local customs govern the mechanics of trade and commerce.
and traditions. The paradoxical position of Economic relations between the states in
globalization has been best underlined by Andrew contemporary period is being carried on within
Heywood who points out that “Supporters of the purview of following institutions.
globalization, sometimes called globalists, usually 1. World Bank.
argue that capitalism tends towards general
prosperity, and widening opportunities, in which 2. International Monetary Fund.
case global capitalism will allow these benefits to 3. World Trade Organization.
be enjoyed by more people in more countries.
Opponents of globalization, on the other hand, (I) WORLD BANK
tend to associate capitalism with inequality and World Bank, also called International Bank for
exploitation, in which case global capitalism will Reconstruction and Development was created in
simply generate new forms of misery and injustice’’. 1945 and started functioning in June, 1946. It
functions through two agencies. Firstly, there is
Different Views of Globalization International Development Association (IDA),
Anthony Giddens, “intensification of worldwide established in 1960 and Secondly, there is
social relations which link distant localities in International Finance Corporation (IFC),
such a way that local happenings are shaped by established in 1956.
the events occurring many miles away and vice It provides long term financial assistance to
versa”. member countries in their task of reconstruction
Held and McGrew, “globalization refers to a and development. Every member country is liable
historical process which transforms the spatial to contribute towards the Bank in terms of its GDP
organization of social relations and transactions, or contribution in the world trade. There are 180
generating transcontinental or inter-regional members of the World Bank. While International
networks of interaction and the exercise of Development Association generally provides loan
power”. to the states for investment in social sectors,
International Relations l 233
International Finance Corporation is more guarantee and also promotes the additional capital
concerned with lending assistance to the private investment in these countries. Thus, the main work
sector of the member countries. Members of the of IFC is to ensure the financial support to private
IMF can only be the members of the World Bank. sector in developing countries.
Its main objectives are as follows :
Objectives of World Bank
1. To provide loans to private sector.
According to the Clause I of the Agreement made 2. To co-ordinate capital and management.
at the time of establishment of World Bank, it was
3. To induce capitalist countries to invest in
assigned the following objectives:
developing countries.
1. To provide long-run capital to member
countries for economic reconstruction and International Development Association
development. World Bank provides capital
mainly for following purposes : IDA is an associate institution of World Bank
established on September 24, 1960.
(a) To finance productive efforts according
to peace time requirements. It provides soft loans to member states. The
repayment period is very long say, 40 to 50 years.
(b) To develop resources and production
These loans are primarily aimed at creating “Social
facilities in underdeveloped countries.
Capital”.
2. To induce long-run capital investment for
assuring BOP equilibrium and balanced Some of the Important Programmes
development of international trade (This
1. Structural Adjustment Lending (SAL) :
objective was adopted to increase the
productivity of member countries and to Started in 1980’s to support programmes of
improve economic conditions and standard specific policy changes and institutional
of living among them). reforms so as to tide over the deteriorating
economic conditions.
3. To promote capital investment in member
countries by following ways : 2. Special Action Programme (SAP) : Started
in 1983 to increase assistance to countries
(a) To provide guarantee on private loans
in view of global recession.
or capital investment.
3. B-Lan Pilot Programme : Started in 1983.
(b) If private capital is not available even
after providing guarantee, then IBRD (II) INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND
provides loans for productive activities
(IMF)
on considerate conditions.
4. To provide guarantee for loans granted to It was established on December 27, 1945 to promote
small and large units and other projects of international monetary co-operation. It is a
member countries. specialized agency of the United Nations. Its
5. To ensure the implementation of purpose is to help the member states in balance of
development projects so as to bring about payment crises and ensure international monetary
a smooth transference from a war-time to stability.
peace economy.
Structure of IMF
International Finance Corporation l A Board of Governors
World Bank established IFC in July 1956. This l An Executive Board
corporation provides loan to private industries of l Managing Director
developing nations without any government l The Staff.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—30
The IMF finances its activities by lending 2. Trade Related Investment Measures
from the countries. The borrowing countries are (TRIMS): To remove quantitative
obliged to follow Structural Adjustment restrictions and ensure equal treatment of
Programme (SAP) which includes cutting down foreign investors.
subsidies, encouraging private investments and 3. General Agreement on Trade in Services
devaluation of currencies. IMF also provides (GATS)
assistance under Compensatory Contingency Fund
4. Multi Fibre Agreement (MFN) : To phase
Facility (CCFF) in view of contingent situations.
out or dismantle restrictions or quotas.
Special Drawing Rights (SDR) are designed to
help a member country to meet the problem of 5. General Agreement on reduction of
Balance of Payment. average level of import duties.
6. Agreement on Agriculture : To ensure
Objectives of IMF market access, reduce subsidies and
According to ‘Articles of Agreement’ of the IMF, patenting of seeds and plant varieties.
its main objectives are as follows:
Objectives of WTO
1. To promote international monetary co-
operation. 1. To improve standard of living of people in
2. To ensure balanced international trade. the members countries.
3. To ensure exchange rate stability. 2. To ensure full employment and broad
increase in effective demand.
4. To eliminate or to minimize exchange
restrictions by promoting the system of 3. To enlarge production and trade of goods.
multi-lateral payments. The above three objectives were also
5. To grant economic assistance to member included in GATT, but WTO also included
countries for eliminating the adverse some other objectives which are :
imbalance in balance of payments. 4. To enlarge production and trade of services.
6. To minimize imbalances in quantum and 5. To ensure optimum utilisation of world
duration of international trade. resources.
6. To accept the concept of sustainable
(III) WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION (WTO) development.
WTO was created in 1995 at the Uruguay round of 7. To protect environment.
GATT (General Agreement on Trade and Tariff)
negotiations. It implements 28 treaties related with Functions of WTO
the international trade. It is the “watch dog” of 1. To provide facilities for implementation,
world trade. It has 162 members (till Nov. 2015). administration and operation of multilateral
The purpose of WTO is to promote free trade by and bilateral agreements of the world trade.
reducing barriers like duties and quotas. Its
2. To provide a platform to member countries
headquarters is at Geneva. There are two
to decide future strategies related to trade
committees—Dispute Settlement Body and Trade
and tariff.
Policy Review Body that play significant role in
the organization. 3. To administer the rules and processes related
to dispute settlement.
Various Dimensions of WTOs Pro- 4. To implement rules and provisions related
grammes to trade policy review mechanism.
1. Trade Related Intellectual Property Right 5. To assist IMF and IBRD for establishing
(TRIPS) : To enforce Patent laws commen- coherence in universel economic policy
surate with WTO. determination.
6. To ensure the optimum use of world Conclusion

resources.
Globalization has been a historical process with
Conferences of WTO ebbs and flows. No country can hope to opt out of
globalization. Consequently, the aim of every
Ist Singapore 1996 country should be to evolve an appropriate
IInd Geneva 1998 framework to get maximum benefit out of
IIIrd Seattle 1999 international trade and commerce. There is an
IVth Doha 2001 urgent need of aggressive, proactive policy and
Vth Cancun 2003 confident negotiations in the global fora. The
efforts by G-21 consisting of India, China, South
VIth Hong Kong 2005
Africa, Brazil and other countries to defeat the
VIIth Geneva 2009 American measures in recent summit of WTO is a
VIIIth Geneva 2011 hallmark in this regard. However, only time can
IXth Bali 2013 tell how the correspondence between multilateral
Xth Nairobi 2015 institutions and member states are mutually
XIth Buenos Aires 2017 beneficial.
The implications of contemporary changes in
international trade is crucial in relation to India.
DETERMINANTS AND COMPULSIONS
Globalization has integrated Indian economy with OF INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY
the other nations economy. India seeks to benefit According to J.N. Dixit ‘‘Foreign policy of a
from the mechanisms of world trade by enhancing country is a statement of what it stands for and the
its cooperation with other countries. Though it role that it takes upon itself and projects to the
remains to be seen as to how far globalization world at large.’’ It is seldom static. Rather it remains
confers benefit on Indian economy but recent in a state of constant flux. Nevertheless, there are
experience do not reveal a better picture. The crucial ingredients that remain significant for
liberalization of Indian economy and downsizing longer times. The factors that have influenced the
of public sector have led to increase in determination of India’s foreign policy are as
unemployment. New forms of exploitation have follows.
started wherein poor, illiterate masses are getting
trapped. Multinational corporations are gaining FACTORS AFFECTING INDIA’S
control over Indian markets by destroying the FOREIGN POLICY
traditional Indian market. Consequently, its
consequences must be cautiously examined by Geographical Location
leadership and the intelligentia.
Joseph Stiglitz in his “Globalization and Its Rightly remarked by Napoleon Bonaparte ‘‘Any
Discontents” highlights the economic and financial country’s foreign policy is determined by its
turmoil brought about by Globalization in a geography.’’ India’s location between middle-east,
decade. According to him the culprit is south-east Asia and far-east obliged her to engage
“Washington consensus” at the U.S. Treasury and in the events of the region. Natural frontiers in the
the IMF that has pushed the rest of the world to form of Himalayas in the north and Indian ocean
open too quickly and which has “pushed austerity and Bay of Bengal on the three sides has
on poor countries that instead needed stimulus”. considerably influenced its foreign policy.
In his opinion, globalization can work only if the
Historical Traditions
IMF is less aggressive in pushing countries to
open their markets, and if countries themselves India’s commitment to peace from time immemorial
focus on social sectors. have significantly influenced the foreign policy.
Her experience of colonialism in the modern period opted to remain outside the blocs and pursue a
promoted India to take a firm stand on any form policy of non-alignment. In fact, this stand was
of imperialism. There has been constant emphasis soon emulated by a large number of newly
on the aspect of world peace and spirit of emerging independent countries from Asia and
brotherhood among nations because of the fact Africa. Though India remained outside bloc
that Indians still pin faith in the dictum politics, it welcomed aid and assistance from both
‘‘Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam.’’ the blocs and helped in slackening tension
between them.
Impact of Ideology
Influence by above cited factors, India’s
Gandhi’s ideas of peace and non-violence is foreign policy stance outlined following principles
crucially important. Nehru concretised the ideas of and objectives.
Gandhi into pragmatic form and channelled them
into foreign policy. It was only because of rich MAIN PRINCIPLES AND OBJECTIVES
intellectual heritage of Indian leadership that India OF INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY
chose to have an independent stance on her
relations with other nations. Non-alignment, mixed Principles
economy etc. are outcome of ideological base They are in the form of guidelines to the policy
provided by Indian leaders. makers through which India carries out its foreign
Economic Condition relations. In essence, they are the means through
which national interest is sought to be protected
The stagnant economy at the time of independence and promoted.
profoundly affected India’s foreign policy. The (i) Non-Alignment: It is India’s gift to the
problems of poverty, health, scarcity that was world and has been one of the main
outcome of British imperialism convinced the principles which has remained integral part
country of futility of alignments. Instead, it chose of India’s foreign policy even after the end
to welcome assistance from all the countries. of cold war. The vitality of non-alignment
can be realized from the fact that it has not
Security, Defence
only helped in securing friendship and
After independence India inherited a weak defence cooperation, promoting world peace, etc;
system. Her military was organized on British but ensured independence on foreign policy
pattern, geared to serve the interest of an alien issues. India and NAM countries played a
country. It was plagued by maladministration, lack vital role in cold war politics by acting as
of equipments and up to date technical know how. a third force to reduce the tension.
Lack of capital to modernize the army led India to (ii) Opposition to Colonialism and
pursue her economic interests at the cost of security Imperialism: Being subjected to colonial
issues. However, with the passage of time, India subjugation for about 200 years, India
took cognizance of this lacunae in her security. firmly stand in opposition to any form of
Today Indian army is one of the ablest and strongest colonialism and imperialism. It is with this
armies in the world. line of thinking that India played a major
role in liberating the newly independent
Cold War countries of Asia and Africa from colonial
The politics of cold war and the polarization of shackles.
the world into two camps remained a dominant (iii) Supporting U.N. in Achieving World
feature of international politics when India became Peace: India is one of the founding member
independent. Under such circumstances, India of the UN (1945). She has played a major
role in its instrumentality to achieve world ‘Independence.’ She favours independence

peace. She has always advocated that in foreign policy making without being
resolution of international disputes be done subjected to dictation by big power. Her
under the purview of U.N. policy of non-alignment is geared to
(iv) Fairness of Means: Inspired by the ideas achieve the objective that India retains full
of Gandhi, India has always emphasised autonomy on foreign policy issues.
that fair means should be used in the
resolution of international disputes. She has THE RELEVANCE OF NON-ALIGNMENT
advocated use of peaceful and non-violent Today the world is no longer bipolar. But there is
methods and opposes war, aggression and also no consensus about the nature of its
power politics. Panchsheel is an outgrowth configuration. Some writers feel that it is unipolar
of this line of thinking. with the U.S. being the sole Super Power. Other
(v) Friendship with All Countries: Without writers argue that it is multipolar with the European
being committed to military alliances, India Union, Japan, Russia and China being important
has opted for cultivating friendly relations centres of power together with the U.S. Still others
with other countries. For this purpose she have referred to it as "uni-cum-multipolar.
has concluded treaties and bilateral Whatever the terminology, that may be used, there
agreements in the fields of politics, is no doubt that the U.S. and the G-8 powers
economy, culture or science and tech- together are in a position to work in concert and
nology. manage the rest of the world. There has arisen
what has been called the new Northern concert of
Objectives Powers. Within this global scenario, the practice
of non-alignment becomes difficult because there
Objectives of India’s foreign policy are in the
is no longer the space for maneuvering nor does
nature of goals that it seeks to promote. They are
there exist the intermediatory role. Nevertheless,
not static but are influenced by time and space. there is a vital need for its practice, precisely
(i) Protection and Preservation of Territorial because the developing countries of the South
Integrity: This protection and preservation need to assert their independence and act together,
of territorial integrity has been one of the if they are not to be totally overwhelmed by the
foremost objectives of India’s foreign North. The imperatives for a revitalized Non-
policy. Priority assigned to this aspect was aligned Movement springs from many sources. For
made clear as early as Bandung Conference the developing countries this multipolarity
(1947). It said, ‘‘India and other countries presents an uncertain, complex and gloomy
had been used as a pawn by other nations environment in which there may not be many new
in their international games; now that they opportunities, but increased vulnerability. At
were emerging into independence, it was a present there seems to be no change of the
good reminder to those nations that the developing countries being able to exploit the
newly-independent nations proposed to differences that are seen among the major economic
stand on their own feet and must be free to powers. Of course, the situation may change in the
decide their own policies and play their medium or long-term.
part in the maintenance of peace.’’ The The Third World countries are also being
country does not want interference in the pressurised to agree to all the demand of the
internal affairs of other country. developed world on the question of opening of
(ii) Independence in Foreign Policy: Being a markets and intellectual property rights, even
scapegoat of colonial exploitation, India is though the fact of the matter is that trends towards
firmly committed to the word protectionism are rising in the developed countries
at the time when most of the developing countries from developing weapons of mass destruction and
are seriously reforming their economies and to reduce their alleged excessive military
providing for market deregulation. So, also is the expenditure.
impression being fostered that the Third World is Fifthly, instead of revitalising multilaterialism
somehow responsible for environmental pollution, under the United Nations, the new alliance headed
when actually it is the wanton wastage of resources by the United States has successfully mounted an
by the Northern countries that has been the chief all out campaign to destroy the multilateral
source of environmental degradation. The Northern character of the world body to alter its agenda and
governments are bent upon maintaining their to undermine its functioning to certain areas. Hard-
unsustainable production and consumption core economic issues like the removal of poverty,
systems. At the same time, they expect the Southern developmental plans, trade, money, finance and
governments to make all the adjustments and debt have been taken off the agenda of the United
sacrifices necessary to keep the environment safe Nations and transferred to the International
for the North. Now the prospects of the North Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank and the
imposing sanctions and other punitive measures General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT),
on the South in the name of environmental over which they have greater control and which
protection looms large before us. permit them to use cross-conditionalities and cross-
Thirdly, there is a tendency on the part of the relation. Organisation forming part of the UN family
developed countries to impose stringent are being held in leash through denial of the
restrictions on the transfer of technology to the finances due to them. And in the UN Security
developing countries. The ever-growing list of Council, it is the permanent members which, acting
items subjected to the so-called dual use restrictions in close cooperation, take all the decisions affecting
effectively threatens to deprive the developing world peace and security. There are a number of ad
countries of the fruits of technological progress in hoc discriminatory regimes aimed at preventing
many key areas. Such restrictions have come to the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.
cover everything from computers to machine These include regimes for chemical weapons (the
tools,to specialised alloys to chemicals and even 'Australian Club), nuclear weapons "London
to medical equipment. They are imposed in the Supplier Group" (LSG) and Missiles (the Missile
name of preventing proliferation even though the Technology Control Regimes, or MTCR). The lists
major responsibility for proliferation often rests of dual purpose technologies, substances and
with the very countries that are imposing the equipment which cannot be exported to the
restrictions. This is extremely unfair. countries of the Third World under these regimes
Fourthly, the world continues to be divided are so extensive as to have the effect of freezing the
into the nuclear 'haves' and 'have-nots'. The nuclear technological and industrial development of the
'haves' seem to be determined to retain their developing countries in those vital areas. It is also
arsenals of the nuclear weapons, albeit on a reduced very difficult to judge whether the restrictions
scale and to prevent others from acquiring such applied in any particular case are motivated by the
weapons. The irony is that the targets of nuclear commercial consideration of preventing the country
weapons are now the countries of the Third World concerned from developing competitive capacity
as these are being looked upon as the main threat or by the consideration of ensuring nonproliferation.
to the security of the nuclear-weapons powers. These regimes have no sanction of international
Instead of being discarded after the end of the law. As they are outside the United Nations and
Cold War, deterrence is being retained and honed their membership is restricted, they have the effect
for being used discriminately against the countries of undermining multilateralism.
of the Third World. The countries of the Third All the Third World countries are facing today
World are now under tremendous pressure to desist the threat of the disintegration of nation-states.The
examples are Czechoslovakia, Ethiopia, the former alone. Hence, the countries of NAM must continue
Soviet Union and Yugoslavia. Being sure of their to stay and act together for common thought and
own national integrity, which is underpinned by action. But question is how to bell the cat? The
their military power or that of their allies and in answer is the non-aligned countries can reverse
view of their own relative political stability and the above negative trends by three important ways:
economic prosperity, the countries of the new (a) reforming and strengthening the United Nations;
alliances have started espousing causes and (b) encouraging South-South Cooperation; and (c)
championing principles aimed to encourage consolidating the Movement through necessary
fissiparous tendencies in those countries of the reforms.
Third World where the economic and political Thus, the realities of current global politics
situation is far from stable. This may lead to further make non-alignment equally relevant today for
disintegration of nation-states ; recently discovered the developing countries of the world as it was
enthusiasm of the new alliance for self during the Cold War period. However, while Non-
determination use its political and economic alignment continues to be relevant, the role of the
leverage to interfere in the affairs of other states in Non-aligned Movement in current global affairs
the name of human rights and good governance has been somewhat declining. The NAM could
and the sanctions that it has successfully sought not first prevent the conflict between two of its
for intervention in other countries on humanitarian members-Iraq and Kuwait and neither could it play
grounds-are all pointers in this direction. an effective role in the subsequent Gulf crises. Nor
Sovereignty, of late, has never been absolute, but could it halt the civil war in Yugoslavia, itself an
now it is being subjected to further curtailment important member.
and abridgement. Then, there is a trend at present One of the reasons for its inefficiency is that
in the field of trade to resort increasingly to today the NAM is faced with serious internal
unilateral and bilateral coercive measures as problems. Some of these include the membership
exemplified in the application of the Special and criteria which is too liberal and often violated, the
Super 301 of the US Trade and Competitiveness lack of self discipline amongst its members, the
Act, to negotiate reciprocal access to markets and weaknesses in the method of consensus and the
to use cross-retaliation. This practice has not been absence of any mechanism for monitoring of global
stopped even after signing the GATT Treaty at events.
Marrakesh by 115 countries including America in
April,1994. Moreover, the attempt by the INDIA’S NUCLEAR POLICY
developed countries to raise new issues not
directly, linked to trade, such as labour standards, India has been a firm believer in principle of
social conditions and environment at the recently peaceful co-existence and oppose any form of arms
concluded GATT Treaty clearly proves that the race or nuclear proliferation that endanger the
newly formed world trading system is not likely to prospects for peace or threaten the security of any
serve any better the interests of the developing nation. In early years she strongly condemned
countries. nuclear attack on Hiroshima and Nagasaki and stood
The above analysis shows that with the end of for use of nuclear energy only for peaceful purposes.
the Cold War, the threat to and pressure on the But frustrations on foreign policy issues, changing
independence of the non-aligned countries have international climate and threats from nearby
assumed new forms. The present negative trends in countries led India to embark on path of nuclear
the world are contrary to the aims and objectives weaponisation.
of the Non-aligned Movements for a just, equitable
and democratic world order. None of the NAM
India’s Nuclear Weaponisation
countries or group of countries, however, big or It may seem ironical as to why a firm champion of
rich they may be, can face these new realities programme for complete elimination of the nuclear
weapons chose to opt for nuclear weaponisation. process of evolution. The main points of India’s
The reasons are : nuclear policy can be summarized as follows :
l Sino-Indian conflict even after slogans of l Maintain Minimum Nuclear Deterrence :
Hindi-Chini Bhai-Bhai. India has made it clear that the purpose of
l Chinese nuclear explosions from 1964 India’s nuclear weaponisation programme
onwards and her meaning posture during is to prevent blackmailing by other states.
Indo-Pak war (1965). It is not aimed at arms race.
l Pakistan’s clandestine nuclear l No first Use of Nuclear Weapons : India
weaponisation and threat by military rulers has unilaterally declared that it will not be
to use it against India. the country to use weapons at first instance.
It will retaliate only if attacked by nuclear
l Changing international environment that
weapons. To deal with such eventualities,
showed that countries who became nuclear
India has strengthened its command
powers were not sidelined if they could
control mechanism which can strike within
withstand some pressure. China and 24 hours and is capable of inflicting
France tested their weapons as late as unacceptable damage.
signing treaties on disarmament and non-
l India will continue to co-operate in efforts
proliferation.
at disarmament and endeavour for world
l Gradual evolution of discriminatory non-
peace.
proliferation regimes convinced India of
l India’s nuclear weaponisation is under the
hegemonistic designs of big power.
control of National Security Council with
Nuclear Tests PM at the top of the hierarchy.
l No use of nuclear weapons against non-
First Nuclear Test—1974-Pokhran nuclear weapon states. However, in case
Second Nuclear Test—1998-Pokhran of attack by nuclear or biological weapon,
There are five nuclear tests including two sub- India will retain the option of retaliating
kilotons nuclear tests. with nuclear weapons.
l Nuclear retaliation to a first strike will be
International Response massive and designed to inflict
Tests were followed by wide expressed anguish, unacceptable damage.
particularly by Japan, U.S.A., Australia, E.U., New
Zealand. But, India was able to tide over pulls and SIGNIFICANCE OF NUCLEAR TESTS
pressure. It was able to convince the world that India’s nuclear tests in 1998 have been hailed as
nuclear tests were expedient in the interest of peace thumping mark in nuclear energy programme. It
and security in the region. Moreover, India made it has underlined :
clear that she did not want to enter into race for l India’s independence on foreign policy
nuclear armaments and would actively participate in issues which has hitherto been undermined
any endeavour at disarmament provided they are free by threats from Pakistan and China.
from ambiguities and biases in favour of a privileged l India’s self-reliance without being
few. dependent on outside powers for security
and integrity of the Nation.
INDIA’S NUCLEAR DOCTRINE
l The technical know-how of Indian
India’s nuclear policy that has been an outcome of scientists whose temper and morale had
India’s nuclear tests in May 1998 is still in the hitherto been downplayed due to
persistence postponement of ground Assembly (1996) despite opposition from India,

testings. They have got due recognition of Bhutan and Libya.
their persistence work. Article 1 of the treaty prohibits states from
l Uplifted the confidence and morale of nuclear weapons tests explosion or any other
people who felt being let down when there nuclear explosion at any place under its jurisdiction
were persistent threats and blackmailing or control. India opposes it on the ground that it
from close door neighbours. is discriminatory and merely an extension of the
l Shown the world that even if the world is discriminatory NPT system. There are substantial
discriminatory in its approach towards grounds because of which India opposes CTBT.
issues of vital interests, India has adequate l Does not have any provision for time
resources and competent man-power bound nuclear disarmament.
to promote and protect its national l Does not prohibit sub-critical testings and
interests. computer simulation methods for
refinement and modification of nuclear
INDIA’S STAND ON DISARMAMENT armaments.
TREATIES
l More inclined to maintain the status-quo
It is with this line of thinking that India has taken rather than having any commitment to
its stand on CTBT and NPT. complete disarmament.
l It is intended to perpetuate monopolistic
INDIA AND NPT hold of big powers on nuclear weapons
NPT or Non-Proliferation Treaty was proposed by and their delivery system.
the two super powers at Geneva conference (1967). In fact, India’s opposition to CTBT is
From then on, a number of rounds of negotiations grounded in response to the public opinion and
have taken place, but India has refused to sign it reflect the national consensus. But, in future India
on the following grounds. can opt to become a party to CTBT because she
l NPT is against the provisions of has already acquired the arsenal and sophistication
disarmament advocated by United in its delivery system. Moreover, it will send a
Nations. better signal to the world and will be in tune with
l NPT is discriminatory treaty that seeks our commitment to world peace.
to maintain differences between Nuclear
power and non-nuclear powers. NCA-Nuclear Command Authority
l NPT has no provision by which security of The deadlocks and delay in finalizing the India’s
India could be secured from the mighty nuclear command authority were finally settled in
China. Jan, 2003. The out-come was nuclear command
l NPT is favourable for countries who can Authority.
use nuclear weapons. The constitution of nuclear command
Not only India, but even Italy, Brazil, Argentina, Authority is as follows :
Nigeria have refused to sign NPT because of
discriminatory provisions.
I. Political Council
l headed by PM
INDIA AND CTBT l includes Home Minister, Defence Minister
CTBT or Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty was and Finance Minister.
prepared by a committee of the conference on l solely responsible for authorising the use
Disarmament (1994) and adopted by UN General of nuclear weapons.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—31
II. Executive Council but will continue to oppose measure that privileges
only a few.
l headed by National Security Advisor
l provide inputs/information for decision FACTS AND DEFINITION
making
l execute directives of the political council PTBT
Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) that came up for
Political Council
signature in 1963, prohibits testing of atomic
I Headed by the bombs in the air, ocean or land but not underground
Prime Minister testing. India is signatory to this treaty.
Minimum Nuclear Deterrence

Executive Council
A component of Indian nuclear policy by which
II Headed by the she has committed herself to such a stockpile of
National Security Advisor nuclear weapons by which she can retaliate in case
of attack and inflict heavy damage on the enemy.
Chiefs of Staff Committee INDO-PAK RELATIONS

III Headed by
Air Force Ever since the partition of country into India and
Pakistan, the two states have been often engaged
in some sort of tension and conflicts that
Strategic Forces culminated in three wars. The main causes of the
IV strained relations have been as under :
Command
Major Irritants in Indo-Pak Relations
III. Chief of staff (a) Refugees-sent after the partition.
l act as link between and provide military (b) Distribution of assets and properties at the
advice to other agencies time of partition.
(c) Sharing of river water from tributaries of
IV. Strategic Process Command
Indus.
l custodian of nuclear weapons and delivery (d) Status of Kashmir.
system.
(e) Border disputes-stand on LOC (Line of
l administer the nuclear force. Control).
Conclusion (f) Infiltration by Pakistani insurgents.
(g) Pakistan’s aggressive posture; evident in
Thus, India’s nuclear policy has evolved with the
attaining membership of SEATO, CENTO
passage of time and largely is a response to hitherto
nuclear programmes, military strength,
endangered security perceptions. The operation of
activities of ISI etc.
discriminatory frameworks further enhanced India’s
nuclear programme. The tests at Pokhran (II), have (h) Pakistan’s close proximity to China and
revealed India’s strength and posted a deterrent to surrender of a large tract of Indian territory
the blackmailers from neighbourhood. It has made under its occupation.
India’s intentions clear. Moreover, India welcomes (i) Pakistan’s scepticism with India’s stance
any effort for time bound complete disarmament, during the revolt of East Pakistan and
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—31-II
creation of independent state of his Pakistan trip, Pakistan started

Bangladesh. On the contrary India’s supporting terrorists in Punjab.
intervention became a necessity to deal with l 1988—Benazir Bhutto promised to abide
large influx of refugees. by the Shimla Agreement and showed
(j) Islamic state, political instability and accommodative posture. The two countries
dominant military have contributed in agreed to share a number of information
building anti-India posture in the minds of about nuclear energy production, fight
people. terrorists, smugglers and drug traffickers.
(k) Extending support to separatist and terrorist
elements to cause severe deadlocks and Contemporary Issues
instability in India. From 1990 onwards, Pakistan has taken aggressive
stance on Kashmir that greatly hampered the
Major Instances of Conflict prospects for normalisation of relations between
1. 1948-riots the two countries.
2. 1965 war Prime Minister Vajpayee’s visit and Lahore
3. 1971 war Declaration (1999) marked a landmark in history
of the two countries. The grounds for it were
4. 1998 Kargil war
prepared earlier in constant secretary level talks
Steps Taken to Lessen Tensions between two countries in spite of terrorism
sponsored by ISI.
l 1966—Tashkant Agreement-to normalise
Soon the prospects of talks became nil due to
the relations between India and Pak, return
Pakistan’s misadventure in Kargil sector of
the property captured in the war etc.
Kashmir. President Clinton, condemned it for
l 1972—Shimla Agreement-showed faith in settling issues at the cost of human lives. Even
the principles of peaceful co-existence and though Pakistani insurgents and armymen were
non-interference, settlement of disputes routed in Kargil, it continued to help militant
through negotiations. activity in Kashmir.
But Soviet’s intervention in Afghanistan After the bloodless coup in Pakistan, Pakistan
and U.S. strategic involvement with irritant leadership intensified efforts for talks. But India,
Pakistan created new hindrance in Indo- took concrete steps only in 2001. Red Fort attack,
Pak relations. attack on Srinagar airport hampered its momentum.
l 1983—Setting up of a Joint Commission Agra Summit failed because of Pakistan’s insistance
to increase co-operation in the realm of of Kashmir as core issue between the two countries.
economy, culture, information and alike. India, on the other hand wanted its neighbour to
But, acquisition of Harpoone missiles, stop aiding terrorists. Furious of failures, terrorists
India’s insistence on restoration of attacked Indian Parliament and Srinagar Assembly
Democracy in Pakistan, Pakistan’s help to and continued to do so in spite of mounting human
Sikh secessionists in Punjab hindered the costs.
prospects for peace.
l 1985-86 six meetings between Rajeev
Overview of Indo-Pak Relations
Gandhi and General Zia led to some A brief history of thaw in Indo-Pak relationship
slackening of tensions. has occasionally seen close promoximity where
But, suddenly by the end of 1986, the two prospects for peace seemed to be a reality. But,
countries increasingly became suspicious today the people of two nations are so
of each other, Rajeev Gandhi postponed disenchanted with the failure of the leadership,
military establishments and conservative sections was fully in line with provision of Government of
that they have taken upon themselves the task to India Act 1947 that provided for organization of
mend fences. The continuous people to people the Indian Union.
contact through bus/rail travels etc may be helpful
but only if the strong elements in state machinery UN Commission on India and Pakistan
show restraints and commitment to peace as a Soon after reference of Kashmir question to the
value. Security Council of U.N. by India, a commission
named UNCIP was appointed which recommended
Future Issues among other things, a plebiscite in Kashmir. But,
For the time to come following issues will shape it was a failure which it accepted in its final report.
Indo-Pak relations. Later on there were Mc Nanghton plan, Dixon
1. Insurgency in Kashmir backed by ISI. Proposal (1954) and Graham Mission to solve
2. Economic contacts, SAFTA, gas pipeline the issue but they also failed and efforts were
from Iran etc. made at Bilateral Negotiations.
3. Growing stature of India in the region as Simla Agreement
well as world.
Signed between Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi
4. Military manoeuvres and arms race.
and Pakistani President Z.A. Bhutto in 1972. It
5. Rising popularity of conservative section showed commitment in resolving conflict and
in Pakistan political circles as evident in confrontation that had hitherto marred their relations
last election. and work for promotion of friendly and harmonious
Though Pakistan seems to break all roads to relations. India’s success was noteworthy, for it was
peace in the last 60 years, India can not hope to able to acquire control over some strategic positions
benefit the least from being accommodative. It like Kargil.
needs to shed complacency of not being decisive
at crucial moments. It can do so only by INDO-SRILANKA RELATIONS
manoeuvering economic, military and political
India is Sri Lanka's closest neighbour. The
strengths in international arena.
relationship between the two countries is more than
Kashmir Issue in Indo-Pak Relation 2,500 years old and both sides have built upon a
legacy of intellectual, cultural, religious and
Jammu and Kashmir in the northernmost territory linguistic intercourse. In recent years, the relationship
of Indian Union was under the control of Maharaja has been marked by the contacts at the highest
Hari Singh at the time of independence. The delay political level, growing trade and investment,
caused by Maharaja to take a firm stand on the cooperation in the fields of education, culture and
status of Kashmir provided opportunity to Pakistan defence, as well as a broad understanding on major
to attack it, on 15 October, 1947. Soon afterward issues of international interest.
the Maharaja signed the instrument of accession The nearly three-decade long armed conflict
in favour of India, on 26 October, 1947. It was between Sri Lankan forces and the LTTE came to
later ratified by the legislature of the State and an end in May 2009. During the course of the
J and K became a part of Indian Union. conflict, India supported the right of the
But, Pakistan has never accepted Kashmir to Government of Sri Lanka to act against terrorist
be the part of India and promoted insurgency forces. At the same time, it conveyed at the highest
backed by its military and ISI. This issue has been level its deep concern at the plight of the mostly
one of the main causes of confrontation between Tamil civilian population, emphasizing that their
two states even though the accession of the state rights and welfare should not get enmeshed in
hostilities against the LTTE. The conclusion of operational. Another line of credit of USD 425
the armed conflict saw the emergence of a major million for track laying and supply of rolling stock
humanitarian challenge, with nearly 300,000 Tamil for the northern railway line has also been offered
civilians housed in camps for Internally Displaced by the Government of India and various contracts
Persons (IDPs). In June 2009, Prime Minister related to this are under preparation. Other
announced Rs.500 crores as a grant for relief and important infrastructure-related projects that are
rehabilitation in Sri Lanka. So far, India has currently being discussed between the two
provided a total of 250,000 family relief packs for governments include the 500MW coal-based
the IDPs. It also established an emergency medical power plant in Trincomalee and inter-connectivity
unit in the IDP camps, which treated over 50,000 of the Indian and Sri Lankan electricity grids.
IDPs from March to September 2009. Medicines India also continues to assist a larger number of
worth SLR 225 million were also supplied to Sri development projects through its grant funding.
Lankan authorities. India has also consistently These include setting up e-learning centres
advocated the need for IDPs to be resettled to their (Nenasalas), provision of fishing equipment to
original habitations as early as possible. In order cooperatives, supply of buses for assisting
to help with this, India has provided shelter transportation in hilly and remote locations and a
assistance by way of supplying more than 5,200 variety of small development projects in areas like
tonnes of GI sheets for constructing temporary education, health and training in many parts of the
housing for IDPs. In addition, 20,000 starter packs country.
of agricultural implements have been supplied to Trade between India and Sri Lanka has grown
help resettling families begin livelihood generating rapidly after the entry into force of the India-Sri
activities. Since the requirement of de-mining is a Lanka Free Trade Agreement in March 2000.
major constraint on the speed of resettlement, the Bilateral trade touched USD 2.02 billion in 2009
Government of India has fully financed seven with Indian exports accounting for USD 1.7 billion
Indian de-mining teams, which are now engaged and Sri Lankan exports accounting for USD 326
in various sectors in northern Sri Lanka to help million. Sri Lanka is India's largest trade partner in
expedite resettlement. The Government of India SAARC. India in turn is Sri Lanka's largest trade
will continue to remain engaged with the task of partner globally. In July 2008, the two countries
helping resettle all IDPs. completed negotiations on a Comprehensive
The need for a national reconciliation through Economic Partnership Agreement and steps to
a political settlement of ethnic issues has been finalize the Agreement are expected to be taken in
reiterated by India at the highest levels. India's the near future. With FDI approvals of nearly USD
consistent position is in favour of a negotiated 500 million, India is the fourth largest investor in
political settlement, which is acceptable to all Sri Lanka. IOC, Tatas, Bharati Airtel, Ashok
communities within the framework of a united Sri Leyland, L&T and Taj Hotels are amongst the
Lanka and which is consistent with democracy, prominent Indian names present in Sri Lanka.
pluralism and respect for human rights. The Cultural cooperation is a very important aspect
Government of Sri Lanka has conveyed its of the bilateral relationship. The Indian Cultural
assurance that political proposals building on the Centre in Colombo actively promotes awareness
13th Amendment to the Constitution will be of Indian culture by offering classes in Indian
discussed with the Tamil leadership of the country. music, dance, Hindi and yoga. Every year, cultural
Sri Lanka is one of the major recipients of troupes from both countries exchange visits. India
development credit given by the Government of is also committed to the restoration of important
India. A line of credit of USD 167.4 million for icons of the cultural heritage of Sri Lanka.
repair and upgradation of the tsunami-damaged Accordingly, it is participating in the setting up of
Colombo-Matara rail link is already fully an International Buddhist Museum in Kandy and
the restoration of the Thirukeeteswaram Temple in The issue of Chakma refugees and use of
Mannar. Bangladesh’s land for anti-India activity by ULFA,
Given the proximity of the territorial waters of NSCN and others, have hampered the pace of good
both countries, especially in the Palk Straits and relations.
the Gulf of Mannar, incidents of straying of
fishermen and poaching are common. Both Area of Cooperation
countries have agreed on certain practical 1. Bus service between Calcutta-Dhaka
arrangements to deal with the issue of bonafide (1999).
fishermen of either side crossing the IMBL.
2. Credit facilities by India.
Through these arrangements, it has been possible
to deal with the issue of detention of fishermen in 3. Preferential trade agreements and
a humanitarian manner. concessions to boost trade.
Today, the India-Sri Lanka relationship is 4. Against smuggling of arms and
strong and poised for a quantum jump by building ammunition, trafficking in women and
on the rich legacy of historical linkages and strong children.
economic and development partnerships that have
been forged in recent years. INDO-NEPAL RELATIONS
INDO-BANGLADESH RELATIONS The Kingdom of Nepal was founded in 1789 by

Prithvi Narayan Shah. It has common borders with
India played a historical role in the liberation of India and China. It is significant factor for India’s
Bangladesh in 1971 and was the first to recognize security interests in the northern frontier. So, Indian
the independent status of the country. Despite that, government have adopted policies that ensure
there remained causes of strain between the two political and economic stability of the tiny kingdom.
sides.
Major Irritants
Major Irritants
There remains certain areas where strain in
1. Border Clashes relationship was clearly visible. For instance
2. Farakka water Dispute l Nepal’s insistence on changes in Indo-
3. Dispute over Moore Island (Bay of Bengal) Nepal Peace and Friendship Treaty of
4. Refugee problems 1950.
5. Treatment of minorities l Use of Indian land by terrorists from Nepal
6. Islam as State religion for their activities in Nepal.
The Farakka problem created more tension : l Problem faced by Nepalese in Assam and
Despite an agreement (1975) the Bangladesh tried Darjeeling district of West Bengal.
to internationalise the issue by raising it in UN. l Treatment meted out to the Indian citizens
But, an agreement (1977) was signed between two in Nepal in recent times.
countries. The major provisions : (i) Temporary
l Nepal’s tilt in favour of China to get
(ii) Long term. Though a commission was set up
to outline a scheme for sharing water of Ganga, no economic and military support from China.
final solution has been achieved so far. l Strong Maoist base in Nepal fostering anti-
Besides it, there remains a task before the India sentiments.

committee to outline provision for sharing of water l Use of Nepal’s territory by Pakistani
of Teesta and other major rivers. An agreement in terrorist as evident in IC-814 hijacking and
1996 provides for sharing water of Farakka on smuggling of weapons and narcotics
50:50 basis, if its levels falls. through Bihar and U.P.
A significant step towards improvement of silencing of democratic norms, authoritarian

ties between the two neighbours was taken up by tendencies in the institution of monarchy have
National Front Government in India. With the further complicated Indian woes. Declaration of
emergence of multi party democracy in Nepal, this emergency to deal with Maoist insurgency has
trend got a philip. A number of political and been seen with scepticism by Indian leadership.
economic interactions were envisaged and the two For, China’s involvement have become evident.
countries agreed to respect principle of sovereign King Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah’s attempt to
equality, territorial integrity, national garner support from China is likely to endanger
independence, non-interference etc. India granted India’s interest in the region.
concessions to exports from Nepal. The two India is supporter of democracy in Nepal and
countries sought to prepare project reports for time is testimony to that. It has always stood for the
Karnali, Pancheshwar, Sapta Koshi, Burhi Gandak, development of Nepal because its own security needs
Kamla and Bagmati rivers and to install flood could be better met by a prosperous and stable
forecasting and warning system. Pancheshwar country, not the one plagued by instability and chaos.
project was another cooperative venture.
Conclusion
In 1996, a joint working group to tackle the
menace of terrorism, was set up. India, under the The relations between India and Nepal have been
Prime Ministership of I.K. Gujral helped Nepal by close and sympathetic. But, there have been some
giving several unilateral trade and other irritants in this relationship. These differences can
concessions. In 1999, India gave concessions to be amicably resolved by commitment to treaties
transport of Nepal’s cargo from Calcutta port. and projects entered by the two countries. As far
The growing ISI activities, drug smuggling, as India is concerned, it needs to watch out for
illegal trade, circulation of fake Indian currency, China’s involvement in Nepal and be more
illegal arms supply, the hijacking of IC-814 are proactive in expanding the interaction under the
disturbing factors in the Indo-Nepalese relations. auspices of SAARC or otherwise. Nepal, on the
Hrithik Roshan’s incident was an explicit other hand can hope to benefit from India by
articulation of the growing anti-India feeling in imbibing the spirit of democracy and development.
Nepal. This deterioration is alarming. The growing For, India is genuinely sensitive to Nepal’s plight
unemployment in Nepal alongwith the failure of without major reciprocal commitments.
Indian diplomacy can be seen as the possible Mahakali Treaty
causes of this incessant deterioration.
A treaty signed between India and Nepal in 1996
Recent Development by which India acknowledged Nepal’s right to use
water from Mahakali river and the benefits accruing
There emerged a new twist in India’s relationship
out of any project on this river.
with Nepal following the assassination of king
Birendra in 2001. The new king Gyanendra Bir
INDO-CHINA RELATIONS
Bikram Shah is seen to be unfavourable towards
India. Adding to it, is the problem of Maoist China is a mighty nation situated in the north of
elements who have not only organized subversive India. The two countries have ties and interactions
activities in Bihar, Andhra and West Bengal but since the ancient times. It was in the reign
also threatened the joint ventures in power Chandragupta II and Harshavardhana that the
generation. famous Chinese traveller Fa-Hiuen and Hiuen
Nepal’s political instability and economic Tsang came to India. A large number of Chinese
backwardness have been a serious cause of concern students were regular visitor of Nalanda University.
in India. Frequent suspension of government, In modern times, the relationship between the two
countries have been mostly strained. Despite In recent years, China’s softening stance on
India’s sympathies with the newly formed Tibet and implicitly recognising Sikkim as a part
communist government (1950) and its endeavour of Indian Union has led to change in India’s stance
to promote the cause of communist China’s on Tibet. It has become more accommodative of
membership in the U.N. China continues to be a Chinese presence in Tibet.
threat in Indian perspective. Boundary Dispute : Although the boundary
dispute between India and China became stumbling
Major Issues between India and China block in the relations only in 1957; its signs could
Panchsheel : An agreement signed between Nehru be traced to 1954 when Chinese maps showed
and Chou-en-Lai in 1954 that sought to govern parts of Indian territory as its own. In the meantime,
the relationship between India and China on the Chinese soldiers intruded into Indian territory.
basis of five principles : India’s protest was met with the response that ‘the
l Mutual respect for each other’s territorial
Sino-Indian boundary has never been formally
integrity and sovereignty delimited.’ China’s intrusion continued and in
1962 they crossed the McMahon Line. This marked
l Mutual non-aggression
the start of war and India faced massive defeat in
l Mutual non-interference in each other’s
NEFA.
internal affairs.
India has repeatedly stressed restoration of
l Equality and mutual benefits
status quo-ante. But, China showed not only
l Peaceful co-existence reluctance but even captured more land (1986-
It guided the basis of relationship between Arunachal Pradesh).
1954-57, marked by numerous visits and As of now, the discussions are mainly paralyzed
exchanges. This period (3 years) is described as due to ambiguities on 600 km middle sector of the
years of Sino-Indian honeymoon. India supported line of actual control.
China’s membership in U.N. and China replied by
its stand on Goa. Relation in Post Indo-China War Period
Issue of Tibet : It has been a bone of From 1962 to 1971, India and China remained
contention between India and China since 1950, apart. Meanwhile, China came closer to Pakistan
when the Chinese government prepared plans to and created a situation wherein Pakistan attacked
annex it. India on the other hand insisted that India in 1965. Left with limited option and on
China should respect the right to self-rule and account of eagerness shown by former Soviet
settle the issue by holding negotiations with Dalai Union, India signed Tready of Peace, Friendship
Lama. But, China captured Tibet and declared it and Cooperation with Soviets. This horrified China
as an integral part of its territory. A Sino-Tibetan and she became bitter critic of India in East
Agreement was signed in 1951 between Dalai Pakistan crisis and supporter of Pakistan on the
Lama and Chinese government by which China issue of Kashmir. India’s Peaceful Nuclear
was to have control over external affairs, trade and Explosion (1974) and Sikkim’s accession to Indian
communications station and army, but not to Union (1975) aggravated China’s anger.
interfere in internal affairs. India, in the midst of Though, the leadership of the two countries
panchsheel agreement did not act seriously. expressed desire to restore harmony in their
Later on, Chinese aggressive policies led to bilateral relation, it was only after K.R. Narayanan
flight of people into India. Even Dalai Lama was appointed India’s Ambassader to China that
continues to live in exile. India strongly resented something concrete was achieved. Sudden fall of
to China’s stance on Tibet and sided with the Janata government hampered the prospects for good
Tibetans in their demand for autonomy. relations because initially Chinese continued to
see Mrs. Gandhi with apprehension. But, as result countries have shown commitment to tackle the
of her assurance, trade and cultural contacts threat of terrorism together by constituting a joint
increased. working group on terrorism.
Soon after, political deadlocks arose on
Conclusion
account of :
l India’s stance on Soviets presence in The relationship between the two countries with
Afghanistan. distinct socio-economic and political milieu have
l India’s support for Vietnam against
been marked by great ups and downs. While, they
Chinese action. fought wars in the years when their feelings were
striking roots, they have shown more maturity in
l India’s apprehension over opening of
recent years by constantly engaging through trade
Karakoram pass in POK. (Pakistan
and commerce. Except the border dispute, the
Occupied Kashmir)
Chinese leadership have shown tendencies that
l Boundary dispute continued to be a major
have helped ward off tension from the apprehensive
irritant. Indian leadership. In fact, the contemporary, and
Nevertheless, the economic relationship foreseeble internationl milieu demands the two
continued to grow and there was exchange of visits countries to cooperate with one another in
by high level dignitaries of the two countries. establishing a multipolar world.
Contemporary Issues INDIA-U.S.A. RELATIONS
In the decade (1990’s), the distrusts and confusion
were cleared and there was some progress in the India’s foreign policy issues with USA in initial
relations between the two countries. Chinese years were determined by
Premier’s (Li Peng) visit in 1991 after a gap of 31 l Policy of non-alignment in the context of
years and a number of agreements and protocols cold war.

signed by two countries helped ease the tension l It welcomed aid and support from both,
and widen the area of co-operation. It was followed eastern and western blocks, without being
by Indian President K.R. Narayanan’s visit to aligned with any one of them.
Beijing in 1992. A series of measures were proposed l Ideal of Democracy, that have been
and accepted as confidence building measures. cherished by both the countries.
The two sides also agreed to enhance the working
l Frustrations due to debacle over Kashmir
of Joint Working Group (JWG) to pull out troops
issues in U.N. where India expected US to
from border areas. President Zemin’s visit further
support her.
helped on strengthening the cordial atmosphere.
l Stand taken by the two countries on Korean
Indian Defence minister’s (George Fernandes’)
accusation that China was threat no.1 and the Crisis (1950).
nuclear explosions at Pokhran in 1998 halted the l Military alliances like SEATO and CENTO
pace of relationship. But, a visit by Indian wherein Pakistan became a member.

delegation, meeting of Joint Working Group Compromise and Conflicts : While in the
(JWG), visit by Indian External Minister to Beijing political field, there were serious differences
helped in easing the tension. Constitution of between the two countries; United States continued
Eminent Persons Group and military exercises to provide foodgrains, technical cooperation and
between armies of the two countries widened the aid to tide over mounting food-shortage. Under PL
area of cooperation. Even on issues between India 480 programme, USA agreed to provide foodgrains
and Pakistan, China has advocated mutual against rupee payment. Even they provided money
adjustments through negotiations. The two for atomic plant at Tarapore.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—32
Following factors strained the bilateral terrorism in India and softened its stance on
relationship in 1960’s and 1970’s. Kashmir; India responded by providing strategic
l US bombing of North Vietnam (1965). support in the Gulf war (1990-91). The end of
l War between India and Pakistan where US
Cold war and disintegration of the Soviet Union
sided with Pakistan (1965). further helped in strengthening this trend. But,
some of the hitherto dormant issues came to the
l Tashkent Conference showed growing
forefront and irritated the pace of cordial bilateral
Soviet influence in the area and angered
relationship. These includes
the Americans.
l U.S.A’s insistance to India to sign NPT
l Indo-Pak war (1971) where USA even
and refusing her plea of security threat from
threatened to enter Bay of Bengal with its
neighbours.
own ships, against India.
l Alleged violations of Human Rights by
l Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship
India in dealing with secessionist
and Coopertion (1971).
movement in Punjab and North East.
l India’s peaceful Nuclear explosion (1974)
l Issues of democratization of UN, NIEO,
at Pokhran.
nuclear disarmament etc.
l National Emergency (1975-1977) in India.
But, there was some respite in tension due to Recent Developments

changed international climate; end of Vietnam war, The policy of liberalisation pursued by Indian
detente between USA and Soviet Union. US Government was welcomed by American
Secretary of State’s (Henry Kissinger) visit marked establishments. The democratic experience of the
some improvement. Soon it was strained due to two countries and recognition of the role of the
India’s refusal to sign Non-Proliferation Treaty two countries in the emerging world order brought
(NPT). them together. Added to it was the declining geo-
During 1980’s despite change in leadership in strategic significance of Pakistan and its proximity
both the countries and their (Indira Gandhi and to China. Thus, there emerged new areas of
Ronald Reagan) endeavour to evolve friendly and cooperation like,
co-operative relationship, there was serious l Indo-US military exercises.
differences on account of :
l Co-operation in Energy Sector.
l India’s stance on Soviet’s presence in
l Widening the ambit of items of trade.
Afghanistan.
However, India’s opposition to NPT and CTBT
l U.S. supply of arms to Pakistan.
and Pokhran Tests in 1998 aggravated the tension
l US refusal to supply fuel for Tarapore
between the two countries. India, on its part
atomic plant on the gound of not being a continued to master international support by
signatory to NPT. pointing out security threats from defence build
l Military base at Diego-Garcia and growing up in neighbourhood. Growing terrorism in the
presence of USA in the Indian Ocean. region and China’s growing influence convinced
l US’s threat to use Super 301 law for being U.S. of India’s compulsions. It became aware of
unfair trade partner. the fact that India’s stands were necessary in her
own national interest and stability in South Asian
Big Leap Forward region. American insistence on CTBT was eased
From 1990 onwards there was initiation of effort due to its rejection by American Senate.
to improve relation between the two countries. The growing maturity and strength in Indo-
While, USA acknowledged Pakistan’s aid to US relationship received a thumping boost-up in
President Clinton’s visit (2000). He not only using ISRO’s Edusat to bring to Indian students
condemned the redrawing of borders with stains of lectures and courses given by leading American
blood (Chattis Singhpura massacre) but shared professors. The issue of Iranian gas pipeline
Indian concern that negotiations between India continued to chill the prospects of talks. However,
and Pakistan could not proceed without going forward the Bush administration assured India
maintaining the sanctity of Line of Control (LOC). of maintaining the sanctity of Line of Control
The document ‘‘India-US relations : A vision for (LOC). Besides, the two sides showed interest in
the 21st century’’ marked a watershed in the combating the HIV/AIDS, providing disaster relief
bilateral relations. measures and resources etc.
The September, 11 (2001) episode and
declaration of war on global terrorism by America
PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS
and its allies placed Indian concerns at the OF INDO-U.S. RELATIONS
centrestage. The two sides accepted that their l Issue of India’s signing the CTBT : For
defence and security cooperation is a necessity for the time being, U.S. is unlikely to force
promoting freedom, global peace, economic India to sign the treaty because of its
progress and security. Collin Powell (Secretary of engagement in Iraq and war on terror etc.
State) during his visit to New Delhi (2002) held Even India can think of signing it after
discussion in areas of military cooperation, energy, acquiring minimum Nuclear Deterrence.
economic co-operation, science and technology l Issue of India’s membership in UN
etc. Security Council : The big powers led by
In recent times, Condoleza Rice (Secretary of US are likely to allow membership to other
State) in her visit (2005) has made it clear that countries and even India but without veto
India has a major role to play in the emerging power. India can lobby with third world
international situation. She has advocated constant countries and other new entrants either for
US engagement with India to ensure stability, order abolishing veto power or entrusting it to
and peace in this region as well as elsewhere. every permanent member. If done
otherwise, it is tantamount to the principle
Evaluation of equality and democratisation of the
The history of Indo-US relation reveals that despite world body for which India stands.
a long period of scepticism and apprehension as l Military deal between Pakistan and U.S.
regards the stance of one another, the two countries : India should realize that it can not benefit
have been more accommodative of each other since from assertive posture against defence deals
1990’s. Nevertheless, there remains some areas of between US and Pakistan. A sizeable
tension which are likely to be irritant in future. section of American power elite requires
The two sides have entered into a Nuclear market for the defence product and Pakistan
deal after a gap of more than 30 years. India can is a lucrative outlet. Moreover, US in its
buy nuclear fuel and advanced reactors from the Osama hunt can not sideline Pakistan. It is
U.S. India on its part has shown willingness to also beneficial in India’s interest that
allow IAEA to inspect civilian parts of its nuclear Pakistan remains under the American
programme. In the field of defence, the two control. For, military, ISI, fundamentalist
countries have shown keen interest in joint may endanger the prospects for peace in
exercises of the forces. An important agreement the region. Instead, India should build its
signed during the visit of Indian Prime Minister to relationship on its own ground and stature
Washington is between a consortium of 25 U.S. that has been increasingly becoming
Universities and Amity University in India on significant in Indo-U.S. ties.
l As regards multilateral agencies like IMF l India raised voice against colonialism and
and WTO, India and U.S. can come into helped in constitution of a committee of
confrontations. For, protectionist measures, General Assembly for this purpose.
patent laws, etc tilt is in favour of U.S. l India has shown commitment on issues
business establishment. But, India can of Disarmament, discussed within the
hope to benefit by widening its preview of UN provided they are not
coordination with newly emerging discriminatory. In fact, India supports
economic giants. comprehensive disarmament in a planned
l In geo-strategic calculations the two way which can effectively put an end to
countries interests seem to be converging arms race.
on account of culturally diverse countries l As regard its financial obligation, India
with democratic institutions. Their socio- has shown discipline. While some of
economic milieu and ethical perception are the big powers are often reluctant in
likely to stimulate foreign policy fulfilling their liabilities, India has never
orientation that remains committed to defaulted.
Democracy as an Ideal. l India has played significant role in various
peace keeping operations taken under the
INDIA’S ROLE IN UNITED NATIONS auspices of U.N. For example in Korea,
United Nations came into existence on October Indo-China, Congo, Gaza, Cyprus etc. her
24, 1945 to ‘save the future from scourge of role was widely praised. But, experience
war’. India has been one of the 51 original in Sierra-Leone led India to advocate some
members of the organization. India’s foreign modification in the peace keeping
policy perspective have always been in tune with exercise. Thereafter, the Security Council
the objectives of the organization and it has passed a resolution which sought to
actively participated in the activities of the world strengthen the partnership between the
body. On account of its size and population, India troops contributors, the Council and the
has remained an important member and this fact is Secretariat.
recognized even by the organization. l India presented a case for New International
Economic Order (NIEO) for the developing
India’s Participation in U.N. countries in U.N. which led to adoption of
Programmes a resolution for this purpose in General
Assembly (1974).
India’s endeavour to fulfil its role can be
l A large number of Indian personnel have
summarized as under.
rendered valuable services to different
l Commitment to objectives of organization
agencies of U.N. For instance,
by incorporating them in the constitution
(Article 51) or various treaties, declarations ® Mrs. Vijay Lakshmi – President of
and agreements. Pandit General Assembly
l Favoured Universalisation and ® Maulana Abul – Chairman of
Democratization of United Nations by Kalam Azad and UNESCO
admitting new states and giving them say Dr. S. Radhakrishnan
on matters of common and collective
interests. It was due to India’s effort that ® Mrs. Rajkumari – Chairperson of
communist China became a member of UN Amrit Kaur WHO
in 1971. ® V.R. Sen – President of FAO
Conclusion l To reform the Security Council so as to

make it fully deliberative democratic body;
The list of India’s commitment to the objectives
not an instrument of big power interests.
and activities of U.N., is by no means exclusive.
l Security Council is the instrument arm of
Even in contemporary times, when there is some
doubt over relevance of UN in view of KOSOVO the UN. So, its strengthening and
crisis and war in Iraq; India remains committed to democratisation are necessary for its
the world body. For, India hopes that the vitality in the newly emerging world order.
organization has succeeded in its aims of saving l To empower the new member with veto
the mankind from scourge of war and she is quite power or to propose a scheme whereby
optimistic with achievement of such an objective the power be withdrawn from all the
in the future too. members.
Though the talks for reform have remained
Reform of UN and India’s Case for dormant from 1992 onwards; there has emerged a
Permanent Membership of The Security renewed interests in it. Even the Secretary General
Council in his speech has clearly outlined a proposal for
Since its formation, India has stood for the reform.
democratization of UN and effective implementation India’s Claims
of its programmes and policies. But, it is only recently
that there has been wider acknowledgement of the India’s case for permanent membership of the
need to reform the organization. Such changes are Security Council rests on following grounds :
partly a manifestation of changes in international l India has been a founding member of UN
milieu and also a reflection of new issues that are and done its best in fulling the role
being confronted by member states. expected of it.
l India is the largest democracy and a fastly
Agenda for Reform growing economy.
India’s suggestions revolve round following l India has fulfilled its financial obligations
claims. on time without any default.
l To increase the number of members of the l India has genuinely pursued a policy of
Security Council, in view of the increasing national interest which has seldom
membership of the UN from 51 to 192. It threatened the security and integrity of any
should be widened so as to include either 21 other state.
or 27 members. Recently, Group of 4 consisting India, Brazil,
l To increase the number of permanent Japan and Germany has intensified efforts to reform
members of the Security Council only the Security Council. In May 2005, G. 4 proposed
countries who have enthusiastically inclusion of six new permanent and four new non
fulfilled their obligations in achieving the permanent members. However, reports from
objectives of the organization should be Washington saying inclusion of two permanent
included in this category. members, one of which will be Japan seems to
l To grant membership to countries split the group. India is of the opinion that it
representing continents and having fulfills all the conditionalities mentioned by
democratic institutions viz; Nigeria, Brazil Nicholas Burns, (U.S. under secretary of state).
and India. Moreover membership should But, it remains to be seen whether India is able to
also be granted to two fastly growing garner the required support to achieve permanent
eocnomies like Germany and Japan. membership of the council.
Conclusion INDIA AND SAARC

Under these background, India’s case for permanent
membership of the Security Council is as sound as SAARC or ‘‘South Asian Association for Regional
any other giant. But, efficacy of such claims Co-operation’’ was formed in December, 1985 at
ultimately depends on how far Indians are able to Dhaka. India, Pakistan Nepal, Bhutan,
garner the international support. The contemporary Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Maldives are its
trend is in favour of India. For, France, Britain, founding members. Afghanistan became its 8th
Japan, Brazil and many countries have fully member in 2007.
acknowledged India’s role and support her claim. SAARC is the first systematic organizational
But, India has to see that promises are maintained output of efforts at regional level among
and reforms are not biased. It has to manoeuvre member states of South Asia. The original idea
public support for maintaining equality between was put forth by President Zia-ur-Rahman of
all the members of Security Council. The Bangladesh.
indication of non-allocation of veto power to new
members need to be addressed firmly. For this, Objectives of SAARC
India can lobby with other countries, either for l Promote welfare of the people
time bound renunciation of veto power or its l Promote mutual trust and understanding
allocation to all the members. l Accelerate economic growth
FACTS AND DEFINITION l Collaborate with regional and

international organisations with similar
Peace Keeping Operation objectives
l Collaborate in socio-economic, cultural
Exercise undertaken by UN authorized forces to
and scientific fields
maintain peace in region, where violence has
broken out. It has been one of the main engagement But, it also showed commitment to non-
of UN over the last 60 years. interference in internal affairs and respect for the
sovereignty, equality and territorial integrity of
Veto Power member states. It emphasised that decision must
be taken on the basis of consensus leaving aside
Power of the permanent members of the Security
bilateral or contentious issues.
Council by which they can withhold decisions of
the council on any matter that comes before it. It Areas of Cooperation
is an absolute power exercised by an individual
country. SAARC countries have identified some areas of
cooperation.
Security Council The 11 stated areas of cooperation are
Most important instrumental organ of the United agriculture and forestry, health and population,
Nations that carries out its functions as an executive meteorology, rural development; telecommuni-
agency. There are five permanent and ten non- cations; transport; science and technology; postal
permanent members in the Council. services; sports, arts, and culture; women in
development; and drug trafficking and abuse.
General Assembly Other concerns, such as tourism and terrorism,
An organ of the United Nations where all the however, have also been targeted. The charter
member states are represented. It is merely a stipulates that decisions are unanimous and
deliberative body and has to depend on Security that “bilateral and contentious issues” are to be
Council for carrying out the decisions taken by it. avoided.
SAARC Summits Social Charter : The charter deals with

poverty alleviation, health issues, education,
S.No. Year Place human resource development and youth
I 1985 Dhaka mobilisation, promotion of the status of women,
II 1986 Bangalore promotion of the rights and well being of the
child, population stabilisation and drug addiction,
III 1987 Kathmandu
rehabilitation and reintegration.
IV 1988 Islamabad
The charter urges all the member-states to
V 1990 Male
attach importance to social development and
VI 1991 Colombo economic growth. It stresses that legislative,
VII 1993 Dhaka executive and administrative frameworks should
VIII 1995 New Delhi be provided for the progressive realisation of social
IX 1997 Male and economic goals. It asks the SAARC states to
X 1998 Colombo maintain a social policy and strategy to ensure an
XI 2002 Kathmandu overall and balanced social uplift of their people.
XII 2004 Islamabad India’s Role
XIII 2005 Dhaka
India realizes the importance the regional
XIV 2007 New Delhi
organizations are to play in foreseeble future. Since
XV 2008 Colombo its formation, India has played vital role and at
XVI 2010 Thimphu times as a ‘big brother’ in establishing cooperation
XVII 2011 Addu City (Maldives) between members.
XVIII 2014 Kathmandu (Nepal) In later years SAARC sought to tackle issues
XIX 2016 Islamabad (Pakistan) such as women’s participation, drug trafficking,
(Cancelled) tackling terrorism etc. It urged resumption of North-
XX 2018 Sri Lanka (Proposed) South dialogue to normalise the distribution of
world trade, titled in favour of the developed
SAARC IMPORTANT YEARS countries. It established Food Security Reserves
(1988) and adopted convention on Narcotic drugs
Year for Girl Child 1990 (1990).
Year for House 1991
DESIGNATED SAARC DECADES
Year for Environment 1992
Year for Handicapped 1993 1991-2000 SAARC Decade of the Girl Child
Year for Poverty Removal 1995 2001-2010 SAARC Decade the Rights of the
Year for Literacy 1996 Child
Year of Participatory Governance 1997 2006-2015 SAARC Decade of Poeverty
Year of Biodiversity 1999 Alleviation
Year of Contribution of Youth 2010-2020 SAARC Decade of Intra-regional
to Environment 2002-03 Connectivity
SAARC Awareness Year for TB 2004 SAFTA : South Asian Free Trade Area
and HIV/AIDS
The members of SAARC at its 12th summit held
South Asia Tourism Year 2006
in Islamabad (2004) signed a historic Agreement
Green South Asia Year 2007 on Free Trade by agreeing to create a South Asian
Free Trade Area by 2006. It plans to establish a improvement of the legal system and
system of common market, currency and free administration, custom procedures and trade
flow of goods and services between the member facilitation.
states. Nevertheless the agreement puts faith in
preferential treatment of Least Developed Problems Facing the Organization
Countries. The scheme encompasses two stages. The primary idea of setting up SAARC was to
Firstly, the scheme will begin from 2006. Secondly, promote economic, social and cultural development
the member states will subsequently reduce tariffs and to strengthen collective self reliance through
from 0 to 5% till 2015. The member states are not joint action. The disputed bilateral issues were to
bound to abide by the terms of the agreement and be sidelined from SAARC deliberations. The
are left free to pull out of the treaty at any time, cooperation was to be based on the principles of
after it comes into force from January 1, 2006. sovereign equality of member states, territorial
integrity, political independence, non-interference
The SAFTA Agreement
in the internal matters of other states and mutual
The agreement on South Asian Free Trade Area benefits.
(SAFTA) came into effect from January 1, 2006, However, the reality is somewhat different. Its
ushering in an era of free trade in goods among the progress on many issues have been slow and
seven South Asian Association for Regional marred by confrontations among member states.
Cooperation (SAARC) member-countries. It paves Economic disparity and unbalanced development
the way for a full-fledged South Asia economic acts is a major hindrance in realizing the potential
union in the future. of the organization. The commercial rivalries and
As per the agreement terms, India, Pakistan conflicting interests often paralyze the prospects
and Sri Lanka have to scale down their customs for moving ahead. The growing stature of India is
duties to the level of 0-5 percent by 2013. On the also a cause of apprehension among some members.
other hand, the four “least developed” members in The organization has failed to evolve in ASFAN
the SAARC group—Bangladesh, Maldives, Nepal way. Nevertheless, the move towards SAFTA,
and Bhutan—are expected to follow suit by 2018. declining hostility between India and Pakistan
India, being the larger economy among the growing acknowledgement of fair Indian stand,
seven members, has to provide certain concessions seems to move the organization ahead with renewed
to the four least developed countries (LDCs). This vigour and commitment.
would include a compensation mechanism for the
revenue loss that they may incur owing to the cut FACTS AND DEFINITION
in their import duties.
As per the agreement provisions, the trade
Indo-Pak Relation in the Context of
liberalisation programme would not be applicable SAARC
to the tariff lines included in the ‘sensitive’ list of There is no denying the fact that escalated tension
items. Accordingly, India, which ratified the and conflict between India and Pakistan have
agreement at the Cabinet meeting on December severely hampered the prospects of SAARC. The
29, 2005, has finalised two lists for the purpose. futility of Kargil war and infiltration in Kashmir
For Pakistan and Sri Lanka, it has prepared a list have become more than evident. At its best, the
containing 884 items, while that for Bangladesh, member states have interest in ensuring a cordial
Nepal, Bhutan and Maldives, the list contains 763 relation not only in economic realm but also
items. The four LDCs within the SAARC have to political one. Because, an organization can not
be provided technical assistance by the other three hope to benefit the least, if two of its members are
members in training of human resources, continuously engaged in strife and tension.
INDIA AND ASEAN Aims and Purposes

As set out in the ASEAN Declaration, the aims and
ASEAN or ‘‘Association of South-East Asian
purposes of ASEAN are:
Nations’’ was formed in 1967 by Indonesia,
Malaysia, Philippine, Singapore and Thailand 1. To accelerate the economic growth, social
with the main aim of guiding economic progress progress and cultural development in the
and promote economic stability in the region. Later region through joint endeavours in the spirit
on, Brunei (1984), Vietnam (1995), Laos and of equality and partnership in order to
Myanmar (1997), Cambodia (1999) became its strengthen the foundation for a prosperous
members. India became full dialogue partner. and peaceful community of Southeast Asian
India became summit level partner in 2002. Nations;
India’s interaction with ASEAN began as part 2. To promote regional peace and stability
of India’s ‘Look East’ policy when India became through abiding respect for justice and the
a partner in the sectoral dialogue in 1992. This rule of law in the relationship among
was upgraded to a full dialogue partnership in countries of the region and adherence to
1995. In 1996, India became a member of the the principles of the United Nations
ASEAN Regional Forum which is an international Charter;
group for security-related consultations. 3. To promote active collaboration and mutual
India had cordial relations with ASEAN assistance on matters of common interest
countries— Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore till in the economic, social, cultural, technical,
the mid 1960s. There was some disruption during scientific and administrative fields;
the Cold War when ASEAN supported America’s 4. To provide assistance to each other in the
war against Vietnam. After the Cold War (especially form of training and research facilities in
after India’s improved relations with the US and the educational, professional, technical and
China) India and ASEAN have moved closer. India administrative spheres;
is now in a position to offer investments in IT and 5. To collaborate more effectively for the
pharma technologies to ASEAN. Moreover, Japan, greater utilisation of their agriculture and
ASEAN, China, India and South Korea (JACIK) industries, the expansion of their trade,
are working on a free trade arrangement in the
including the study of the problems of
framework of ASEAN + 1. A research at RIS showed
international commodity trade, the
that JACIK has 14 of the world’s largest and fastest
improvement of their transportation and
growing economies with half the world’s
communications facilities and the raising
population (3 billion) and a GNP of over $ 7.2
of the living standards of their peoples;
trillion and a combined official reserves of about
$ 800 million—more than that of EU and the US 6. To promote Southeast Asian studies; and
put together. 7. To maintain close and beneficial
There are now 14 non-ASEAN members in the cooperation with existing international and
ARF besides the ten ASEAN members. The member regional organisations with similar aims and
countries of ARF are Australia, Brunei, Canada, purposes, and explore all avenues for even
China, EU, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, New closer cooperation among themselves.
Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, South
India’s Role
Korea, Russia, Singapore, Thailand, US, Vietnam,
all of which joined ARF in 1994; Cambodia joined India realizes the importance of South-East Asian
in 1995; India and Myanmar in 1996; Mongolia giants in today’s economic scenario. Moreover,
in 1999; North Korea in 2000; and Pakistan in India’s history and its political role over the years
2004. have yielded strong ties with the region. India has,
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—33
in recent times, adopted a look East policy ASEAN SUMMITS

whereby it has attempted to widen its basis of co-
S. No. Year Place
operation in a number of areas with these countries.
Different projects entered into by individual I 1976 Bali
countries, with India are expected to benefit the II 1977 Kuala Lumpur
region as a whole. For example, a road project III 1987 Manila (Philippines)
between India, Myanmar and Thailand is expected IV 1992 Singapore
to link a number of areas. V 1995 Bangkok
At Hanoi (1998) meet, India proposed to VI 1998 Hanoi
strengthen the ties with ASEAN. It showed interest VII 2001 Jakarta
to participate in ‘Initiative for ASEAN integration’ VIII 2002 Phnom Penh
programme. India is also providing scholarship to IX 2003 Bali
100 students for six weeks in IT programme to X 2004 Laos
students of ASEAN countries. Similarly, AIDA-
XI 2005 Kuala Lumpur
ASEAN India Digital Archive, is formed to enable
XII 2007 (January) Cebu
the two sides to share information on linguistic,
cultural and scientific fronts. XIII 2007 (November) Singapore
XIV 2009 (February) Cha-Am (Thailand)
In recent tim es, the Mekong-G anga
cooperation (2000) marks a new phase in India’s XV 2009 (October) Cha-Am Hua Hin
(Thailand)
relations with Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia,
Laos and Vietnam. It has sought to facilitate XVI 2010 (April) Hanoi (Vietnam)
com munication and transportation links to XVII 2010 (October) Hanoi (Vietnem)
enable the people to have artistic and cultural XVIII 2011 (May) Jakarta (Indonesia)
interactions. XIX 2011 (November) Bali (Indonesia)
It has been realized that India can take up XX 2012 (April) Phnom Penh (Combodia)
multifarious activities in consonance with ASEAN XXI 2012 (November) Phnom Penh (Combodia)
to further anti-terrorist declaration issued in 2001. XXII 2013 (April) Bandar Seri Begawan,
Exchange of information will be a very vital Brunei Darussalam
constituent of this cooperation. The meet also XXIII 2013 (October) Bandar Seri Begawan,
analyzed the intricate relationship between abject Brunei Darussalam
poverty which reinforces alienation and terrorism. XXIV 2014 (May) Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar
They considered financial and economic debacle XXV 2014 (November) Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar
as most boggling issue for South-East Asia. XXVI 2015 (April) Kuala Lumpur &
The ASEAN summit (2003) at Bali was Langkawi, Malaysia
marked for two pacts that an ASEAN signed—one XXVII 2015 (November) Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
with China, and the other with India called Treaty XXVIII 2016 (September) Vientiane, Laos
of Amity and Cooperation. India and ASEAN XXIX 2016 (September) Vientiane, Laos
signed three accords on cooperation at Bali on XXX 2017 (April) Pasay, Philippines
October 8, 2003. The accords were a framework XXXI 2017 (November) Pasay, Philippines
agreement towards a free trade area (FTA) by 2011, XXXII 2018 (April) Singapore, Singapore
a joint declaration against terrorism, and New XXXIII 2018 (November) Singapore, Singapore
Delhi’s accession to the ASEAN Treaty of Amity XXXIV 2019 (June) Bangkok, Thailand
and Cooperation (TAC). The documents were
XXXV 2019 (November) Bangkok, Thailand
signed when the ASEAN-10 met for a formal
XXXVI 2020 (April) Da Nang, Vietnam
ASEAN+ India summit.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—33-II
India’s relationship with ASEAN has got and partly of changing status of India as hub of
momentum due to six per cent growth rate of GDP ‘‘knowledge’’ resource.
achieved by India while many ASEAN countries
are still recovering from the crisis of their FACTS AND DEFINITION
economies in 1998.
The Cebu ASEAN Summit: The theme of 2007 LOOK-EAST POLICY
summit was “One Sharing And Caring It is an Indian foreign policy stance by which the
Community.” country is planning to widen its ambit of co-
After discussion and deliberations on a diverse operation with the South-East Asian Nations in
range of issues, leaders of ASEAN signed the Cebu view of gaining ascendance of Malaysia, South
Declaration Towards One Caring And Sharing Korea and Indonesia. Mekong Ganga project and
Community and committed to promote a socially Road link between India and Thailand are part of
prosperous community within the region. The Cebu this re-orientation in Indian foreign policy.
Declaration cited the need to reduce poverty,
protect the rights of children and women, improve BIMSTEC
education and cherish the environment on their
(Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand
way to the economic integration by 2015. The
Economic Cooperation)
document reaffirmed the ASEAN countries’
commitment to realise the Millennium BIMSTEC is a subregional organization formed
Development Goals (MDGs) of the United Nations on 6 June, 1997 at Bangkok. It started with four
as part of their efforts of socio-cultural community original members—Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka
building. The Heads of 10 countries also agreed to and Thailand, Myanmar joined later in the same
rely on the ASEAN Sectoral Ministerial bodies to year. In 2004, Nepal and Bhutan also became its
achieve the goals of their collective social welfare members. The minister of state of foreign affairs
with clear timelines. and trade ministers meet at regular intervals to
Leaders from the 10-member Association supervise the cooperative effort. The organization
considered moving the bloc into a more “rules- is seen as a reliable bridge between SAARC and
based” community at the concluding session of ASEAN because members of both the organizations
the summit on January 15, 2007. ASEAN leaders are present in BIMSTEC.
adopted the Convention on Counter Terrorism, a The organization seeks to promote the socio-
historic pact that enables member countries’ anti- economic development and create an environment
terror units to track movements of suspicious of cooperation in various fields so as to enhance
money or people throughout the region, and to the livelihood of people in the region. Its main
allow for the extradition of terror suspects. The areas of cooperation comprises sectors of energy,
convention is the first and a legally binding one tourism and infrastructure. It has a cooperative
on anti-terrorism. work programme in six key sectors :
l Trade and investment
Conclusion l Technology
l Transport and Communication
To sum up, India’s relation with ASEAN has
l Energy
witnessed some improvement except a setback in
l Tourism
the form of denial of India’s inclusion in ASEAN
l Fisheries
3 (China, Japan and South Korea). Individually,
countries of ASEAN have come into close The members of BIMSTEC came to an
connection with India. Moreover, they have shown agreement on Free Trade Area in Phuket
interest in expanding the purview of existing (Thailand) on 8 Feb., 2004.
relationships. Such realisations are partly a For the first time in the seven year history of
manifestation of emergence of East Asian tigers the organization, the heads of government and
states met at the Bangkok Summit in 2004. The It has resulted in cost effective tradings. However,
BIMSTEC was renamed as Bay of Bengal it also has negative implications in the sense that
Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Euro is competing with dollar in the international
Economic Cooperation. financial market which may hamper the prospect
of Indian business if deflation of Euro occurs.
MEKONG-GANGA COOPERATION Nevertheless, the trend towards integration in Europe
A cooperation of six member states : India, has provided a model to the world to emulate.
Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and The first India – EU summit was held at Lisbon
Vietnam to promote the sphere of tourism, culture in Portugal (2000). The 13th EU-India Summit
and education. It aims at “strengthening tradi- was held in Brussels on 30 March, 2016. The EU
tional bonds of Friendship”. It seeks to increase was represented by Mr. Donald Tusk, President of
movement and transportation of goods and people the European Council, and Mr. Jean-Claude
between member states, create infrastructure and Juncker, President of the European Commission.
participate in poverty eradication in the area. The Republic of India was represented by Prime
Minister Shri Narendra Modi.
INDIA AND EUROPEAN UNION The leaders strongly condemned the terrorist
European Union or EU is a group of European attacks in Brussels on 22 March, 2016 as an
nations committed to economic union and greater unacceptable affront to our open democratic
political integration. It came into existence in 1993 societies and extended their deepest condolences
and its headquarter is at Brussels. The six original to the families and friends of the victims. The EU
members include; Belgium, France, Netherlands, and India will remain united and firm in the fight
Italy, Luxemburg and West Germany. Later on against hatred, violent extremism and terrorism.
following countries joined EU.
INDIA AND G-8 (G-7 + 1)
In 1973 UK, Denmark and Ireland
In 1981 Greece It is a group of eight major industrial economies
In 1986 Spain and Portugal of the world. Its members are United States, Japan,
Germany, France, Britain, Italy, Canada and
In 1995 Austria, Finland and Sweden.
Russia. Russia became a full fledged member at
Twelve member of the EU changed over to Denver Summit, 1997. It seeks to discuss and
common currency from Jan. 1, 2002 In May outline strategies to deal with major economic and
2005, thirteen new members joined the political issues. It works in close association with
organizations. Total strength has gone to 28. the international financial institutions.
Institutions
INDIA AND INDIAN OCEAN
EU operates through following institutions :
(i) The Council having representative from Strategic importance of territorial location of a
each state (usually the foreign minister). country can not be over emphasized. But, this
become more so when one talks about Indian
(ii) The Council of Ministers is a deliberative
Ocean. It is the main route between East and West,
but not a legislative body.
witnessing transactions of varied products,
(iii) The European Court of Justice at particularly oil.
Luxemburg can decide cases and its
Political turbulance and confrontations between
judgements are binding.
big powers has led to a situation where demands
(iv) Economic and Social Committee is a have been made to make the Indian ocean as a
advisory body. peace zone. India stands on the front to champion
EU has serious implications for Indian the cause of peace and stability in the Indian Ocean
entrepreneurs. The advent of Euro has simplified (1975) because of its strategic as well as normative
trading procedures and provided a common market. presumptions.
Causes Indian Ocean Rim Association for

l Presence of big powers in Indian Ocean area Regional Co-operation
l Military base at Diego Garcia-America In recent times Mauritius along with India and
l Soviet Ships armed with Nuclear Weapons thirteen other states formed ‘‘Indian Ocean Rim
l Chinese presence at Cocco Islands Association for Regional Co-operation’’ to promote
l French intervention from T.Union Island. cooperation among the countries lying in the zone.
It has been named M.T signifying the number of
Various Measures
founding members. Its major objectives are
Efforts at declaring Indian Ocean a ‘Peace Zone’ l To promote the welfare and living standard.
include
l To promote sustainable development.
l 1964—Sri Lanka suggested for it-NAM
summit l To enhance economic cooperation.
l 1970—NAM summit at Lusaka l To help on knowledge front.

l 1971—UN-General Assembly adopted a l To increase communication.
resolution l To promote trade and commerce.
l 1993—UN-General Assembly passed the
resolution Conclusion
Basis of India’s claim India’s commitment to declare Indian Ocean as a
peace zone is a hyphen that joins its commitment
India took upon itself the task of ensuring peace
to soverign equality of all states. In this endeavour,
in Indian Ocean area because
it has garnered the third world solidarity. But, the
l It is a South Asia country, surrounded by
Indian Ocean on two sides. big powers are reluctant to accept Indian demands.
l It is in line with India’s policy of non-
They are not only apprehensive of Indian stand
alignment and peaceful co-existence. but are fearful of losing strategic leverage. They
l It may create a situation of arms race and
have continuously postponed conferences and
fearness among the countries lying in the meetings in this regard. But, they have realized
vicinity of military bases or site of the strengths of Afro-Asian countries. A combined
confrontations. effort and systematic bargaining has a role to play
l It threatens the territorial integrity and in this regard. So, India will have to continue to
sovereignty of neighbouring countries. play a big role for the time to come.
1. Former USSR was called a ------ state. 3. ------ stands for a family of self-governing
(a) National nations, united to each other by ties of
(b) Multi-national equality and living at peace and concord
(c) Nation with each other.
(d) None of the above (a) Internationalism
2. Nationalism should be universalised so as to (b) Hegemony
constitute real: (c) Imperialism
(a) Nationalism (d) None of the above
(b) Nation 4. The concept of internationalism desires a
(c) Internationalism revision of the traditional doctrine of:
(d) None of the above (a) Liberty
(b) Sovereignty 11. Who said that nationality is a nation in the

(c) Equality making and as soon as a nationality secures
(d) Fraternity political independence, it becomes a notion?
5. Which of the following organisations contains (a) Garner (b) Laski
the essence of the concept of (c) Bryce (d) Zimmern
internationalism? 12. Nationalism implies the exclusive right of
(a) United Nations the people of country to lead an independent
(b) League of Nations and separate:
(c) NATO (a) Political life
(d) Both (a) and (b) (b) Economic life
6. Internationalism desires prevalence of sane (c) Social life
and sensible: (d) None of the above
(a) Nationalism 13. ------ is different from cosmopolitanism
(b) Nationality irrespective of the fact that both desire
(c) Nation universal harmony and goodwill.
(d) None of the above (a) Nationalism
7. Which of the following is largely a non- (b) Internationalism
political concept and can exist even under (c) Imperialism
foreign domination? (d) None of the above
(a) Nation 14. Nationalism emerged in the ------ as a result
(b) Nationalism of the decline of the papacy and the rise of
(c) Nationality sovereign secular states in the early modern
(d) None of the above period.
8. Ramsay Muir believes that language counts (a) West (b) North
far more than race in the moulding of a: (c) East (d) South
(a) Nation 15. The term ------ signifies the consciousness of
(b) Class unity reinforced by psychological and
(c) Society spiritual feelings.
(d) None of the above (a) Imperialism (b) Nationality
9. Who said that ‘Nationality, like religion is (c) Nation (d) None of the above
subjective; psycological; a condition of 16. Nationalism came into its own in the
mind; a spiritual possession; a way of feeling; early:
thinking and living’? (a) 19th century (b) 18th century
(a) Hayes (c) 10th century (d) 17th century
(b) Burns 17. MK Gandhi subscribed to the ideal of a :
(c) Zimmern (a) World federation
(d) None of the above (b) World religion
10. ------ implies the exclusive right of a particular (c) World political party
set of people of a country to lead an indepen- (d) All of the above
dent and separate life. 18. Loyalty to the ------ is over whelmingly
(a) Nation predominant over loyalty to the world
(b) Nationalism community.
(c) Nationality (a) Society (b) Nation
(d) None of the above (c) Government (d) None of the above
19. Who was a relentless critic of the (a) Patriotism (b) Racial unity
mononational state and the right of self (c) Social solidarity (d) Fraternity
determination? 27. A great advance in internationalism was made
(a) Lord Acton (b) R Muir in the first quarter of the twentieth century
(c) Hobson (d) Laski It was:
20. Which of the following is not an example of (a) End of the World War I
multi-national states? (b) Russian Revolution
(a) Switzerland (b) USA (c) Formation of the League of Nations
(c) USSR (d) Argentina (d) None of the above
21. The establishment of the League of Nations 28. Who among the following statemen played
in 1920 represented the triumph of: a cardinal role in the establishment of the
(a) Gandhian society League of Nations?
(b) Nehru socialism (a) Jawaharlal Nehru
(c) Wilsonian idealism (b) Winston Churchill
(d) None of the above (c) Woodrow Wilson
22. Fisher said that it is indisputable that of the (d) Robert McNamara
greatest general contribution of the League 29. Who stated that, “To have suffered, rejoiced
of Nations was its influence in spreading the and hoped together” makes a people a
idea of international: nation?
(a) Cooperation (a) De Tocqueville
(b) Justice (b) Zimmern
(c) Subordination (c) Ernest Renan
(d) None of the above (d) None of the above
23. Who said that nationalism accepted the form, 30. The original membership of the League of
but changed it by animating it with a new Nations was:
feeling of life and with a new religious (a) 40 (b) 41
fervour? (c) 42 (d) 43
(a) Hayes (b) Mill
31. The work Essays on Nationalism is authored
(c) MacIver (d) Hans Kohn by :
24. Who said that a nation is a culturally (a) Herry Hart
homoge-neous social group which is at once (b) HAL Fisher
conscious and tenacious of its unity of (c) CJ Hayes
psychic life and possession? (d) None of the above
(a) Hayes (b) Acton 32. Most commonly the word ‘Nation’ signifies
(c) Garner (d) Kohn the existence of:
25. A sovereign ------ remains the basic (a) Common racial stock
foundation of all international activity. (b) Common historical traditions
(a) Nation-state (c) Common political consciousness
(b) Democratic-state (d) None of the above
(c) City-state 33. The work ‘Nationalism and Social Communi-
(d) None of the above cation’ An Inquiry into the Foundation of
26. During the French Revolution, the term Nationality is authored by:
‘nation’ came into great popularity Then it (a) Hallowel (b) GC Field
was used to mean: (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) Karl W Deutsch
34. It can be said that the triumph of Wilsonian 42. Among the factors which hinder the growth
idealism manifested in: of internationalism an important one is:
(a) The establishment of the League of Nations (a) Racism
(b) The Treaty of Versailles (b) International division of labour
(c) The formation of the UNO (c) Nationalism
35. Who branded the principle of national self- 43. Which among the following works is
determination as a ‘retrograde step in human authored by JA Hobson?
history’? (a) Imperialism and Civilization
(a) James Bryce (b) Harold Laski (b) Nationalism, Myth and Reality
(c) MacPherson (d) Lord Acton (c) Imperialism : A Study
36. Two prominent instances of people of (d) All of the above
different racial origins living together and 44. Who said that over the period of time,
forming a strong nationality are: nationality became, “one of the most
(a) Japan and China powerful anaesthetics”?
(b) Switzerland and Canada (a) Gandhiji (b) Lohia
(c) Sri Lanka and Myanmar (c) Tagore (d) Vivekanand
(d) United States and Britain
45. Which among the following Revolution is
37. Who called nationalism ‘man’s other
said to be primarily responsible for revival
religion’?
of national sentiment?
(a) Hayes (b) Hallowell
(a) Glorious Revolution
(c) Shillito (d) None of the above
(b) Industrial Revolution
38. The League of Nations was brought into (c) Russian Revolution
existence as a consequence of the: (d) French Revolution
(a) Russian Revolution
(b) World War I 46. Which of the following works is authored by
(c) Treaty of Versailles Hans Kohn?
(d) All of the above (a) A Democratic Process
(b) The Idea of Nationalism
39. Who among the following regard language (c) Representative Government
as the most important factor in the growth of (d) International Politics
nationalism?
(a) Mazzini (b) Fichte 47. Who expounded the idea of the State as
(c) Ramsay Muir (d) All of these containing all the worth which the human
being possessed?
40. It can be said that the earliest known idea on
(a) Kant (b) Hegel
internationalism begin with:
(c) Marx (d) Schopenhaur
(a) Machiavelli’s The Prince
(b) Plato’s Creto 48. Who among the following has argued that
(c) Dante’s De Monarchia the security of a multi-national state is always
(d) None of the above precarious as soldiers drawn from different
41. The book Nationalism and Internationalism nationalities lack the common incentive of
is authored by: oneness of interests and purposes?
(a) Ivor Jennings (a) Barthelemy
(b) Ramsay Muir (b) JS Mill
(c) Ebenstein (c) Mosca
49. The doctrine of national self-rule was 56. Political realism is contrary to the ------
accepted and incorporated in: approach to International politics.
(a) Preamble to the Constitution of India (a) Pragmatic (b) Legalistic
(b) Charter of the United Nation (c) Moralistic (d) Both (b) and (c)
(c) NATO Manual 57. According to Morgenthau, the laws by which
(d) Both (b) and (c) man moves in the social world are :
50. Around the world the contemporary opinion (a) Man-made (b) Eternal
is in favour of: (c) Temporary (d) Obscure
(a) Nationalism (b) Regionalism
58. Which theory is the result of the behavioural
(c) Internationalism (d) Both (a) and (c)
revolution in social sciences?
51. Who held the view that the nation of a (a) The Systems theory
sovereign independent state, on the (b) The Realist theory
international side is fatal to the well-being of (c) The Idealist theory
humanity? (d) The Pluralist theory
(a) Laski
59. Who treats equilibrium mainly in the context
(b) Garner
of balance of power system?
(c) Woodrow Wilson
(a) Fox (b) Kaplan
(c) Liska (d) Merriam
52. The book Commonsense of World Peace is
60. Charles MC Clelland’s concept of system
written by:
comes from:
(a) Christopher Hayes(b) HF Wells
(a) Geography (b) Biology
(c) HJ Laski (d) HJ Morgenthau
(c) Economics (d) History
53. Who among the following was responsible
61. Who treats six models of major international
for a scheme of an international league to
system?
enforce peace?
(a) Rosenau (b) Lasswell
(a) Fichte (b) Seeley
(c) Kaplan (d) None of the above
(c) Telleyrand (d) None of the above
54. The principle of national self determination 62. According to Kaplan, the most likely
implies that every nation should be organised transformation of the balance power system
as an independent political entity Which of is into a:
the following are in some way associated (a) Bipolar System
with this principle? (b) Unipolar System
(a) Congress of Vienna (1815) (c) International System
(b) President Wilson’s 14 Points (1917) (d) None of the above
(c) French Revolution 63. Who produced formulations of the decision-
(d) Both (a) and (b) making theory in 1738?
55. Who among the following implicitly (a) Anthony Downs (b) Daniel Bernouli
espoused the cause of internationalism by (c) David L Sills (d) Robinson
proposing the establishment of a general 64. Who was the chief exponent of the Realist
Parliament for Europe? theory?
(a) Winston Churchill (a) Kennan
(b) Charles De Gaulle (b) Hans Morgenthau
(c) Saint Simon (c) Watkins
(d) None of the above (d) Easton
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—34
65. Erich Kaufmann wrote in a book that the 74. Who was among the first to recognize the
essence of the State was: importance of the game theory in
(a) Development of power International politics?
(b) Increase of power (a) Martin Shubik (b) Karl Deutsch
(c) Display of power (c) Kaplan (d) Both (a) and (b)
(d) All of the above 75. The most notable contribution to an
66. Who said that the study of politics is the understanding of the decision-making theory
study of influence and the influential in his has been made by:
work on politics? (a) Joseph Frankel (b) John Burton
(a) Kennan (b) Lasswell (c) Modelski (d) Lasswell
(c) Morgenthau (d) Watkins 76. The first major attempt at introducing the
67. Who gave theoretical orientation to realism? decision-making analysis in the study of
(a) Bross (b) Burton Foreign Policy was made by:
(c) Morgenthau (d) Lasswell (a) Richard Synder (b) Oran R Young
68. The two most vital concepts in which the (c) Anthony Downs (d) A Robinson
inconsistency of Morgenthau’s theory is 77. Which of the following writers brought about
most clearly revealed are: an enrichment of the decision-making
(a) Power and Society approach to the study of political science?
(b) Power and Statesmanship (a) William Riker (b) James Robinson
(c) Diplomacy and Society (c) Herbert Simon (d) All of these
(d) Diplomacy and Statesmanship 78. The systematic approach to International
69. According to Morgenthau, the best means of politics emphasises the significance of the
preserving peace in a society of sovereign interaction of behaviour of:
nations is: (a) Communities (b) States
(a) National interest (b) Diplomacy (c) Cultures (d) All of these
(c) Foreign trade (d) Autonomy 79. Machiavelli suggested that the norms of
70. Who believes that a theory of International behaviour for individuals in society and for
politics is “but a specific instance of a statesmen in international relations are:
general theory of politics? (a) Similar
(a) Tucker (b) Morgenthau (b) Different
(c) Kennan (d) Wasserman (c) Contradictory
71. Morgenthau’s description of the drive for
power as irrational is identical with that of: 80. Who gave the first serious challenge to the
(a) Hobbes (b) Locke scientific method giving rise to the
(c) Marx (d) JS Mill controversy between sc ience and
traditionalism?
72. According to Morgenthau, the social world (a) P Kurtz (b) Hedley Bull
is a projection of: (c) David Singer (d) Rosenau
(a) Human nature (b) Society
81. A major difficulty with the scientific theorists
(c) Classes (d) Caste
lies in their overstress on:
73. The model which the game theory employs (a) Values
is that of a game of: (b) Precision
(a) Amateurs (b) Strategy (c) Norms
(c) Chance (d) All of the above (d) None of the above
82. Who defined power as comprising “anything 90. The whole case of idealism is based on the
that establishes and maintains the control of general ideal of evolutionary progress in:
man over man”? (a) Culture
(a) Morgenthau (b) Strauss (b) Society
(c) Wasserman (d) Tucker (c) Politics
83. What, according to Kaplan, could develop (d) None of the above
as a result of the extension of the functions 91. Who points out that national interest is a
of essential actors in a loose bipolar system? matter of interpretation which differs from
(a) The system of hegemony Statesman to Statesman?
(b) Universal international system (a) Sprout (b) Spiro
(c) Colonial system (c) Kenneth (d) Wasserman
(d) None of the above 92. Which approach is partial approach to the
84. Which system means a system in which the study of international politics?
Soviet Society becomes more open and less (a) Decision-making Approach
aggressive and the American Society (b) Realist Approach
becomes less defensive of the international (c) Idealist Approach
status quo of its own choice? (d) Games Theory Approach
(a) The Bipolar system 93. Who emphasised the importance of
(b) The Detente system communi-cations or flow of information for
(c) The Bloc system the proper understanding of international
(d) None of the above relations?
85. A system connotes ------ between units. (a) Karl Marx (b) Karl Deutsch
(a) Defference (b) Relationship (c) Synder (d) Palmer
(c) Similarity (d) None of the above 94. Who emphasised the need of combining the
86. The theory of game has been developed classical and scietific approaches for the
mainly by: study of international relations?
(a) Mathematicians (b) Economists (a) Morgenthau
(c) Sociologists (d) Both (a) and (b) (b) Palmer and Perkins
87. ------ was the cradle of Marxist-Leninist theory (c) Sprout
of International relations. (d) Lasswell
(a) China (b) Soviet Union 95. In Marxian analysis, an Important role is
(c) Japan (d) America assigned to the production system and the:
88. Marxists seek to examine each issue of world (a) Economy
politics, whether national or international, (b) Class relations
from the standpoint of: (c) International relations
(a) Historical materialism (d) None of the above
(b) State 96. Which of the following is not included in
(c) Government the Marxian theories about international
(d) None of the above politics?
89. What is the essence of all politics, national (a) The theory of proletarian internationalism
or international, according to Morgenthau? (b) The theory of imperialism
(a) Altruism (c) The theory of peaceful co-existence of
(b) List for power states
(c) Patriotism (d) The theory of national self-determination
(d) None of the above to the point of secession
97. What, according to Marx, is the fundamental 99. Which approach represents an attempt at
cause of the development of a thing? applying mathematical models to
(a) Its high origin International politics?
(b) Its inner harmony (a) Idealist approach
(c) Its contradictoriness (b) Realist approach
(d) None of the above (c) Game theory approach
(d) Decision-making approach
98. Marxists have a ................ view of world
100. Which of the following account for the
politics.
advent of the general system theory?
(a) Static (a) Warld War II
(b) Prudent (b) Communication revolution
(c) Dynamic (c) Behavioural revolution
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(b) (c) (a) (b) (d) (a) (c) (a) (c) (b)
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
(c) (a) (b) (a) (c) (a) (a) (b) (a) (d)
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
(c) (a) (d) (c) (a) (a) (c) (c) (c) (c)
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
(c) (c) (d) (a) (d) (b) (c) (c) (d) (c)
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
(b) (c) (c) (c) (d) (b) (b) (b) (b) (c)
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
(a) (b) (a) (d) (c) (d) (b) (a) (b) (b)
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
(c) (a) (b) (b) (d) (b) (c) (d) (b) (b)
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
(a) (a) (b) (d) (b) (a) (d) (b) (b) (b)
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
(b) (a) (b) (b) (b) (d) (b) (a) (b) (b)
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
(d) (a) (b) (b) (b) (b) (c) (c) (c) (c)
lll
Unit
7
Miscellaneous Questions
1. Which of the following is not an organ of (c) Normative political (iii) August
Kautilya’s state? theory Comte
A. Swami B. Amatya (d) Scientific/inductive (iv) Aristotle
C. Varna system D. Danda method
2. Plato’s communism of family and property Codes:
was largely derived from the experience of: (a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) Stagira (b) Sparta A. (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
(c) Athens (d) Venice B. (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
Choose the correct answer: C. (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
A. (a) and (b) B. (a) and (c) D. (iv) (i) (iii) (ii)
C. (c) only D. (b) only 5. Given below are two statements, one labelled
3. Scholasticism of middle ages sought to as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as
Reason (R).
establish:
Assertion (A): Power corrupts and absolute
(a) Supremacy of political domain over the
power corrupts absolutely.
spiritual.
Reason (R): Democracy is the best check
(b) The autonomy of intellectual freedom
against the misuse of power as the power is
over the political regimes. distributed among various groups.
(c) The ascendancy of theology over the In the context of the above two statements
philosophy. which one of the following is correct?
(d) The subordination of rational element to A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the
the theological element of the church. correct explanation of (A).
Select the correct answer from the codes B. Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not
given below : correct explanation of (A).
A. (c) and (d) B. (a) and (d) C. (A) is true, but (R) is false.
C. (a) and (c) D. (b) and (d) D. (A) is false, but (R) is true.
4. Match the following: 6. Match the following:
List-I List-II List-I List-II
(a) Modern political (i) Plato (Thinker) (Idea)
thinker (a) John Locke (i) Partyless
(b) Positivist school (ii) Machiavelli democracy
269
(b) Hobbes (ii) Consent 9. Communitarian theory lays emphasis on:

theory A. Community as an inescapable ideal
(c) Jaya Prakash (iii) Neo-liberalism B. Unlimited freedom of the individual
Narain C. Limited role of the state
(d) Robert Nozick (iv) Absolute D. Partial regulation of market economy
sovereignty
10. Given below are the two statements, one
Codes:
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
(a) (b) (c) (d)
labelled as Reason (R). Select the correct
A. (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
answer from the codes given below.
B. (i) (iii) (iv) (ii)
Assertion (A): Behavioural political theory
C. (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
sought to eliminate the role of values and
D. (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
make Political Science a pure science and
7. Match the items of List-I with items of List- quantitative.
II by selecting the correct answer from the Reason (R): Political Science, being a social
codes: science, can never be value-free as it deals
List-I List-II with human beings who are value-bound.
(Thinkers) (Theories) A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the
(a) Mao Tse Tung (i) Proletarian correct explanation of (A).
Dictatorship B. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not
(b) Lenin (ii) Cultural the correct explanation of (A).
Revolution C. (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(c) Marx (iii) One Country D. (A) is false, but (R) is true.
Socialism
(d) Stalin (iv) Communist 11. In whose description Maulana Azad,
Party as the Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel and
Vanguard of the Rajendra Prasad formed ‘an oligarchy within
proletariat the (Constituent) Assembly’?
Codes: A. Granville Austin B. Morris Jones
(a) (b) (c) (d) C. V.P. Menon D. Richard Sisson
A. (ii) (iv) (i) (iii) 12. Which one of the following Acts has not
B. (iii) (i) (iv) (ii) been passed under article 34 of the Indian
C. (iv) (ii) (i) (iii) Constitution?
D. (ii) (iv) (iii) (i) A. The Border Security Force Act
8. Rearrange the following works of Karl Marx B. The Police Forces (Restriction of Rights)
in sequential order in terms of Publication Act
Year. C. Armed Forces Special Power Act
(a) Critique of Political Economy D. The Army Act
(b) Poverty of Philosophy 13. “The Supreme Court of India is at long last
(c) Communist Manifesto becoming, after thirty two years of the
(d) The Holy Family Republic, the Supreme Court for Indians”.
Codes: Who said this?
A. (d), (b), (c) and (a) A. Justice V.R. Krishna Aiyyer
B. (a), (c), (d) and (b) B. Justice P.N. Bhagwati
C. (b), (a), (d) and (c) C. Upendra Baxi
D. (d), (c), (b) and (a) D. Nani Palkhiwala
Miscellaneous Questions l 271
14. “India has a hallowed place in discussions of 18. Rearrange the following in chronological
democracy...... But it has become less tolerant, order:
less secular, less law-abiding, less liberal. And (a) Punchhi Commission
these two trends—democratization and (b) Anandpur Sahib Resolution
illiberalism are directly related”. Who wrote (c) Administrative Reforms Commission
this? (d) Rajamannar Committee
A. Atul Kohli Choose the correct code:
B. Sunil Khilnani A. (d), (a), (b) and (c)
C. Fareed Zakaria B. (b), (d), (a) and (c)
D. Paul R. Brass C. (a), (b), (d) and (c)
D. (c), (d), (b) and (a)
15. In which one of the following cases the
Supreme Court of India has laid down 19. Who among the following was not the
exhaustive guidelines for preventing sexual speaker of the Lok Sabha?
harassment of working women in place of A. Rabi Ray
their work? B. Hukum Singh
A. Hussainara Khatoon V. State of Bihar C. Baliram Bhagat
B. Delhi Domestic Working Women’s Forum D. Gopal Swarup Pathak
V. Union of India 20. Match the following and select the correct
C. Olga Tellis V. Bombay Municipal pairs:
Corporation List-I List-II
D. Vishakha V. State of Rajasthan and others. (Authors) (Books)
16. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct (a) Norman D. (i) The success of India’s
answer from the codes given below: Palmer Democracy.
List-I List-II (b) Granvelli (ii) Elections and Political
(Leaders) (Political Parties) Austin Development: South
Asian Experience
(a) Ram Vilas Paswan (i) Samajwadi
(c) Myron (iii) Indian Constitution:
Party
Weiner The cornerstone of A
(b) H.D. Kumarswamy (ii) Nationalist
Nation
Congress Party
(d) Atul Kohli (iv) Politics of Scarcity
(c) Praful Patel (iii) Janata Dal
Codes:
(Secular)
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(d) Akhilesh Yadav (iv) Lok Janshakti
A. (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
Party
Codes: C. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(a) (b) (c) (d) D. (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
A. (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
B. (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) 21. Which of the following were described by
C. (ii) (i) (iv) (iii) David Easton as intellectual foundations of
D. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) the System Analysis? Give the correct answer
from the codes given below:
17. How many functional items have been placed (a) Regularities (b) Verification
within the purview of municipalities by the (c) Techniques (d) Quantification
Twelfth Schedule to the Constitution? Codes:
A. 18 B. 30 A. (a) B. (a), (b)
C. 35 D. 40 C. (a), (b), (c) D. (a), (b), (c), (d)
22. The study of comparative politics became (d) France (iv) Due process of law
significant after the: Codes:
(a) World War I (a) (b) (c) (d)
(b) World War II A. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(c) Emergence of new nations B. (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
(d) Rise of middle eastern nations C. (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
Choose the correct answer: D. (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
A. (a) and (b) B. (b) and (c)
27. Which one of the following statements is not
C. (a) and (d) D. (b) and (d)
correct in regard to Aristotle’s classification
23. Who among the following is regarded as the of governments?
Father of Comparative Politics? A. The classification of governments was
A. Plato B. Aristotle on the basis of number of people
C. Lucian Pye D. G.A. Almond involved in the task of governing.
24. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct B. Whether rulers governed in common
answer by using the codes given below: interest (the genuine form) or in their
List-I List-II own (perverted form)
(Author) (Title) C. The government is more effective and
(a) C.W. Mills (i) The ruling class stable when rulers govern in the long
(b) Vilfredo Pareto (ii) Iron Law of interest
Oligarchy D. The government is captured by shared
(c) Gaetano Mosca (iii) The Power Elite interest and remains insensitive to shared
(d) Roberto Michels (iv) Circulation of interests of the whole community.
Elites 28. The crises described by Leonard Binder et
Codes: all. In their book “crises and sequences in
(a) (b) (c) (d) Political Development” are:
A. (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) (a) Identity crises
B. (i) (iii) (iv) (ii) (b) Integration crises
C. (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) (c) Legitimacy crises
D. (iii) (iv) (i) (ii) (d) Resource Mobilisation crises
25. Which of the following is not true of pressure Codes:
groups? A. (a) B. (a), (b)
(a) interest articulation C. (a), (b), (c) D. (a), (b), (c), (d)
(b) funding the political parties 29. Which of the following factors are related to
(c) influencing the policies of the load capacity in the communications theory?
government (a) responsiveness (b) fidelity
(d) implementation of policies (c) background noise (d) distortion
Choose the correct answer from the below: Select the correct answer from the codes
A. (a) and (b) B. (b) and (c) given below:
C. (d) only D. (c) only A. (a) and (b) B. (b) and (c)
26. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct C. (a), (b) and (c) D. (a), (b), (c) and (d)
answer from the codes given below: 30. Which one of the following said, “the power
List-I List-II is a matter of getting people to do what they
(a) India (i) Rule of Law would not have otherwise done”?
(b) U.S.A. (ii) Judicial Review A. Hannah Arendt B. Robert Dahl
(c) U.K. (iii) Two sets of courts C. Max Weber D. Hans Morgenthau
31. Who among the following is not associated 38. The Chief Information Commissioner and
with evolving the principles of organisation? Information Commissioners in India are
A. Henri Fayol B. L.D. White appointed for a term of:
C. L.F. Urwick D. Luther Gulick A. 3 years B. 4 years
C. 5 years D. 6 years
32. Who among the following remained
chairman of the Comparative Administrative 39. Given below are two statements, one labelled
Group in the United States of America for 10 as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as
years? Reason (R). Select the correct answer from
A. Woodrow Wilson B. D. Waldo the codes given below:
C. Fred Riggs D. Herbert Simon Assertion (A): The practical application of
33. The ‘one best way’ in scientific management the principle of unity of command is not
always feasible.
means:
Reason (R): Administrative and technical
A. Equal division of work
tasks generally need different kinds of
B. Intensive analysis of work processes
supervision.
C. Mental revolution on the part of workers
and management Codes:
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the
D. Standardisation of work methods
correct explanation of (A)
34. Which one of the following is not a staff B. Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not
agency in U.S.A.? the correct explanation of (A)
A. State Department C. (A) is true, but (R) is false
B. Office of Budget and Management D. (A) is false, but (R) is true
C. National Security Council
D. The White House 40. The aim of E-Government is to make the
interaction between government and citizens.
35. What is the correct sequence of F.M. Marx’s (a) more friendly (b) convenient
classification of bureaucracy? (c) transparent (d) inexpensive
(a) Merit (b) Guardian Select the correct answer from the codes
(c) Patronage (d) Caste given below:
Select the correct answer from the codes A. (a) and (c) B. (a), (b) and (c)
given below: C. (b), (c) and (d) D. (a), (b), (c) and (d)
A. (a), (b), (c) and (d)
41. Economic diplomacy is also termed as:
B. (b), (c), (d) and (a)
C. (b), (d), (c) and (a) A. cultural diplomacy
B. oil diplomacy
D. (c), (d), (a) and (b)
C. crisis diplomacy
36. Performance Budgeting was introduced in D. development diplomacy
India on the recommendation of:
42. Which of the following is not a characteristic
A. Paul Appleby Report
feature of non-alignment?
B. Gorwala Report
A. Non-alignment stands for plurality and
C. First Administrative Reforms Commission
Report democratic equality among community
of nations.
D. Santhanam Committee Report
B. It opposes all forms of racialism and
37. Domicile qualification for public appoint- discrimination and it champions the
ments was first used in: cause of fundamental freedoms. Economic
A. the U.K. B. the U.S.A. and social justice is the motto of non-
C. India D. Australia alignment.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—35
C. Non-alignment rests on the presumption signed the United Nations Declaration

that national security is linked with on 1st January 1942 became original
national strength of individual nations. members of United Nations.
D. Non-alignment asserts that international (b) Switzerland became a member of United
peace is an alienable prerequisite for Nations in 2003.
attaining national aspirations and for the (c) The regular session of General Assembly
exercise of sovereign independence. commences in September and usually
goes on till the end of the year.
43. Which of the following is not a technique to
(d) The retiring members of economic and
exercise National Power?
social council are eligible for immediate
A. Diplomacy re-election also.
B. Economic state craft Select the correct answer from the codes
C. Use of military force given below:
D. To join a world organisation A. (a), (b) and (c) B. (b), (c) and (d)
44. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct C. (a), (b) and (d) D. (a), (c) and (d)
answer from the codes given below: 47. Who was of opinion that, “the end of cold
List-I List-II war represented the victory of ideal state”,
(Book) (Author) and liberal capitalism?
(a) International (i) Gerhard Wahlers A. Michael Doyle B. Thomas Dunne
Relations C. Francis Fukuyama D. Samuel Huntington
Theory: The
48. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct
Three Traditions
answer from the codes given below:
(b) The North South (ii) Tadjbaksh
List-I List-II
Divide and the Shakbanon and
(a) Soviet Union - (i) September,
International Anuradha Chenoy
German non- 1939
System
aggression pact
(c) Human security (iii) N.B. Adams (b) Germany invaded (ii) March, 1939
(d) India and the (iv) Martin Wight soviet union
European Union (c) Germany occupied (iii) June, 1941
Codes: Czechoslovakia
(a) (b) (c) (d) (d) Germany invaded (iv) April, 1941
A. (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) Poland
B. (ii) (iv) (i) (iii) Codes:
C. (iii) (i) (iv) (ii) (a) (b) (c) (d)
D. (i) (iii) (ii) (iv) A. (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
B. (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
45. Which one of the following can be regarded C. (iii) (i) (iv) (ii)
as the currency of power? D. (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
A. Food
B. Nuclear Weapons 49. Which of the following statements are correct?
C. Industrial Capacity (a) The convening of Bandung conference,
D. Military Preparedness 1955 was suggested by Sri Lanka.
(b) The immediate provocation to convene
46. Which of the following statements are correct? this conference was conclusion of a treaty
(a) According to Article 3 of the charter, the between Taiwan and the United States,
countries that attended the San Francisco and creation of SEATO and Baghdad
conference, June 1945 and those who Pact.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—35-II
(c) The idea of holding this conference was 53. Which of the following is true of modern
welcomed by USSR and China. liberalism?
(d) Bandung is a city of Indonesia. (a) Freedom of the individual as against the
Select the correct answer from the codes authority of the state.
given below: (b) Recognise the importance of ‘group’.
A. (a), (b) and (c) B. (b), (c) and (d) (c) Supports the limited role of the state.
C. (a), (b) and (d) D. (a), (c) and (d) (d) Supports the state regulation to safeguard
the weak.
50. Which of the following article of charter of Choose the correct answer.
United Nations provides that “all the members A. (a) and (c) B. (b) and (d)
of the UN undertake to make available to the C. (a) and (d) D. (c) and (d)
security council, on its call and in accordance
with special agreements, armed forces, 54. Which of the following statements relating
assistance and facilities, including rights of to Mao’s theory of contradictions are true?
passage, necessary for the purpose of (a) Contradictions are universal in all times
maintaining international peace and and in all societies.
(b) Antagonistic contradictions exist among
security”.
the hostile classes in terms of ownership
A. Article 41 B. Article 42
of productive forces.
C. Article 43 D. Article 44
(c) Non-antagonistic contradictions could
51. Who among the following referred to the exist among people which could be
‘decline’ of political theory? resolved without resorting to violence.
(a) David Easton and Alfred Cobbon (d) Contradictions have no place in a
(b) Lasslett and Robert Dahl socialist system.
(c) Will Durant Choose the correct answer from the below:
(d) Nathenial Hawthorn A. (d) and (a) B. (b) and (d)
A. (b) and (c) B. (c) and (d) C. (a), (b) and (c) D. (a), (b), (c) and (d)
C. (a) and (c) D. (a) and (b) 55. Given below are two statements one labelled
52. Which of the following statements are true as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as
regarding Political theory? Reason (R).
(a) It accepts scientism and repudiates the Assertion (A): For John Locke, Natural Rights
normativism. are a product of nature.
(b) It synthesises political philosophy and Reason (R): State has to protect and safeguard
scientific enquiry of political pheno- these rights.
menon. A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the
(c) It is structural and institutional and right explanation of (A)
examines the logic and basis of political B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not
institutions and organizations. the right explanation of (A)
(d) Political theory is philosophical as well C. (A) is true, but (R) is false
as scientific, normative as well as D. (A) is false, but (R) is true
empirical, evaluative as well as 56. Which of the following is not true of
explanatory; historical as well as Aristotle’s theory of state?
analytical. (a) Organic conception of State.
Choose the correct answers from the below: (b) State as a magnified individual.
A. (a) and (d) B. (b) and (c) (c) Rights of the individual can exist only
C. (d) only D. (c) and (d) as a member of the state.
(d) There is no conflict between the end of 61. “Man must eat before he thinks. To eat he
the individual and end of the state. must produce. Production is a basic activity”.
Choose the correct answer: Who said this?
A. (a) and (b) B. (d) and (c) A. Mao B. Rosa Luxumburg
C. (c) only D. (d) only C. Luis Althusser D. Karl Marx
57. Machiavelli is regarded as the first modern 62. Which of the following thinkers held the
political thinker because of: view that “the probable mischiefs of
A. Separation of ethics and religion from
obedience are less than the probable
politics.
mischiefs of resistence”.
B. Forerunner of nation state.
C. Represented the spirit of renaissance. A. J.S. Mill B. James Mill
D. Subordination of Church to state. C. Bentham D. Blackstone
58. Which one of the following statements of 63. Dialectical materialism of Karl Marx
Hobbes was wrong? postulates that:
A. State of Nature was pre-political and pre- (a) Matter is in a state of motion.
social. (b) Motion in the matter is due to the
B. Sovereign was a party to the contract. pressure of environment.
C. Human nature was dominated by (c) Law of transformation is both
acquisitive instinct, possessive instinct quantitative and qualitative.
and love of glory. (d) Conflict in matter is continuous and
D. Man in the state of Nature was ‘solitary, endless.
nasty, brutish and short’. Identify the correct answer:
59. John Locke’s contribution chiefly lies in his: A. (a), (b) and (d) B. (a) and (c)
(a) Consent theory. C. (b) and (d) D. (c) and (d)
(b) Limited Government.
64. Which of the following statement is correct
(c) Theory of state as a corporate body.
regarding J.S. Mill?
(d) Organic conception of state.
Select the correct answer from the codes (a) State is justified in confirming itself to
given below: limited functions
A. (a) and (d) B. (a) and (c) (b) Welfare policies are more important.
C. (b) and (c) D. (a) and (b) (c) State intervention into ‘self-regarding’
action.
60. Match List-I with List-II and select the
(d) State intervention into ‘other regarding
correct answer from the codes given below:
action’ is justified.
List-I List-II
(Concepts) (Thinker’s) Choose the correct answer:
(a) Veil of Ignorance (i) Karl Popper A. (b) and (c) B. (a) and (b)
(b) Alienation (ii) Robert Nozic C. (a) only D. (d) only
(c) Piecemeal Social (iii) John Rawls 65. Which of the following is true regarding
engineering Gandhian concept of ‘Sarvodaya’?
(d) Night Watchman (iv) Karl Marx (a) Welfare of the majority of people
State (b) Government by the majority party
Codes:
(c) Protection of the minorities
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(d) Welfare of all sections of the society
A. (i) (iv) (ii) (iii)
B. (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) Choose the correct answer from the below:
C. (iii) (iv) (i) (ii) A. (a) and (c) B. (a) and (b)
D. (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) C. (d) only D. (b) only
66. Match List-I with List-II and select the 69. Which of the following is not recognised as
correct answer from the codes given below: a ‘tension’ area in Indian federation?
List-I List-II (a) Inter-State Council
(a) Charter Act (i) Separate electorate (b) Article 356
of 1813 (c) Role of the Governor
(b) Charter Act (ii) Abolition of the (d) Union-State Financial Relations
of 1833 trade monopoly of Choose the correct answer:
East India Com- A. (a) and (d) B. (d) only
pany C. (a) only D. (c) and (d)
(c) The Government (iii) Complete abolition 70. 74th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1992
of India Act, of monopoly in does not apply to the scheduled areas in the
1858 trade by East India states of:
Company (a) Rajasthan (b) Haryana
(d) Government of (iv) Secretary of State (c) Uttar Pradesh (d) Odisha
India Act, 1909 for India Select the correct answer from the codes
Codes: given below:
(a) (b) (c) (d) A. (b) and (c) B. (c) and (d)
A. (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) C. (a), (c) and (d) D. (a), (b), (c) and (d)
B. (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
C. (i) (iv) (iii) (ii) 71. Match List-I with List-II and select the
D. (iv) (ii) (iii) (i) correct answer from the codes given below:
List-I List-II
67. Who presided over the All Party Conference (Movements) (Personalities)
(1928)? (a) Chipko movement (i) Medha
A. Pt. Motilal Nehru Patker
B. Dr. M.A. Ansari (b) Narmada Bachao (ii) K. Chandra-
C. Madan Mohan Malviya Andolan sekhar Rao
D. C.R. Das (c) Right to Information (iii) Sunder Lal
68. Which of the following statements are movement Bahuguna
correct? (d) Telangana movement (iv) Aruna Roy
Select your answer from codes given below: Codes:
(a) The Union of India has power to issue (a) (b) (c) (d)
directions to a state to ensure compliance A. (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
with the laws. B. (iii) (i) (iv) (ii)
(b) In case of failure, the President may C. (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
assume to himself all the functions of the D. (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
Government of that state. 72. Arrange the following Vice-Presidents of India
(c) The Governor of a state is appointed by in chronological order and select the correct
the President and holds office during his answer from the codes given below:
pleasure. (a) K.R. Narayanan
(d) The Governor is not responsible to state. (b) Gopal Swarup Pathak
Codes: (c) Krishan Kant
A. (a), (c) and (d) (d) Justice Mohammad Hidayatullah
B. (b), (c) and (d) Codes:
C. (a), (b) and (c) A. (d), (b), (a), (c) B. (b), (d), (c), (a)
D. (a), (b), (c) and (d) C. (d), (b), (c), (a) D. (b), (d), (a), (c)
73. Which of the following pairs showing the (b) Rudolf and (ii) Indian Paradox
state and dominant caste is not correct? Rudolf
A. Punjab – Jat Sikh (c) Frankline (iii) In Pursuit of Laxmi:
B. Rajasthan – Rajput Frankel The Political Eco-
C. Kerala – Velma nomy of the Indian
D. Karnataka – Lingayat State
74. Who among following classifies regional (d) Myron Weiner (iv) India: The Most
movements in India in terms of “ethnic” and Dangerous Decades
“nativist” movements? Codes:
A. Sajal Basu B. Myron Weiner (a) (b) (c) (d)
C. James Manor D. Rob Jenkivs A. (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
B. (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
75. When was Inter-State Council under Article
C. (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
263 of the constitution of India set up in
D. (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
India?
A. 1961 B. 1972 79. Match List-I with List-II and select the
C. 1990 D. 1998 correct answer from the codes given below:
List-I List-II
correct answer from the codes given below: (a) S.P. Gupta Vs (i) Taj Pollution
List-I List-II Union of India
(Student Organization) (Party Affiliation) (b) M.C. Mehta Vs (ii) Basic Structure
(a) Akhil Bharatiya (i) CPI Union of India
Vidyarthi Parishad (c) Keshavanand (iii) Judges Transfer
(b) All Indian Students (ii) CPIM Bharti Vs The
Federation State of Kerala
(c) National Students (iii) BJP (d) Common Cause Vs (iv) Petrol Pump
Union of India Union of India Allotment
(d) Students Federation (iv) Congress (I) Codes:
of India (a) (b) (c) (d)
Codes: A. (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
(a) (b) (c) (d) B. (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
A. (i) (iii) (iv) (ii) C. (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
B. (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) D. (i) (iii) (iv) (ii)
C. (iii) (i) (iv) (ii) 80. Which one of the following Acts has been
D. (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
made under Article 34 of the Indian
77. Since when consensus has emerged in India Constitution?
that the post of Deputy Speaker should go to A. The Army Act
opposition party? B. The Armed Forces Special Power Act
A. 1984 B. 1989 (AFSPA)
C. 1996 D. 2001 C. The Border Security Force Act
78. Match the following and select the correct D. The Navy Act
pairs: 81. Which of the following statements is not
List-I List-II correct?
(Authors) (Books) A. The U.S. House of Representatives is
(a) Selig G. Harrison (i) Green Revolution weaker than the British House of
in India Commons.
B. The House of Representatives is weaker (b) Mosca (ii) History is a Graveyard

than Senate. of Aristocracies
C. U.S. Executive is not accountable to U.S. (c) Michels (iii) Theory of the Masses
Legislature. (d) Gasset (iv) Iron Law of Oligarchy
D. The House of Representatives has Codes:
overshadowed the American senate. (a) (b) (c) (d)
A. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
82. Which one of the following statements is not
B. (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
correct?
C. (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
A. Swiss federal legislature is bicameral.
D. (i) (iii) (iv) (ii)
B. The Lower House is called the National
Council. 87. Political institutionalisation involves:
C. The Upper House is called Council of (a) Political mobilisation
states. (b) Political integration
D. The qualification of voters and candidate (c) Political representation
is decided by National Council. (d) Political Fragmentation
Select the correct answer from the codes
83. Which one of the following is not a feature
given below:
of United Kingdom judiciary?
A. (a), (b), (c) B. (a), (b), (c), (d)
A. Based on common law tradition.
C. (a), (d) D. (c), (d)
B. Devolution to Scotland have given more
scope to a traditionally restrained 88. Which countries were the basis of the study
Judiciary. of Almond and Verba’s ‘Civic Culture’?
C. Devolution to Wales have given more A. Chile, US, UK, France, Spain
scope to a traditionally restrained B. US, France, Mexico, Italy, Germany
Judiciary. C. Mexico, Germany, Italy, US, UK
D. Judges of Higher Courts are appointed D. US, UK, Chile, Mexico, Spain
by the Crown on the recommendations 89. The five stages of economic growth proposed
of the House of Commons. by W.W. Rostow are:
84. The Magna Carta, the Glorious Revolution A. Traditional society, mercantile capitalism,
and the writings of John Locke all contributed industrial capitalism, financial capitalism,
to the strengthening of Great Britain: globalisation.
A. Absolute Monarchy B. Preconditions for take-off, take-off,
B. Ethnic Rivalaries maturing of industry, industrial
C. Parliamentary Democracy capitalism, full employment.
D. Imperialist Policies C. Traditional society, preconditions for
take-off, take-off, drive to maturity, the
85. Which one of following is correct? epoch of high mass consumption.
A. K.C. Wheare: The English Constitution D. Preconditions for take-off, mechanisation,
B. Robert Michel: Iron Law of Oligarchy industrialisation, take-off, financial
C. G.Sartori: Moderate and Extreme Multi capitalism.
Party System
D. Bagehot: Party Politics 90. Which world leader gave a special concept
of ‘Development’ after the Second World War?
86. Match List-I with List-II and select the A. Franklin Delano Roosevelt
correct answer from the codes given below: B. Harry Truman
List-I List-II C. Jawaharlal Nehru
(a) Pareto (i) Circulation of Elites D. Winston Churchill
91. What are the three types of political culture (b) Ted Gurr (ii) Anatomy of a
according to Almond and Verba’s study Revolution
‘Civic Culture’? (c) Charles Tilly (iii) States and
A. Parochial, subject, participant Revolutions
B. Citizen, communal, democratic (d) Theda Skocpol (iv) Why Men Rebel
C. Associative, adjudicative, parochial Codes:
D. Feudal, semi-feudal, democratic (a) (b) (c) (d)
92. Choose the correct answer from the codes A. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
given below: B. (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
Arrange the steps in the working of the general C. (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
D. (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
system of Proportional Representation in the
correct sequence: 95. Tick the correct option from the codes given
(a) the candidates are arranged in order of below:
the votes they receive. The theories of modernisation were criticised
(b) each party puts up a list of candidates by:
equal to the number of seats being fought. (a) dependency theories
(c) the leftover votes, or remainder votes are (b) liberal theories
divided up between the candidates. (c) under development theories
(d) Lists can be closed or open, open lists (d) world-systems theories
allow votes to indicate individual Codes:
candidate preferences and vote for A. (a), (b), (c), (d) B. (a), (b), (c)
individual candidates. C. (a), (c), (d) D. (b), (d)
A. (a), (b), (c), (d) B. (c), (b), (d), (a) 96. Who among the following do not make a
C. (b), (d), (a), (c) D. (d), (b), (c), (a) distinction between public and private
93. Given below are two statements, one labelled administration?
as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as (a) Henri Fayol
Reasoning (R). (b) M.P. Follet
Choose the correct answer using the codes (c) Luther Gulick
given below: (d) L. Urwick
Assertion (A): Only when power is combined Select the correct answer from the codes
with authority does it have legitimacy. given below:
Reasoning (R): Power is the use of force over A. (a) and (c) B. (b), (c) and (d)
others. C. (a), (b) and (c) D. (a), (b), (c) and (d)
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the 97. Who among the following laid down ‘Seven
correct explanation of (A) principles of organisation’?
B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not A. Gulick and Urwick
the correct explanation of (A) B. Mary P. Follet
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false C. Henri Fayol
D. (A) is false, but (R) is true D. F.W. Taylor
94. Match List-I with List-II and select the 98. Which one of the following is not a principle
correct answer from the codes given below: of organisation?
List-I List-II A. Hierarchy
(Author) (Title of book) B. Span of Control
(a) Gane Beinton (i) Europe in C. Unity of command
Revolutions D. Staffing
99. The literature on new public administration Select the correct answer from the codes
lays emphasis on: given below:
(a) Relevance (b) Values A. (a) and (c) B. (b) and (d)
(c) Equity (d) Change C. (a) and (d) D. (c) and (d)
106. Which of the following are the compulsory
given below:
provisions of the 73rd Constitutional
A. (a) and (b) B. (b), (c) and (d)
C. (a), (b) and (d) D. (a), (b), (c) and (d) Amendment Act (1992)?
(a) Indirect election to the post of
100. In an informal organisation, authority always Chairperson of Panchayats at the
flows: intermediate level.
A. upwards (b) Reservation of one-third seats for women.
B. downwards (c) Reservation of seats for backward classes.
C. upwards and across (d) Constitution of a state Finance
D. across and downwards Commission.
101. ‘Garbage Can Model’ was developed by: Select the correct answer from the codes
(a) Michael D. Cohen given below:
(b) James G. March A. (a) and (c) B. (a), (b) and (c)
(c) Peter Drucker C. (a), (b) and (d) D. (a), (b), (c) and (d)
(d) Johan P. Olsen
correct?
given below:
A. India is a signatory to the UN Convention
A. (a) and (d) B. (a), (b) and (d)
against corruption.
C. (a), (b) and (c) D. (b), (c) and (d)
B. India ranked 95th out of 178 countries
102. The traditional home of patronage according to the Transparency
bureaucracy is: International’s Index.
A. U.K. B. U.S.A. C. Lokpal and Lokayukta Bill was first
C. China D. France introduced in Parliament in 1968.
103. Who among the following coined the term D. Central Vigilance Commission was set
‘representative bureaucracy’? up on the recommendation of Santhanam
A. Donald Kingsley B. Peter Blau Committee.
C. Max Weber D. Martin Albrow 108. Given below are two statements, one labelled
104. Which one of the following was the first as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as
country to enact a Law—Freedom of the Press Reason (R).
Act—as early as in 1766? Select the correct answer from the codes
A. U.K. B. U.S.A. given below:
C. Sweden D. Denmark Assertion (A): The ambit of RTI Act needs to
105. Which of the following statements about be widened.
Gender Budgeting are correct? Reason (R): At present, there is trend toward
(a) It is a separate budget. privatisation and outsourcing of many
(b) It is passed along with the general budget. erstwhile government activities.
(c) It seeks to translate gender commitments Codes:
into budget commitments. A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the
(d) It addresses the needs of women in the correct explanation of (A)
areas of education, health, employment, B. Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not
etc. the correct explanation of (A)
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—36
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false (b) I. Hansen (ii) Social Theory of
D. (A) is false, but (R) is true International Politics
109. Given below are two statements, one labelled (c) K.N. Waltz (iii) The Evolution of
as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as International Security
Reason (R). Studies
Select the correct answer from the codes (d) A. Wendt (iv) People, States and
given below: Fear
Assertion (A) : Authority and responsibility Codes:
are the two sides of the same coin. (a) (b) (c) (d)
Reason (R): Authority is divisible, A. (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
responsibility is not. B. (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
Codes: C. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the D. (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
correct explanation of (A) 113. Which of the following is not correct
B. Both (A) and (R) are correct but (R) is regarding W.T.O?
not the correct explanation of (A) A. It administers W.T.O. trade agreements.
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false B. It acts as a forum for trade negotiations.
D. (A) is false, but (R) is true C. It monitors national trade policies.
110. Given below are two statements, one labelled D. It supplies technical assistance and
as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as training for developing and developed
Reason (R). countries.
Select the correct answer from the codes 114. Which country is the example of Latent
given below: Nuclear Capacity?
Assertion (A): The concept of development A. India B. Japan
administration is of recent origin. C. China D. North Korea
Reason (R): Many countries became
independent after World War II. 115. Match List I with List II and select the correct
Codes: answer from the codes given below:
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the List-I List-II
correct explanation of (A) (a) Counter force (i) Types of nuclear stra-
B. Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not strategy tegy that threatens
the correct explanation of (A) assets that are valuable
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false to an adversary, such
D. (A) is false, but (R) is true as cities with industrial
assets and large
111. Which of the following terms of International
populations.
Relationships was coined by Nicholas Onuf
in his book - World of Our Making? (b) Counter- (ii) International lawyers
A. Realism B. Neo-realism proliferation who argue that there is
C. Neo-liberalism D. Constructivism a legal right of
humanitarian inter-
112. Match List-I with List-II and select the vention in both UN
correct answer from the codes given below: charter law and
List-I List-II customary inter-
(Authors) (Books) national law.
(a) B. Buzan (i) Man, the State and (c) Counter-res- (iii) Term used to describe
War trictionist a variety of efforts to
obstruct slow, or roll B. A movement towards a non-violent and

back nuclear weapons humane international system.
programmes and nu- C. The promotion of conditions for a
clear proliferation. sustainable and relatively equitable
(d) Counter (iv) Type of nuclear pattern of international development.
value strategy that targets D. To help UN to develop its own financial
strategy an adversary’s military resources.
and nuclear capa- 120. Which of the following is not included in
bilities. the Doctrine of Panchsheel, 1954?
Codes: A. Mutual respect for each other’s territorial
(a) (b) (c) (d)
integrity and sovereignty.
A. (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
B. Not to develop nuclear weapons.
B. (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
C. Equality and mutual benefit.
C. (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
D. Peaceful Co-existence.
D. (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
116. Who is given credit to coin the term—Soft
correct answer from the codes given below:
Power?
List-I List-II
A. Joseph Nye B. N. Alarcon
(Regional (Region)
C. A. J. Bellamy D. S. Chesterman
Organisations)
117. Marshall Plan, 1947 was also formally known (a) OSCE (i) Europe
as: (b) V4 (ii) Eurasia
A. European Reconstruction Programme (c) BSEC (iii) Euro-Atlantic
B. European Revival Plan (d) NAFTA (iv) North America
C. European Recovery Programme Codes:
D. European Restrengthening Plan (a) (b) (c) (d)
118. According to K.J. Holsti, which one of the A. (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
following is not a feature of the contemporary B. (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
state system? C. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
A. The rise in the number and type of states. D. (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
B. The great potential for destruction by 122. The roots of newly emerging forces of
those who possess nuclear weapons and globalisation have been traced in specific
modern delivery systems. economic and political developments in the
C. The predominant position of influences late 1980s or early 1990s. Which of the
that has been achieved by the three following can not be included in this
essentially non-European states : Russia, category?
China and the United States. A. The end of Cold War.
D. The large number of states are keen to B. Testing of nuclear devices by India and
join political and economic alliances. Pakistan in 1998.
119. The Principal purpose of India’s foreign C. Dismantling of state socialism in the
policy vis-a-vis the UN is to pursue three USSR.
closely related goals. D. The collapse of the Berlin wall.
Which of the following is not included 123. Who among the following is associated with
among them? Democratic Peace Theory?
A. A significant role in the shaping of A. Kenneth Waltz
international relations in the 21st century. B. Michael Doyle
C. Jackson and Sorenson (c) Rousseau (iii) Limited form of

D. John Mearsheimer constitutional
government
124. In which country did Saudi Arabia militarily
(d) J.S. Mill (iv) Claim that sovereignty
intervene in March, 2015?
has its origin in the
A. United Arab Emirates
people and remains
B. Yemen
with the people
C. Egypt
Codes:
D. Kuwait
(a) (b) (c) (d)
125. Which of the following are organs of A. (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
organisation of American States? B. (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
(a) Secretariat C. (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
(b) The Inter-American Conference D. (i) (iii) (iv) (ii)
(c) The treaty of consultation of Ministers of
130. Who among the following compares the
Foreign Affairs organisations of civil society to a powerful
(d) The Council system of ‘Fortresses and earthworks’ standing
Select the correct answer from the codes behind the state?
given below: A. McLellan B. Bernstein
A. (a), (b) and (c) B. (b), (c) and (d) C. Lenin D. Gramsci
C. (a), (b) and (d) D. (a), (c) and (d) 131. Which one of the following social contract
126. In Arthashastra, how many departments of traditions has not been revitalised by John
the government find mention? Rawls in his book A Theory of Justice?
A. 32 B. 33 A. Hobbes B. John Locke
C. 34 D. 35 C. J.J. Rousseau D. Immanuel Kant
127. Who of the following fled Athens for Calchis, 132. Who among the following said that Bhakti
‘in order that the Athenians might not commit in religion may be a road to the salvation of
a second crime against philosophy’? the soul. But in politics, Bhakti or hero
A. Socrates B. Plato worship is a sure road to degradation and
C. Aristotle D. Euclid eventual dictatorship?
A. Jayaprakash Narayan
128. Who among the following said of Rousseau,
B. M.N. Roy
“Ardent apostle of Reason, he has done more
C. B.R. Ambedkar
than most to prepare the way for the age of
D. Savarkar
unreason in which he live”?
A. Maxey B. Sabine 133. Who said, ‘therefore, the sword of Brutus is
C. Wayper D. Karl Popper holy. Therefore, the Baghanakha of Shivaji
is of fair fame. Therefore, the beheading of
Charles I is a just deed. Therefore, the arrow
of William Tell is divine?
List-I List-II
A. M. N. Roy
(a) Hobbes (i) Defence of sovereignty
B. Subhas Chandra Bose
and assertion of the
C. Aurobindo Ghose
claims of political
D. V.D. Savarkar
authority over religion
(b) Locke (ii) Defence of Individual 134. Which one of the following is not a feature
freedom of thought and of Easton’s intellectual foundation stones of
expression behaviouralism?
A. Regularities B. Values 139. Arrange the following books in order in which

C. Pure Science D. Stratification they appeared. Use the code given below:
135. Which one of the following is not a factor, (a) Comparative Federalism
for Fukuyama, leading to the triumph of (b) Democratisation : Theory and Practice
liberal democracy? (c) The End of History and the last man
A. The struggle for ‘recognition’. (d) The Civic culture : Political attitude and
B. The logic of science’s mastery over Democracy in five nations
nature. Codes:
C. The absence of major contradictions in A. (c), (d), (b), (a) B. (b), (a), (c), (d)
liberal democracy. C. (a), (c), (d), (b) D. (d), (c), (b), (a)
D. The triumph of liberalism is more in terms 140. Arrange the following concepts in order to in
of economics than ideologies. which they appeared. Use the code given
136. Since mid-1950s, the major trends in below:
comparative politics have been in the areas (a) Democratic Centralism
of: (b) Feed-Back System
(a) systems theories (c) New Democracy
(b) culture theories (d) Due Process of Law
(c) development theories Codes:
(d) class theories A. (d), (b), (a), (c) B. (b), (d), (c), (a)
C. (d), (a), (c), (b) D. (a), (c), (d), (b)
Select the correct answer from the codes given
below: 141. “We are under the Constitution, but the
constitution is what the Judges say it is”.
Codes: Besides U.S.A. to which one of the following
A. (a) and (c) B. (a), (b) and (c) countries can this be applicable?
C. (a), (c) and (d) D. (a), (b), (c) and (d) A. Switzerland B. India
137. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct C. U.K. D. Russia
answer from the codes given below: 142. Who among the following has written “The
List-I List-II Federalist Papers”?
(Thinkers) (Concepts) A. B. Anderson
(a) Karl Deutsch (i) Modernisation - a B. C. Reynoldes
multifaceted process C. James Madison
(b) Huntington (ii) Circulation of elites D. Theodor Andorno
(c) Pareto (iii) The gate-keepers
(d) David Easton (iv) Receptors 143. Who among the following argued, “The
Codes: belief in the principle of authority is the
(a) (b) (c) (d) only reliable means of securing order”?
A. (iii) (i) (ii) (iv) A. Joseph de Maistre
B. (i) (iii) (iv) (ii) B. Max Weber
C. (iv) (i) (ii) (iii) C. Friedrich Nietzsche
D. (ii) (iv) (iii) (i) D. Giovanni Gentile
138. Who among the following makes a 144. Who among the following has argued that
distinction between system maintenance and the electoral system determines the nature of
system persistence? the party system?
A. Gabriel Almond B. David Easton A. Duverger B. Mitchels
C. Lucian Pye D. F.W. Riggs C. Schumpeter D. Weber
145. Given below are two statements, one labelled 149. Which one of the following cannot be
as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as dissolved but can be abolished?
Reason (R). Select the correct answer from A. Lok Sabha
the codes given below: B. Rajya Sabha
Assertion (A): Political development C. State Legislative Council
approach came under criticism in the mid - D. State Legislative Assembly
1960s.
Reason (R): The approach based on the 150. Who among the following Governor -
experiences of the United States and Western appointees can be removed only by the
Europe had limited relevance in the Third Governor?
world. (a) Advocate-General
Codes: (b) Members of the State Finance
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the Commission
correct explanation of (A) (c) Members of the State Public Service
B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not Commission
the correct explanation of (A) (d) Vice-Chancellor of a State University
C. (A) is true but (R) is false Select the correct answer from the codes given
D. (A) is false but (R) is true below:
Codes:
146. What is the correct order in which the
A. (a), (b) and (c)
following terms are enshrined in the Preamble
B. (a), (b) and (d)
to the Constitution of India?
C. (b), (c) and (d)
(a) Equality (b) Liberty
D. (a), (b), (c) and (d)
(c) Justice (d) Fraternity
Select the correct answer from the codes given 151. The maximum period of the President’s Rule
below: in a state under Article 356 can be:
Codes: A. One year B. Two year
A. (a), (b), (c) and (d) C. Three year D. Four year
B. (c), (b), (a) and (d)
152. Which of the following statements are not
C. (b), (a), (c) and (d)
true about the process of constitutional
D. (c), (a), (b) and (d)
Amendment in India?
147. Which of the following rights are available (a) The Parliament can amend the
to foreigners living in India? Constitution with a special majority.
(a) Equality before law (b) State Assemblies can propose amendment
(b) Right to education in the Constitution.
(c) Freedom of speech (c) A Bill for Constitutional Amendment can
(d) Freedom of movement be introduced only in the Lower House
Select the correct answer from the codes given of the Parliament.
below: (d) Deadlock between the two Houses of
A. (b) only B. (a) and (b) Parliament over a Bill for Constitutional
C. (b) and (d) D. (a), (b) and (c) Amendment can be removed by a joint
148. Who is the First Law Officer of the session of the Parliament.
Government of India? (e) The President of India enjoys the veto
A. Chief Justice of India power over Constitutional Amendment
B. Law Secretary Bills passed by the Parliament.
C. Solicitor-General of India Select the correct answer from the codes given
D. Attorney-General of India below:
A. (a), (c) and (d) 156. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct
B. (b), (c), (d) and (e) answer by using the codes given below:
C. (a), (d) and (e) List-I List-II
D. (a), (b), (c) and (d) (Administrative (Administrative
Thinker) Approach)
153. Which of the following is not a condition for
(a) M.P. Follett (i) Garbage can
Parliament to legislate on the subjects
Model
mentioned in the State List?
(b) Herbert Simon (ii) Mixed scanning
A. If Lok Sabha decides that a subject
(c) Michael (iii) Psychological
mentioned in state list is of national
D. Cohen approach
importances
(d) Amitai Etzioni (iv) Rational approach
B. If two or more states assemblies pass a Codes:
resolution to such an effect (a) (b) (c) (d)
C. If a state of Emergency is declared A. (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
D. If a treaty with a foreign country has to B. (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
be put into effect C. (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
154. Any resolution passed by the Parliament for D. (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
removing a Judge of the Supreme Court has 157. What was the name of the section which
to be investigated by a Committee replaced Comparative Administration Group
comprising of: of the American Society of Public
A. Two judges of Supreme Court Administration?
B. Two Judges of Supreme Court and A. Section of American Public
Attorney General of India Administration (SAP)
C. Two Judges of Supreme Court and a legal B. Section on Comparative Administration
luminary (SCA)
D. Chief Justice of Supreme Court and two C. Section on International Public
Judges of the Supreme Court Administration (SIP)
155. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct D. Section on International and Comparative
answer from the codes given below: Public Administration (SICA)
List-I List-II 158. Arrange MasLow’s perceived human needs
Movements Leader in correct chronological order:
(a) India Against (i) Aruna Roy A. Self esteem – physiological – security –
Corruption self actualization – belongingness
(b) Narmada Bachao (ii) Mahendra B. Self actualization – security –
Andolan Singh Tikait belongingness – physiological – self
(c) Right to Information (iii) Anna Hazare esteem.
Movement C. Security – self actualization –
(d) Bhartiya Kisan Union (iv) Medha belongingness – physiological – self
Patkar esteem.
Codes: D. Physiological – security – belongingness
(a) (b) (c) (d) – self esteem – self actualization.
A. (iii) (i) (iv) (ii) 159. Given below are two statements, one labelled
B. (iii) (iv) (i) (ii) as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as
C. (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) Reason (R). Choose the correct answer by
D. (iii) (ii) (i) (iv) using the codes given below:
Assertion (A): “Both staff and auxiliary 164. Who called bureaucrats as ‘ruling servants’?
agencies assist the line agencies but are A. F.M. Marx
distinct from each other”. B. Martin Krygier
Reason (R): “Auxiliary agencies have no C. Robert K. Merton
operating responsibilities”. D. Joseph La Palombara
Codes:
165. Which constitutional amendment provided
for the setting up of Administrative Tribunals
correct explanation of (A)
B. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not in India?
the correct explanation of (A) A. 24th Amendment B. 59th Amendment
C. (A) is true but (R) is false C. 42nd Amendment D. 44th Amendment
D. (A) is false but (R) is true 166. Who among the following regards
160. Which one of the following types of leaders International Politics as an autonomous
does not figure in Mooney and Reiley’s discipline?
classification of leaders? (a) C.A.W. Manning (b) Karlin M. Copper
A. Formal leaders B. Titular leaders (c) Martin Wright (d) Hoffson
C. Controllers D. True organizers Select the correct answer from the codes given
161. Which one of the following is not included below:
in the elements of Public Policy by Austin A. (a), (b) and (c) B. (b), (c) and (d)
Rammey? C. (c), (d) and (a) D. (a), (b) and (d)
A. A set of objectives
167. Which of the following pairs correctly match.
B. A selected line of action
Choose your answer from the codes given
C. An implementation of intent
D. Reconsideration of objectives below:
(a) The control of – Hedley Bull
162. Assheton committee (1944) did not include the Arms Race
one of the following in the objects of training (b) Some Economic – L. Gromoo and
of civil servants: Aspects of V. Strigachow
A. To produce reliable work-skill Disarmament
B. Flexibility
(c) The challenge of – James P.
C. To broaden the mind of the trainee
the Nineteen sixties Warbarg
D. To develop leadership qualities
(d) Winning without war – Emile Benoit
163. Which one among the following is the correct
ascending order of Commission/Committees Codes:
appointed in the USA? A. (a), (b) and (c) B. (b), (c) and (d)
A. Hoover Commission, Taft Commission, C. (d), (c) and (a) D. (b), (d) and (a)
The Grace Commission, Brownlow 168. Who among the following is not related to
Committee. Bargaining Theory?
B. The Grace Commission, Hoover A. Kenneth Waltz B. J.F. Nash
Commission, Taft Commission, C. Thomas Schelling D. Roger Fisher
Brownlow Committee.
C. Taft Commission, Brownlow Committee, 169. Which one of the following was not feature
Hoover Commission, The Grace of Old Diplomacy?
Commission. A. Limited
D. Brownlow Committee, Taft Commission, B. Aristocratic
The Grace Commission, Hoover C. Transparency
Commission. D. Freedom of Action for Ambassadors
170. In which year Brezhnev had propounded the 176. Who among the following said, “Post-
concept of Asian Collective Security System? behaviouralism was a genuine revolution, not
A. 1967 B. 1968 a reaction; a becoming, not a preservation; a
C. 1969 D. 1970 reform, not a counter reformation”?
A. James Bryce
171. Which of the following Articles of the charter
B. Charles E. Merriam
of United Nations Organisation are related to
C. David Easton
Regional Organisations?
D. G. A. Almond
(a) Article 51 (b) Article 52
(c) Article 53 (d) Article 54 177. Who among the following said, ‘We can not
Select the correct answer from the codes given shed our values in the way we remove our
below: coats’?
Codes: A. Leo Strauss B. Alfred Cobban
A. (b), (c) and (d) B. (a), (c) and (d) C. Jean Blondel D. David Easton
C. (a), (b) and (d) D. (a), (b) and (c) 178. Who among the following characterised early
172. Which of the following country is not a liberalism as ‘possessive individualism’?
member of ASEAN: A. F. A. Hayek B. Robert Nozick
A. Laos B. Combodia C. C. B. MacPherson D. Rawls
C. Vietnam D. North Korea 179. Given below are two statements, one labelled
173. Originally what was the total strength of as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as
security council of United Nations? Reason (R). Identify the correct answer.
A. 9 B. 10 Assertion (A): F. A. Hayek portrayed state
C. 11 D. 15 intervention and collectivism, even in their
moderate forms, as inevitably leading to an
174. Recently France has agreed to set up atomic erosion of Liberty.
power plant in India at: Reason (R): He is a supporter of laissez faire
A. Kudankulam B. Tarapur and opponent of Keynesian economics and
C. Kakarapar D. Jaitapur the welfare state.
175. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct Codes:
answer from the codes given below: A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the
List-I List-II correct explanation of (A).
(a) Second summit of (i) Colombo B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not
Non-alignment the correct explanation of (A)
(b) Third summit of (ii) Algiers C. (A) is true, but (R) is false
Non-alignment D. (A) is false, but (R) is true
(c) Fourth summit of (iii) Lusaka 180. Which one of the following statements is not
Non-alignment true?
(d) Fifth summit of (iv) Cairo A. Marx drew distinction between
Non-alignment ‘ideology’ and ‘science’.
Codes: B. Napoleon denounced ideology as cloudy
(a) (b) (c) (d) metaphysics that ignored history and
A. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) reality.
B. (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) C. de Tracy coined the term ideology.
C. (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) D. Daniel Bell talked of ‘ideology without
D. (iv) (i) (iii) (ii) an end’.
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—37
181. For whom, “ideas” and not the “material 188. For Karl Marx, who among the following is
conditions of production” are the effective not a Utopian socialist?
causes of revolution? A. St. Simon B. Proudhon
A. Karl Marx B. Lenin C. Fourier D. Engels
C. Engels D. Stalin
189. Given below are two statements, one labelled
182. Which of the following statements is false as Assertion (A) and other labelled as Reason
with respect to Plato’s ideas? (R). Select the correct answer from the codes
A. Division of functions does not rest on given below:
difference of aptitude. Assertion (A): For Gandhiji, satyagraha is
B. State is assumed to be merely individual not identical to passive resistance.
writ large. Reason (R): Satyagraha denoted a legitimate,
C. Athenian women were not allowed to moral and truthful form of political action by
participate in politics. the people against the Brutal state power.
D. Ignorance and incompetence of
Codes:
politicians is the cause of democracy.
183. Which of the following is not an expression correct explanation of (A)
of the constitutional rule of Aristotle? B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not
A. Rule in public interest the correct explanation of (A)
B. A lawful rule C. (A) is true, but (R) is false
C. A Government of willing subjects D. (A) is false, but (R) is true
D. Inconsistent with the dignity of the
subjects 190. Who coined the slogan “No control, no co-
operation”?
184. Who of the following said that felicity is A. Mahatma Gandhi B. J. Nehru
“continued success in obtaining those things
C. Aurobindo D. Subhash Bose
which a man from time to time desires”?
A. Bentham B. J.S. Mill 191. What is the correct sequence of the following
C. Hobbes D. Rousseau characteristics of political development ?
185. Who of the following notes the existence of (a) Capacity (b) Equality
legislative, executive and federative powers (c) Differentiation
of the state? Select the correct answer from the codes given
A. Hobbes B. Locke below:
C. Rousseau D. J. Bentham Codes:
A. (a), (b) and (c) B. (b), (a) and (c)
186. Which of the following is not an idea of C. (c), (a) and (b) D. (c), (b) and (a)
Rousseau?
A. A thinking man is a depraved animal 192. What is according to David Easton, the correct
B. Science is the fruit of idle curiosity sequence of the following regulatory
C. Philosophy is mere intellectual frippery mechanisms?
D. General will is the sum total of wills (a) Socio-cultural norms
187. For J.S. Mill which one of the following is (b) Communication channels
not true? (c) Gate-keeping at the boundary
A. Pleasures differ in quality (d) Reduction processes
B. The felicific calculus is absurd Select the correct answer from the codes given
C. The principle of utility is the final end of below:
life A. (a), (c), (b) and (d)
D. Liberty consists in doing what one desires B. (c), (a), (b) and (d)
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—37-II
C. (a), (b), (c) and (d) 196. Which of the following statements are correct?
D. (d), (b), (a) and (c) (a) Cabinet is an extra-constitution
193. Match the following and select the correct institution in the United States of
pairs: America.
List-I List-II (b) It is simply an advisory body.
(Authors) (Books) (c) It is collectively responsible to the
(a) Arend (i) Comparative Federalism congress.
Lijphart (d) The members of the cabinet quite often
(b) Thomas (ii) Comparing Federal take part in the congress debates to
Hueglin System defend the policy of the Government.
(c) Giovanni (iii) Patterns of Democracy : Select the correct answer from the codes of
Sartori Government forms and given below:
performance in thirty- A. (a) and (c) B. (a) and (b)
six countries C. (b) and (d) D. (a), (b) and (d)
(d) Ronald (iv) Comparative constitu- 197. Direct democracy is not possible in the
L. Watts tional Engineering : An modern times because:
Inquiry into structures, A. People are indifferent towards the affairs
incentives and of state.
outcomes B. Political parties are opposed to it.
Codes: C. Propertied classes oppose it.
(a) (b) (c) (d) D. Of the practical difficulties posed by the
A. (ii) (iv) (i) (iii) size and population of modern state.
B. (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
C. (iii) (i) (iv) (ii) 198. Who among the following has given
D. (i) (iii) (ii) (iv) ‘sleeping dogs’ theory of democratic culture?
A. Lucian Pye and Robert E. Ward
B. James S. Coleman and Myron Weiner
correct?
C. James C. Charlesworth and F.W. Riggs
A. Political culture is a set of basic political
D. Almond and Verba
attitudes.
B. Political culture cannot be empirically 199. Who among the following has coined the
studied. terms ‘The stick’, ‘The deal’, ‘The kiss’, for
C. The study of political culture focuses on influencing the decisions?
attitude of people and their likely effects A. E.E. Schattschneider
on politics. B. Keith Boulding
D. Political culture has a companion C. Robert Dahl
approach i.e. political socialisation. D. Kate Millet
195. In which of the following countries the 200. Which one of the following is a character of
residuary powers rest with the states/units? “Co-operative Federalism”?
(a) U.S.A. (b) India A. A spirit of competition and rivalry
(c) Switzerland (d) Australia between the centre and the state.
Select the correct answer from the codes given B. Co-operation secured on the basis of
below: strong centre.
Codes: C. Decentralization and more state
A. (a) and (c) B. (c) and (d) responsibility.
C. (a) and (d) D. (a), (c) and (d) D. A spirit of co-operation among states.
201. Which one of the following practices is C. (A) is true, but (R) is false
employed in the American legislative process D. (A) is false, but (R) is true
in order to delay a particular legislation? 206. Match List-I with List-II and identify the
A. Gerrymandering B. Filibustering correct answer from the codes given below:
C. Log Rolling D. Spoils system List-I List-II
202. The power that makes the Supreme Court of (Approach to study (Name of Book
America the third Chamber of the legislative Indian Politics) and Author)
is: (a) Historical (i) Parliament in India,
A. Original B. Appellate Approach Morris Jones
C. Advisory D. Judicial review (b) Institutional (ii) The Integration of
Approach Indian States, V.P.
203. Who among the following has defined
Menon
“political power” as the “relationship in which
(c) Legal (iii) The modernity of
one person or a group is able to determine
Approach Tradition, Rudolph
the actions of another in the direction of the
and Rudolph
former’s own end”?
(d) Politico- (iv) The Republic of
A. Bertrand Russel B. Habermas
sociological India, Allen
C. Morgenthau D. David Easton
Approach Gledhill
204. Given below are two statements, one labelled Codes:
as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as (a) (b) (c) (d)
Reason (R). Select the correct answer from A. (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
the codes given below: B. (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
Assertion (A): Bureaucracy is an important C. (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
feature of all democratic governments. D. (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
Reason (R): Bureaucracy is an ancient
institution. 207. The Constituent Assembly of India comprised
Codes: of:
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the A. 292 members from British provinces, 4
correct explanation of (A) from Chief Commissionaires and 93 from
B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not Princely States
the correct explanation of (A) B. 294 members from British provinces, 4
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false from Chief Commissionaires and 91 from
D. (A) is false, but (R) is true Princely States
C. 291 members from British provinces, 3
205. Given below are two statements, one is from Chief Commissionaires and 95 from
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
Princely States
labelled as Reason (R). Identify the correct
D. 292 members from British provinces, 5
answer.
from Chief Commissionaires and 92 from
Assertion (A): Comparative politics is a
Princely States
science of politics.
Reason (R): Comparative politics relies on 208. Match List-I with List-II and identify the
empirical method of study. correct answer from the codes given below:
Codes: List-I List-II
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the (Name of (Directive
correct explanation of (A) Philosophy) Principle)
B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not (a) Welfarism (i) Promotion of
the correct explanation of (A) cottage industry
(b) Socialism (ii) Better health and 212. Identify the incorrect pair.
living standard (Name of State) (Demand for New State)
(c) Gandhian (iii) Promotion of A. Gujarat : Saurashtra
philosophy international peace B. Uttar Pradesh : Gorkhaland
and security C. Rajasthan : Marupradesh
(d) Internationalism (iv) Equal pay for D. Maharashtra : Vidarbha
equal work 213. Which of the following Committee voiced
Codes: concern about ‘Criminalization of politics
(a) (b) (c) (d) and politicization of criminals’?
A. (i) (iii) (ii) (iv) A. Tarakunde Committee
B. (ii) (iii) (i) (iv) B. Sachhar Committee
C. (i) (ii) (iv) (iii) C. Vohra Committee
D. (ii) (iv) (i) (iii) D. Indrajeet Gupta Committee
209. In which part and article of the Constitution
214. The study of state politics as an autonomous
of India, Fundamental Duties have been discipline has been primarily an outcome of:
mentioned: A. Rise of regional parties
A. Part IV, Article 51 B. Rise of voter’s turn out
B. Part III, Article 51 C. New local governance system
C. Part IV (A), Article 51 (A) D. Non-party political movements
D. Part III (A), Article 51 (A)
210. Given below are two statements, one labelled answer from codes given below:
as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as List-I List-II
Reason (R). Choose the correct answer using (Concept) (Thinkers)
the codes given below: (a) Multi-culturalism (i) Friedrik A.
Assertion (A): Ordinances provide minority Hayek
governments with a useful device, but one (b) Post-modernism (ii) Bhikhu Parekh
that is now increasingly difficult to convert (c) Libertariansim (iii) Amitai Etzioni
into legislation once parliament has covered. (d) Communitarianism (iv) Michel Foucault
Reason (R): Recent coalition governments Codes:
have used ordinances to avoid debating (a) (b) (c) (d)
legislation with their partners as much as A. (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
with the opposition. B. (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
Codes: C. (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
A. Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is D. (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
the correct explanation of (A)
B. Both (A) and (R) are correct, but (R) is 216. Which one of the following pairs is not
not the correct explanation of (A) correctly matched:
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false (Authors) (Books)
D. (A) is false, but (R) is true A. S.M. Lipset : Political man : The
Social Bases of politics
211. Under which article/articles, the High Courts B. Lenin : Neo-colonialism : The
and the Supreme Court can issue writs? highest stage of Impe-
A. Articles 44 and 45 rialism
B. Articles 123 and 213 C. L. Anderson : Transitions to Democracy
C. Articles 32 and 226 D. Charles Tilly : From Mobilisation to
D. Articles 53 and 153 Revolution
217. Who was the Chairman of the inaugural (b) Political and Adminis- (ii) Ferrel
session of constituent assembly? trative Development Heady
A. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (c) Bureaucracy and (iii) Fred W.
B. Dr. Rajendra Prasad Political Riggs
C. Dr. Sacchidanand Development
D. Sardar Patel (d) Public Administration: (iv) J. La
A Comparative Palombara
218. Which of the following are statutory bodies? Perspective
(a) University Grants Commission Codes:
(b) Union Public Service Commission (a) (b) (c) (d)
(c) National Commission for Human Rights A. (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
(d) National Commission for Minorities B. (iii) (i) (iv) (ii)
Select the correct answer from the codes given C. (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
below: D. (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
A. (a) and (b) B. (b) and (c) 223. Which one of the following statements about
C. (c) and (d) D. (a), (c) and (d) systems approach to organisation is not
219. For the First time the communist party of correct?
India came into power in the state of: A. It is derived from one general systems
A. West Bengal B. Tripura theory
C. Kerala D. Goa B. It leads to certain fundamental principles
of organisation
220. Which one of the following rights was C. It studies the organisation as a whole in
recognized by the Supreme Court in the Selvy relation to its environment
Case Judgement (2010)? D. It views the organisation and its
A. Right to Mental Privacy environment as interdependent for inputs
B. Right to purchase property in Jammu and and resources
Kashmir
224. In his ‘Principles of administration’, Pfiffner
C. Right to form pressure groups did not include:
D. NOTA (None of the above) A. Material and supply
221. Arrange the following phases in the evolution B. Functions and powers of local authorities
of public administration as a discipline in C. Methods and procedure
chronological order using the codes given D. Administrative accountability
below: 225. ‘Public Choice Approach’ to public adminis-
(a) Ecological approach tration came into existence in the:
(b) Principles approach A. 1890s B. 1920s
(c) Politics-Administration dichotomy C. 1940s D. 1960s
(d) Public Policy approach
226. Who has analyzed leadership in terms of
Codes:
‘circular response’?
A. (c), (a), (d), (b) B. (c), (b), (d), (a) A. L. Urwick B. H. Simon
C. (b), (c), (a), (d) D. (c), (b), (a), (d) C. C.I. Barnard D. M.P. Follett
222. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct 227. Which one of the following is not a feature
answer from codes given below : of Barnard’s theory of formal organisation?
List-I List-II A. General incentives
(Books) (Authors) B. Common purpose
(a) Frontiers of Development (i) Braibanti C. Communications
Administration D. Willingness to cooperate
228. Which one of the following committees dealt 232. ‘Delegated legislation’ is not:
with political activities of civil servants in A. Subordinate legislation
Britain? B. Executive legislation
A. Mastermann Committee C. Ordinance making power
B. Plowden Committee D. Rule making power
C. Assheton Committee 233. Match List-I with List-II and choose the
D. Northcote-Trevelyan Committee correct answer using the codes given below:
229. Consider the following statements and choose List-I List-II
the correct answer using the codes given (Citizen’s grievance (Countries)
below: redressal)
The Civil Service Reform Act 1978 of the (a) Procurator system (i) France
United States of America introduced: (b) Administrative Courts (ii) Russia
(a) Performance budgeting system (c) Ombudsman (iii) Britain
(b) Merit pay provision for middle (d) Parliamentary (iv) Sweden
commissioner
managerial personnel
Codes:
(c) Performance appraisal system
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(d) Office of Personnel Management
A. (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
Codes: B. (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
A. (a), (c) and (d) B. (b) and (d) C. (i) (iii) (iv) (ii)
C. (b), (c) and (d) D. (a) and (d) D. (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
230. Given below are two statements, one labelled 234. The system of Efficiency Rating for
as Assertion (A) and the other as Reason (R). scientifically assessing the performance of
Choose the correct answer using the codes public officials for promotion first originated
given below: in:
Assertion (A): “Henri Fayol identified five A. China B. Japan
elements as the primary functions of C. U.S.A. D. U.K.
management activity.” 235. Ashok Mehta Committee in 1977 recommen-
Reason (R): According to Henri Fayol, ded for the establishment of:
“knowledge of administration is needed at A. Nagar Panchayat
higher levels of an organisation, rather than B. Panchayat Samiti
technical knowledge.” C. Maha Panchayat
Codes: D. Mandal Panchayat
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the 236. Who among the following is associated with
correct explanation of (A) the concept of Realistic Liberalism?
B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not A. E.H. Carr B. Robert Byrd
the correct explanation of (A) C. George Kennan D. John Herz
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false
D. (A) is false, but (R) is true 237. Bachract and Baratz have mentioned about
the three classes of International Relations to
231. Functional specialization in the Indian control the conduct of states. Which of the
Administrative service was recommended by: following are the three classes?
A. First Administrative Reforms Commission (a) Influence Relationship
B. Satish Chandra Committee (b) Force Relationship
C. Appleby Report (c) Legitimate Relationship
D. Sarkaria Commission (d) Power Relationship
Select the correct answer from the codes given 243. Who among the following had declared that
below: arms race in itself is experience of terror?
A. (b), (c) and (d) B. (a), (c) and (d) A. Hadley Bull B. Arnold Toynbee
C. (d), (c) and (b) D. (b), (c) and (a) C. Kenneth Boulding D. Lynn Miller
238. Which one of the following books was 244. Which of the following countries was a part
written by E.H. Carr? of recently concluded P5+1 Nuclear
A. The open society and its enemies Argument?
B. Twenty years crisis A. Japan B. Australia
C. Political Realism and Political Idealism C. India D. Germany
D. The Realities of American Foreign Policy 245. Which of the following is not a form of
239. Frants Faron was the first scholar to use the National Power?
term “Third World”. To which country he A. Social Power
belonged? B. Military Power
C. Psychological Power
A. France B. England
D. Economic Power
C. Algeria D. Egypt
246. Which of the following countries is not a
240. Which of the following pairs is not correctly
member of SAARC?
matched? A. Maldives B. Myanmar
Author Book C. Nepal D. Afghanistan
A. William : The Growth of a
C. Olson Discipline 247. Which of the following scholars of
B. G.F. Kennan : American Diplomacy International Politics did not subscribe to
C. Russel H. : The Introductory this view that no social science can survive
Fifield Course in Interna- without idealistic aspects?
tional Relations A. Herbert Butterfield
B. E.H. Carr
D. Robert Strausz- : Intenational
C. Reinhold Niebuhr
Hupe and Stefan Relations : A General
D. Arnold Wolters
Possony Theory
248. Which of the following is also called as Total
241. Who condemned Non-alignment as a selfish
Disarmament?
policy?
A. Qualitative Disarmament
A. Morgenthau B. Quantitative Disarmament
B. William Johnstone C. General Disarmament
C. Schwarzenberger D. Comprehensive Disarmament
D. Edward Crankshaw
249. Who stated, “International Politics includes
242. Who among the following are supporters of analysis of political relations and problems
Realistic Approach in International Politics? of peace among nations”?
(a) Couloumbis and Wolfe A. Charles Scheichar
(b) Fredrick Schuman B. Norman Padelford
(c) Nicholas Spykman C. Harold Sprout
(d) E.H. Carr D. H.J. Morgenthau
Select the correct answer from the codes given 250. Which member State of ASEAN had joined
below: this regional organisation in 1999?
A. (b), (c) and (d) B. (a), (c) and (d) A. Laos B. Myanmar
C. (a), (b) and (d) D. (a), (b) and (c) C. Combodia D. Vietnam
251. Who among the following defined civil 256. Identify the correct sequence of the books
power as “the right of making laws with written on Mahatma Gandhi on ascending
penalties… for the regulating and preserving order:
of property, and of employing the force of (i) Richard – In Search of
the community, in the execution of such Attenborough Gandhi
laws… all this only for the public good.”? (ii) C.F. Andrews – Mahatma Gandhi’s
A. Rousseau Ideas
B. Karl Marx (iii) B. Bhattacharya – Evolution of the
C. John Locke Political
D. J.S. Mill Philosophy of
252. Who of the following said that, “the Mahatma Gandhi
emancipation of the working class is the work (iv) J.B. Kripalani – Gandhian Thought
of the working class itself”? Select the correct answer from the codes given
A. Mao Tse Tung B. V.I. Lenin below:
C. Engels D. Karl Marx A. (ii), (iv), (iii), (i) B. (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
C. (iii), (i), (iv), (ii) D. (iv), (iii), (i), (ii)
253. Who of the following gave the slogan “Turn
the imperialist war into a civil war, that is, 257. St. Augustine’s De Civitate Dei is divided
into to a proletarian revolution.”? into
A. Kautsky B. Trotsky A. 19 books B. 20 books
C. Engels D. Lenin C. 21 books D. 22 books
254. Which of the following is not a feature of 258. Which of the following is not a reason for
liberal communitarian debate? the decline of political theory of David
A. Conception of self : ‘encumbered’ vs. Easton?
‘unencumbered’ A. Historicism
B. ‘Universalism’ vs. ‘Particularism’ B. Moral Relativism
C. ‘State neutrality’ vs. ‘non-neutrality of C. Ideological Reductionism
State’ D. Hyperfactualism
D. Totalitarianism : ‘procedural’ vs.
‘communitarian’ 259. Which of the following is not a feature of
Jayaprakash Narayan’s partyless democracy?
255. Given below are two statements, one labelled A. Dispersal of political power
as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as B. Constant watch of the representatives by
Reason (R): the electing bodies
Assertion (A) : For Plato great diversity of C. Maximum propaganda
wealth was inconsistent with good D. Comparatively less expensive elections
government.
Reason (R): He saw no way to abolish the 260. Who of the following advocated economic
evil except by abolishing wealth itself, so far theory of democracy?
as soldiers and rulers are concerned. A. J. Lively
Codes: B. C.B. Macpherson
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the C. Anthony Downs
correct explanation of (A) D. D. Held
B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not 261. Comparative politics as an autonomous
the correct explanation of (A) discipline emerged
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false A. in the 1970s B. in the 1960s
D. (A) is false, but (R) is true C. in the 1950s D. in the 1930s
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—38
262. Which of the following are the characteristics 267. Who among the following has defined
of a system, according to Almond? legitimacy as “conviction on the part of the
1. Comprehensiveness member that it is right and proper to accept
2. Inter-dependence and obey the authorities”?
3. Existence of boundaries A. David Easton
4. Availability of resources B. Seymour Lipset
Select the correct answer from the codes given C. Mark Suchman
below: D. Karl Friedrich
Codes:
268. Who among the following has classified
A. 2, 3 and 4 B. 1, 3 and 4
dependency into ‘Colonial dependency’,
C. 1, 2 and 4 D. 1, 2 and 3
‘Financial-industrial dependency’ and
263. Who among the following has used the ‘Technological-industrial dependency’?
concepts of goal changing, feedback and A. Andre Gunder Frank
learning ? B. Dos Santos
A. David Easton B. Karl Deutsch C. Maurice Wallerstein
C. Gabriel Almond D. Lucian Pye D. Samir Amin
264. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct 269. Who said, “Revolutions are the festivals of
answer from the codes given below: the oppressed and the exploited”?
List-I List-II A. Karl Marx B. Lenin
(a) Positive feedback (i) Edward Shils C. Mao D. Skocpol
(b) The development of (ii) Karl Deutsch
270. Which of the following are the characteristics
underdevelopment
of Weber’s bureaucracy?
(c) Modernising (iii) Ortega Gasset
1. Selection on the basis of professional
Oligarchy
qualifications
(d) Nation–an organised (iv) Andre
2. Appointment on contract basis
human mass Gunder
3. Staff members personally free
Frank
4. Officials free to leave the post
Codes:
(a) (b) (c) (d) Select the correct answer from the codes given
A. (ii) (iv) (i) (iii) below:
B. (i) (iv) (iii) (ii) A. 1 and 3 B. 1 and 4
C. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) C. 1, 2 and 3 D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
D. (ii) (iv) (iii) (i) 271. Khilafat Movement in India was started to
265. The cultural thrust in comparative politics show solidarity with the Sultan of
became prominent during A. Saudi Arabia B. Turkey
A. the 1950s C. Iran D. Iraq
B. the 1960s 272. Which one of the following writs is issued
C. the early 1970s against an inferior tribunal which has declined
D. the late 1970s to exercise its jurisdiction?
266. Riots and demonstrations are the examples A. Certiorari B. Prohibition
of C. Quo Warranto D. Mandamus
A. Institutional interest groups 273. Who was the protem speaker of the 16th Lok
B. Associational interest groups Sabha?
C. Non-associational interest groups A. Sumitra Mahajan B. Meira Kumar
D. Anomic interest groups C. Kamal Nath D. L.K. Advani
274. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct Reason (R): Regional parties have less
answer from the codes given below: willingness to decentralize power.
List-I List-II Codes:
(Authors) (Books) A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is
(a) S. Khilnani (i) India After Gandhi : correct explanation of (A).
The History of the B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not
World’s Largest the correct explanation of (A).
Democracy C. (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(b) Rajni Kothari (ii) The Idea of India D. (A) is false, but (R) is true.
(c) R. Guha (iii) The State Against
Democracy : In 279. Which one of the following, bearing names
Search of Human of Chief Election Commissioners of India, is
Governance arranged in chronological order?
(d) Atul Kohli (iv) The Success of A. S.P. Sen Verma, Sukumar Sen, J.M.
India’s Democracy Lyngdoh, T.N. Seshan
Codes: B. Sukumar Sen, S.P. Sen Verma, T.N.
(a) (b) (c) (d) Seshan, J.M. Lyngdoh
A. (ii) (iii) (i) (iv) C. S.P. Sen Verma, T.N. Seshan, Sukumar
B. (i) (iv) (iii) (ii) Sen, J.M. Lyngdoh
C. (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) D. Sukumar Sen, T.N. Seshan, S.P. Sen
D. (iv) (ii) (i) (iii) Verma, J.M. Lyngdoh
275. Who of the following is associated with the 280. Which of the following kinds of special
concept “Congress System”? provisions are made for the Scheduled Tribes
A. Morris Jones B. Paul R. Brass in India?
C. Rajni Kothari D. Subrata K. Mitra 1. Reservation of seats in Lok Sabha and
276. In India, ‘Collegium System’ was first State Legislative Assemblies.
introduced in relation to 2. Central Government to give special grants
A. Executive for welfare.
B. Legislature 3. Reservation of seats in public services
C. Judiciary and in employment.
D. Union-State Relations 4. Reservation of seats in educational
277. Which one of the following does not qualify institutions.
for curtailing the freedom of speech and Select the correct answer from the codes given
expression under Indian Constitution? below:
A. Security of the state Codes:
B. Public order, decency, morality A. 1, 2 and 3 B. 1, 3 and 4
C. Demand for autonomy C. 2, 3 and 4 D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
D. Contempt of Court 281. Which one of the following statements about
278. Given below are two statements, one labelled the disadvantages of territorial principle of
as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as administrative organization is wrong?
Reason (R): A. Not suitable for large areas
Assertion (A): The transformation of the party B. Uniformity of administration becomes
system in India has centralized power at tier difficult
two of the government, namely at the State C. Encourages localism
level. D. Dominated by regional interests
282. Which one of the following was not a 288. Regarding the liability of holders of public
substitute of Merit System found earlier? office, when an official fails to perform a
A. Exchange System B. Spoils System legal duty, it is known as
C. Sale of Offices D. Patronage System A. Malfeasance
B. Nonfeasance
283. What is the bill called that contains all the
C. Disfeasance
demands voted by the Lok Sabha and the
D. Misfeasance
consolidated fund charges?
A. The Appropriation Bill 289. Ombudsman in Sweden can take the
B. Voting of Demands Bill following actions:
C. Fiscal Policy Bill 1. Can act against the judiciary
D. The Finance Bill 2. Can act on individual complaints
3. Can act against members of Parliament
284. Money received by the government of India 4. Can act suo moto
under the State Provident Fund is credited to Choose the correct answer from the code below:
A. Consolidated Fund Codes:
B. Treasury A. 2, 3, 4 B. 1, 2, 4
C. Public Account C. 1, 2, 3 D. 2, 4
D. Contingency Fund
290. Match List-I with List-II and choose the
285. Arrange the following in correct correct answer with the help of the code given
chronological order of the hierarchy of human below:
needs given by Maslow: List-I List-II
A. Security – Social – Self-esteem – (Committees/ (Year of
Biological – Self-actualization Commissions) appointment)
B. Self-esteem – Social – Biological – Self- (a) Ashok Mehta (i) 1953-54
actualization – Security Committee
C. Self-actualization – Self-esteem – Social (b) The Taxation (ii) 1949-51
– Security – Biological Enquiry Committee
D. Biological – Security – Social – Self- (c) The Local Finance (iii) 1978
esteem – Self-actualization Enquiry Committee
(d) G.V.K. Rao Committee (iv) 1985
286. In UK, merit-based recruitment was adopted
Codes:
on the recommendation of which report?
(a) (b) (c) (d)
A. Fulton Committee Report A. (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
B. Northcote – Trevelyan Report B. (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
C. Redcliff – Maud Commission Report C. (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
D. Tomlin Commission Report D. (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
287. Which one of the following was not included 291. Game theory owes a heavy debt to the
in the minimum criteria for ensuring good seminal work entitled, “The Theory of Games
national governance by Nayef Al-Rodhan in and Economic Behaviour”. It has been written
his book ‘Sustainable History and Dignity of by
Man’? A. Mortan Kaplan
A. Equity and Inclusiveness B. John Von Neumann and Oskar Morgen-
B. Rule of Law stern
C. A system of checks and balances C. Karl Deutsch
D. Transparency D. Michael Hass
292. Who among the following has remarked that, B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not
power in a political context means “the power the correct explanation of (A).
of man over the minds and actions of other C. (A) is true, but (R) is false.
men”? D. (R) is true, but (A) is false.
A. George Schwarzenberger 296. The demand for New International Economic
B. Herman Heller Order was first made at
C. Hans Morgenthau A. Tehran Summit
D. Bertrand Russell B. Durban Summit
293. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct C. Kuala Lumpur Summit
answer from the codes given below: D. Algiers Summit
List-I List-II 297. Which one of the following is not correct
(Treaties/Proposals) (Year) about Association of South East Asian Nations
(a) SALT II (Strategic Arms (i) 1987 (ASEAN)?
Limitation Talks) A. First India ASEAN Summit was held in
(b) PTBT (Partial Test Ban (ii) 1979 November, 2002.
Treaty) B. ASEAN declared South East Asian
(c) Atom for Peace Proposal (iii) 1963 Nuclear Weapon free zone in 1995.
(d) INF Treaty (Intermediate (iv) 1953 C. ASEAN is working to remove trade
Nuclear Force Treaty) barriers and develop economic
Codes: relationship with China, Japan and South
(a) (b) (c) (d) Korea.
A. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) D. India became full dialogue partner of
B. (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) ASEAN in 1991.
C. (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
D. (iii) (ii) (i) (iv) 298. Who among the following used the phrase –
The United Nations is ‘sharing in the name
294. Which one of the following factors of solidarity’ for underlining the necessity of
contributed to the emergence of ‘New the U.N.?
Detente’ after Cold War? A. Winston Churchill
A. Pressure by the Non-aligned Movement B. Dag Hammarskjold
B. The signing of INF Treaty by Reagan C. Trygve Lie
and Gorbachev. D. Woodrow Wilson
C. Emergence of Namibia as a free African
Nation 299. Which one of the following is not a feature
D. Deployment of RDF (Rapid Deployment of ‘Shopkeeper diplomacy’?
Force) in Persian Gulf A. It is based on peaceful approach
B. It is a means of diplomacy for maintaining
295. Given below are two statements, one labelled peace through compromise
as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as C. It is based on the sound business
Reason (R): principles of moderation
Assertion (A): India chose Non-alignment as D. It tries to safeguard national interest
a foreign policy choice in the post through war only
independence period.
Reason (R): NAM was an assertion of 300. Positive peace implies
independence, equality and sovereignty. A. a ceasefire
Codes: B. stopping the formation of death squads
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is C. transformation of relationship
correct explanation of (A). D. social construction of war
301. Who among the following said that “Political 306. Which one of the following statements is
theory is, quite simply, man’s attempt to incorrect regarding political ideology?
consciously understand and solve the A. It is a belief system which helps to
problems of his group life and organization”? structure how the world is understood
A. Ernest Barker B. G.H. Sabine and explained.
C. Leo Strauss D. David Easton B. It is a set of ideas which provides the
302. Who of the following lamented the ‘death’ basis for some kind of political action.
of political philosophy? C. It is an action-oriented belief system.
A. Robert Dahl B. Peter Laslett D. Political ideology is not the same thing
C. Peter Winch D. David Easton as political theory.
303. Which one of the following answers is 307. Who of the following said “Lenin’s party
incorrect regarding neo-liberalism? was designed to be an elite, a minority chosen
A. Neo-liberal vision largely evolved during for intellectual and moral superiority, the
the governments of Ronald Reagan and most advanced part of the working class and
Margaret Thatcher. so its vanguard”?
B. It attacked the Keynesian notion of the A. C.B. MacPherson B. D. McLellan
international economic order. C. G.H. Sabine D. R. Miliband
C. It emerged as a total negation of Laissez-
faire economics. 308. Nocturnal Council finds a mention in Plato’s
D. Its emphasis is on free markets and liberal A. The Republic B. The Statesman
reforms. C. The Laws D. None of the above
304. Which one of the following answers is correct 309. Given below are two statements, one labelled
regarding Post-Marxism? as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as
A. The working class has not evolved into Reason (R):
a revolutionary movement. Assertion (A): For Aristotle the authority of
B. Economic class interests are relatively a constitutional ruler over his subjects is
autonomous from ideology and politics. quite different from that of a master over his
C. The working class holds no basic position slaves.
within socialism. Reason (R): Because the slave is inferior
D. All the above from birth and incapable of ruling himself.
305. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct Codes:
answer from the codes given below: A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the
List-I List-II correct explanation of (A)
(Authors) (Dominant Concept) B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not
(a) Thomas Pogge (i) Distributive Justice the correct explanation of (A)
(b) Michael Walzer (ii) Communitarian C. (A) is true, but (R) is false
Perspective of D. (A) is false, but (R) is true
Justice 310. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct
(c) Susan Moller (iii) Feminist Conception answer from the codes given below:
Okin of Justice List-I List-II
(d) John Rawls (iv) Global Justice (Authors) (Books)
Codes: (a) Willmoore (i) John Locke, A
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Kendall Biography
A. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(b) J.W. Gough (ii) John Locke and
B. (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
the Doctrine of
C. (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
D. (i) (ii) (iv) (iii) Majority-rule
(c) M.W. Cranston (iii) John Locke’s B. all forms of political activity-govern-
Political Philosophy mental as well as non-governmental and
(d) Richard Cox (iv) Locke on Peace and all political phenomena
War C. political processes
Codes: D. techniques and tools of comparative
(a) (b) (c) (d) inquiry
A. (ii) (iii) (i) (iv) 317. What is the correct sequence in which the
B. (i) (ii) (iv) (iii) following approaches to the study of
C. (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) ‘Comparative Politics’ emerged?
D. (iv) (i) (iii) (ii) 1. Philosophical Approach
311. For whom of the following, science is the 2. Systems Approach
fruit of idle curiosity; philosophy is mere 3. New Institutional Approach
4. Behavioural Approach
intellectual frippery; the amenities of polite
life is tinsel?
below:
A. Thomas Hobbes B. John Locke
Codes:
C. J.J. Rousseau D. Karl Marx
A. 1, 3, 4 and 2 B. 1, 4, 2 and 3
312. Which one of the following is not correct C. 1, 2, 4 and 3 D. 3, 1, 2 and 4
regarding Marx’s theory of alienation ? 318. Identify the correct sequence of the following
A. Alienation from the product input functions and select the correct answer
B. Alienation from the activity of labour from the codes given below:
C. Disalienation from species-being 1. Interest-aggregation
D. Alienation of man from man 2. Interest-articulation
313. Who of the following is of the view that it 3. Political communication
is not Gandhi who made Satyagraha but it is 4. Political socialization and recruitment
Satyagraha which made Gandhi the Codes:
Mahatma? A. 1, 2, 3 and 4 B. 1, 2, 4 and 3
A. R.R. Diwakar B. C.F. Andrews C. 2, 1, 4 and 3 D. 4, 2, 1 and 3
C. G.N. Dhawan D. Louis Fisher 319. The sociologists who influenced Gabriel
314. In which of the following countries Almond in his structural functionalism were
1. Max Weber 2. Talcott Parsons
Narendranath Bhattacharya settled under the
3. David Truman 4. Karl Deutsch
name of Manabendra Nath Roy?
A. Java
below:
B. United States of America
Codes:
C. Germany A. 1, 2 and 3 B. 1 and 2
D. Mexico C. 1 and 3 D. 2 and 3
315. Who of the following said that God had 320. Which of the following statements about the
appeared to him in prison, placed the Gita in Vice-President of India and Vice-President of
his hands and made him realize the simple America are true?
truths of the Sanatana Dharma? 1. Both the Vice-Presidents are elected.
A. Vivekananda B. Mahatma Gandhi 2. Both of them are the presiding officers of
C. Aurobindo Ghose D. Savarkar their respective upper Houses.
316. Comparative Politics is the study of 3. Both the Vice-Presidents are not the
A. institutions and functions members of their respective Houses.
4. Both of them do not have a casting vote (c) Lower House is more (iii) France
in case of a tie. powerful than Upper
Select the correct answer from the codes given House
below: (d) National Assembly (iv) Switzerland
Codes: can overthrow the
A. 1, 3 and 4 B. 1, 2 and 3 government
C. 1, 2 and 4 D. 1, 2, 3 and 4 Codes:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
321. Which one of the following governmental
A. (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
systems is considered to be the off-spring
and successor of the theory of separation of
C. (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
powers?
D. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
A. Swiss B. American
C. Indian D. French 326. Consider the following:
1. Pocket Veto
322. According to Riggs, lack of balance between
2. President message to federal legislature
equality and capacity is
3. Caucus system
A. Developmental syndrome
4. Pigeon hole-a bill
B. Developmental trap
These are the parts of constitutional practice
C. Political decay
D. Goal-changing of
A. Indian Political System
323. Arrange the following books in order in which B. American Political System
they appeared: C. The Swiss Political System
1. Political Order in Changing Societies D. The British Political System
2. The Politics of Modernization
3. How Europe Underdeveloped Africa 327. Who among the following former British
4. Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Prime Ministers belonged to the Labour
Latin America Party?
1. Harold Wilson 2. Edward Heath
below: 3. John Major 4. Tony Blair
Codes: Select the correct answer from the codes given
A. 2, 1, 4 and 3 B. 1, 2, 3 and 4 below:
C. 2, 1, 3 and 4 D. 1, 2, 4 and 3 Codes:
A. 1 and 4 B. 1, 3 and 4
324. Which one of the following articles of the C. 1, 2 and 3 D. 1 and 3
US Constitution vests the executive powers
in the President? 328. The Judges of the US Supreme Court hold office
A. Article 1 B. Article 2 A. upto the age of 65 years
C. Article 3 D. Article 4 B. upto the age of 70 years
C. upto the age of 75 years
325. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct D. until death or resignation or removal by
answer from the codes given below: the Congress
List-I List-II
(a) Both Houses have (i) America 329. Which one of the following Federal Courts
equal powers has the power to declare laws passed by the
(b) Upper House is more (ii) India state or the constituent unit of the federation
powerful than Lower invalid but not the federal laws?
House A. The Supreme Court of America
B. The Supreme Court of India 334. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct
C. The Swiss Federal Tribunal answer from the codes given below:
D. The French Superior Courts List-I List-II
330. Given below are two statements, one labelled (Features of Indian (Sources)
as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as Constitution)
Reason (R). Choose the correct answer from (a) Judicial Review, (i) British
the codes given below: Fundamental Rights
Assertion (A): The British Parliament is (b) Single Citizenship (ii) Irish
sovereign. (c) Nomination of Members (iii) Canadian
Reason (R): The Queen in England is a to Rajya Sabha
nominal head of the State. (d) Residuary Powers (iv) American
Codes: Codes:
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the (a) (b) (c) (d)
correct explanation of (A) A. (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not B. (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
the correct explanation of (A) C. (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false D. (i) (iv) (iii) (ii)
D. (A) is false, but (R) is true
335. In which of the following Acts the provincial
331. “Since Indians wish to unite and develop a subjects were divided into transferred and
common culture, it is the bounden duty of reserved subjects?
all Indians to own up Hindi as their A. Indian Council’s Act, 1892
language… Any Indian who does not accept B. Indian Council’s Act, 1909
this proposal…, has no right to be Indian.” C. Montague Chelmsford Reforms Act, 1919
Who among the following said this? D. Government of India Act, 1935
A. B.R. Ambedkar B. Bala Saheb Deoras
C. Dr. K.M. Munshi D. Seth Govind Das 336. Who of the following gave the idea of
‘Saintly Idiom’ in Indian politics?
332. Who has described Indian society as A. Jayaprakash Narayan
‘Apolitical Society’?
B. Rajni Kothari
A. Rajni Kothari B. Morris Jones
C. Morris Jones
C. Stanley Kochanak D. Paul R. Brass
D. James Manor
337. Arrange the following in chronological order:
List-I List-II (i) Navnirvan Movement in Gujarat
(States) (Chief Ministers (ii) Formation of Maharashtra as a State
[2014]) (iii) Split of the Communist Party of India
(a) Arunachal Pradesh (i) T.R. Zeliang (iv) Formation of Janata Party
(b) Mizoram (ii) Lal Thanhawla Codes:
(c) Nagaland (iii) Manik Sarkar A. (i), (iii), (ii), (iv) B. (iii), (ii), (i), (iv)
(d) Tripura (iv) Nabam Tuke C. (ii), (iii), (iv), (i) D. (ii), (iii), (i), (iv)
Codes: 338. Who describes social movements as ‘non-
(a) (b) (c) (d) party political formations’?
A. (ii) (i) (iv) (iii) A. Ramchandra Guha
B. (iv) (ii) (i) (iii) B. Rajni Kothari
C. (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) C. Partha Chatterjee
D. (i) (iii) (iv) (ii) D. T.K. Oommen
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—39
339. Arrange the following in chronological 344. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct
sequence: answer from the codes given below:
(i) Naxalite Movement List-I List-II
(ii) Sarvodaya Movement (Committees of (Number of
(iii) Narmada Bachao Andolan Parliament) Members)
(iv) Chipko Movement (a) Public Accounts (i) 45
Codes: Committee
A. (i), (iii), (ii), (iv) B. (ii), (i), (iv), (iii) (b) Estimates Committee (ii) 22
C. (iv), (ii), (i), (iii) D. (i), (iv), (iii), (i) (c) Department related (iii) 15
Parliamentary
340. Who among the following was a member of
Standing Committee
the Justice J.S. Verma Committee constituted
(d) Rules Committee of (iv) 30
following Nirbhaya case?
Lok Sabha
A. Justice Fatima Beevi
Codes:
B. Justice Leila Seth (a) (b) (c) (d)
C. Justice Gyan Sudha Mishra A. (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
D. Justice G. Rohini B. (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
341. Which one of the following is not the C. (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
function of the Election Commission of India? D. (iv) (i) (iii) (ii)
A. Conduct of election to Parliament, State 345. Given below are two statements, one labelled
Legislatures, President and Vice- as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as
President Reason (R).
B. Preparation of electoral rolls
Assertion (A): The Courts follow the principle
C. Counting of votes and declaration of
of natural justice while deciding cases.
results
D. Declaring an election void Reason (R): Justice should not only be done
but should manifestly and undoubtedly be
342. On which date National Integration Day is seen to be done.
celebrated in India ? Codes:
A. 14th November B. 19th November A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the
C. 10th December D. 30th October correct explanation of (A)
343. Which one of the following principles did B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not
not emerge out of Bommai case in relation to the correct explanation of (A)
Article 356? C. (A) is true, but (R) is false
A. Proclamation issued under Art. 356 is D. (A) is false, but (R) is true
subject to judicial review. 346. The post 1970 phase in the development of
B. State Assembly should be dissolved only Public Administration was characterized by
after the approval of proclamation by A. Status-quoism
Parliament. B. Stability
C. If a new political party assumes power at C. Development theory
the Centre, it has the authority to dismiss D. Value orientation
Ministries formed by other parties in the 347. What was he referring to when Mooney said
States. ‘conferring of specified authority by a higher
D. The Court may require the Union authority’?
Government to disclose the materials on A. Division of powers B. Responsibility
the basis of which Art. 356 was invoked. C. Conferring authority D. Delegation
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—39-II
348. Which one of the following was not in the 353. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct
list of functional requisites for any society, answer from the codes given below:
given by Fred W. Riggs? List-I List-II
A. Economic (Books) (Authors)
B. Administrative (a) The Administrative (i) Ordway Tead
State
C. Political
(b) The Art of (ii) Piffner and
D. Communicational Administration Presthus
349. Which one of the following is not a stage in (c) Public (iii) Dwight Waldo
decision-making process given by Herbert Administration
Simon? (d) Organization and (iv) Seckler-Hudson
A. Intelligence activity Management
Codes:
B. Speculative activity
(a) (b) (c) (d)
C. Choice activity
A. (i) (iii) (iv) (ii)
D. Design activity B. (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
350. Which one of the following is not one of the C. (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
styles of leadership given by Likert? D. (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
A. Exploitative authoritative 354. ‘Rule of Lapse’ is essential for the effective
B. Benevolent authoritative financial control by the
C. Cooperative authoritative A. Estimates Committee
D. Participative B. Parliament
C. Department of Expenditure
351. Choose the correct code for the Assertion (A) D. Public Accounts Committee
and Reason (R) as given below:
Assertion (A): To be valid and part of a 355. Desk Officer System in the ministries of
government of India had the following
science of public administration, hypothesis
advantages:
developed in the American cultural context 1. Speedy disposal of cases
should be tested in cross-cultural settings. 2. Dual records were available
Reason (R): Comparative study has brought 3. Reduced expenditure
Politics and Public Administration closer to 4. Qualitative improvement
each other. Choose the correct answer from the code given
Codes: below:
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the A. 1, 2, 4 B. 1, 2, 3
correct explanation of (A). C. 1, 3, 4 D. 2, 3, 4
B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not 356. Which one of the following institutions was
the correct explanation of (A). established in India on the recommendations
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false. of Paul A. Appleby?
D. (A) is false, but (R) is true. A. L.B.S. Academy of Administration
B. Indian Institute of Public Administration
352. What is the name of the Committee in Britain C. Indian Council of Social Science Research
that takes up voting of demands and of taxes D. Indian Police Academy
(revenue part)?
357. Arrange the following in correct
A. Appropriation Committee
chronological sequence in the stages of
B. Committee of Ways and Means performance budgeting:
C. Committee of Supply A. Objectives – Classification – Analysis –
D. Estimates Committee Evaluation
B. Analysis – Objectives – Evaluation – (b) “In its essence power (ii) Hans
Classification is an indivisible Morgenthau
C. Classification – Analysis – Objectives – whole.”
Evaluation (c) “For military reasons (iii) Reinhold
D. Objectives – Analysis – Classification – a state should be Neibuhr
Evaluation economically self
358. Public Service Commissions for the Union sufficient.”
and States in India are created under which (d) “The struggle for (iv) E.H. Carr
Article of the Constitution? power is universal in
A. 268 B. 315 time and space and is
C. 312 D. 371(A) an undeniable fact of
experience.”
359. Which one of the following was not
Codes:
recommended for Panchayatiraj by Thungon
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Committee?
A. (i) (iii) (iv) (ii)
A. Constitutional Status
B. (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
B. Planning at Zila Parishad level
C. Dist. Collector to be Chief Executive of C. (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
Zila Parishad D. (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
D. Three year term 362. Arrange the following in their chronological
360. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct sequence and choose your answer from the
answer with the help of the code given below: codes given below:
List-I List-II (i) Churchill’s Fulton Speech
(Acts/Agencies) (Year) (ii) Launching of the African Union
(a) All-India Services (i) 1941 (iii) A treaty to create South East Asian
(Conduct) Rules Nuclear weapon free zone
(b) Central Bureau of (ii) 1860 (iv) Recognition of South Sudan as a
Investigation sovereign State and 193rd member of
(c) Indian Penal Code (iii) 1963 the U.N.
(d) Special Police (iv) 1954 Codes:
Establishment A. (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) B. (i), (iii), (ii), (iv)
Codes: C. (i), (iv), (ii), (iii) D. (iv), (iii), (i), (ii)
(a) (b) (c) (d) 363. Which one of the following statements
A. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) regarding realism are true?
B. (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
(i) Thucydides is called the first classical
C. (iii) (i) (iv) (ii)
realist.
D. (i) (iv) (ii) (iii)
(ii) Power is the key to international
361. Match List-I with List-II and select the answer politics.
from the codes given below: (iii) The main goal of states is survival.
List-I List-II (iv) All states do not posses power to inflict
(Statements) (Scholar) some harm on its neighbour.
(a) “There is no possibility (i) Haushofer Choose your answer from the codes given
of drawing a sharp line below:
between the will to Codes:
live and the will to A. (i), (iv), (ii) B. (i), (iii), (iv)
power.” C. (ii), (iii), (iv) D. (i), (ii), (iii)
364. Who defined Non-alignment as a “Policy of 370. What is not true about ASEAN (Association
keeping out of alliances”? of South East Asian Nations)?
A. K.M. Pannikar A. Its declared objectives is regional peace
B. George Schwarzenberger and stability.
C. Marshall Tito B. It stands for strategic co-operation at
D. John Burton regional level.
C. It is intended to promote co-operation in
365. The North American Free Trade Agreement social, economic, cultural, scientific and
1994 (NAFTA) includes: administrative spheres.
A. U.S.A., Canada and Mexico D. Malaysian Prime Minister Abdul Razak
B. Mexico, Japan and South Korea announced that ASEAN was not
C. Brazil, Mexico and New Zealand committed to any political ideology.
D. Canada, New Zealand and U.S.A.
371. Which one of the following is the report that
366. Who among the following realist thinkers triggered the process of U.N. reform?
identifies ‘three images of politics’? A. Secretary General Kofi Annan’s Report
A. Hans Morgenthau B. Kenneth Waltz 2005 entitled ‘In Larger Freedom’
C. Thucydides D. E.H. Carr B. Secretary General Boutros Boutros Ghali
367. Read the following statements about South- Report 1992 ‘An Agenda for Peace’
South Co-operation: C. Secretary General Kofi Annan’s Report
1. South-South Co-operation is an 2005 entitled, Investing in the UN : For
alternative to North-South Aid. a Stronger Organisation World Wide.
2. It refers to co-operative mutually D. Amnesty International Report 1997
beneficial activities in the field of trade, entitled, ‘Refugees’ : Human Rights have
no Borders’.
service and technology.
3. UN General Assembly declared 19 372. Which one of the following Reports cites the
December the annual UN Day for South- unjust global trade regime as primary cause
South Co-operation. in increasing global inequality?
4. W.T.O. came into existence for A. Doha Round (of GATT) Resolution, 2003
facilitating South-South Co-operation. B. Development Assistance Committee
Select your answer from the codes given Report, 2003
below: C. Human Development Report (HDR) of
Codes: 2005
A. 1, 3, 4 B. 2 and 4 D. World Bank Report of 1989
C. 1, 2, 3 D. Only 4 373. Read the following statements and choose
368. Operation Enduring Freedom 2001 is related your answer from the codes given below:
to 1. “While all politics is necessarily pursuit
A. Eviction of terrorists from Iraq of power, ideologies render involvement
B. Eviction of Taliban regime from in that contest for power, psychologically
Afghanistan and morally acceptable to the actors and
C. Eviction of Cremean forces from Russia their audience”.
D. Eviction of Arabs from Gaza strip 2. The Ideals of Peace and of International
law are eminently qualified to serve as
369. Which one of the following countries is not Ideologies for a policy of status quo.
a member of BIMSTEC that started in 1997? 3. The Ideology of Peace has a tremendous
A. Bangladesh B. India role in attaining the objectives of the
C. Thailand D. China U.N.
4. Ideology has always an edge over 379. Rousseau won the prize in an essay contest
National Interest. sponsored by the Academy of Dijon in 1749
Codes: on the subject
A. All statements 1, 2, 3 and 4 are correct A. “Has the progress of the sciences and the
B. Only 1 is correct Arts contributed to corrupt or purify
C. 1, 2 and 3 are correct morals?”
D. Only 4 is correct B. “Has the progress of the sciences
contributed to corrupt morals?”
374. Match List-I with List-II and choose your C. “Has the development of the sciences
answer from the codes given below: contributed to corrupt or purify morals?”
List-I List-II D. None of the above
(Authors) (Books)
(a) Walden Bello (i) A Globalizing 380. Given below are two statements, one labelled
as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as
World? Culture,
Reason (R) :
Economics, Politics
Assertion (A) : For Plato, knowledge is
(b) Jagadish (ii) Globalization and its
neither perception nor opinion.
Bhagwati Discontents
Reason (R) : Right opinion is knowledge.
(c) D. Held (iii) In Defence of Codes :
Globalization A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the
(d) Joseph E. (iv) Deglobalization : correct explanation of (A).
Stiglitz Ideas for a New B. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not
Economy the correct explanation of (A).
Codes: C. (A) is true and (R) is false.
(a) (b) (c) (d) D. (A) is false, but (R) is true.
A. (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
B. (iii) (i) (iv) (ii) 381. The laws of the dialectic of Marx does not
include
C. (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
A. The law of transformation of quantity
D. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
into quality and vice-versa.
375. Which one of the following is not an IGO B. The law of the unity of opposites.
(Intergovernmental Organization) ? C. The law of the negation of the negation.
A. United Nations D. Dialectic is confined to its operation to
B. Amnesty International the understanding of the past only.
C. Arab League 382. Who said “Leninism is Marxism of the era of
D. African Union imperialism and of the proletarian revo-
376. To Kautilya, the concept “rupadarshaka” lution”?
means : A. Marx B. Lenin
A. Beautician B. Magistrate C. Stalin D. Mao
C. Inspector of coins D. Zamindar 383. Identify the correct sequence of the tenets of
377. Plato appropriated the ideas of Behaviouralism as advocated by David
A. Heraclitus B. Parmenides Easton.
C. Socrates D. All the above (i) Regularities (ii) Techniques
(iii) Quantification (iv) Verification
378. For whom “All existence is simply a matter Select the correct answer from the codes given
in motion.”? below :
A. Plato B. Hobbes A. (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) B. (i), (iv), (ii), (iii)
C. T.H. Green D. Rousseau C. (i), (iii), (iv), (ii) D. (i), (ii), (iv), (iii)
384. In which place of South Africa did Gandhiji 389. Given below are two statements, one labelled
for the first time organize mass protest? as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as
A. Cape Town B. Johannesburg Reason (R):
C. Soweto D. Pretoria Assertion (A) : Dependency is a relationship
between the groups of economies those, who
condition others and those, who are
answer from the codes given below :
conditioned by others.
List-I List-II Reason (R) : Dependency is dependent on
(a) Charles. E. (i) The Governmental the core periphery relationship of the
Merriam process international political economy.
(b) Heinz Eulan (ii) What is political Codes :
philosophy? and A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the
other studies correct explanation of (A).
(c) Leo Strauss (iii) New aspects of B. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not
politics the correct explanation of (A).
(d) D. Truman (iv) The behavioural C. (A) is true, but (R) is false.
persuasion in D. (A) is false, but (R) is true.
politics
Codes : 390. Who said “A state is human activity that
(a) (b) (c) (d) successfully claims the monopoly of the
A. (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) legitimate use of physical force within a given
B. (ii) (iii) (i) (iv) territory”?
C. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) A. David Easton B. G.A. Almond
D. (iv) (i) (iii) (ii) C. Karl Marx D. Max Weber
391. The traditional approaches to the
386. Who among the following political thinkers
comparative politics neglected the
are generally regarded as founders of
A. Study of Government
philosophical approach?
B. Institutional studies
A. Plato and Aristotle
C. Comparison of the constitutions
B. Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau
D. Empirical investigations
C. Jeremy Bentham and J.S. Mill
D. Kant, Hegel 392. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct
387. Which of the following are the characteristics List-I List-II
of Weber’s ideal bureaucracy? (Electoral System) (Countries)
1. Staff and line 2. Impersonality (a) First-Past-the-post (i) India
3. Hierarchy 4. Informal organization system
Select the correct answer from the codes given (b) Two Rounds of (ii) Egypt
below : system
A. 1 and 2 B. 2 and 3 (c) List System (iii) Brazil
C. 3 and 4 D. 1 and 4 (d) Single Transferable (iv) Ireland
388. Which of the following does not figure in vote system
Almond and Verba’s classification of political Codes :
cultures? (a) (b) (c) (d)
A. Cognitive orientation A. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
B. Affective orientation B. (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
C. Evaluative orientation C. (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
D. Empirical orientation D. (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
393. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct 396. Which one of the following pairs are not
answer from the codes given below : correctly matched?
List-I List-II List-I List-II
(Books) (Authors) (President) (Vice-President)
(a) Interest groups (i) H.W. Ehrmann A. Dr. Rajendra – Dr. S. Radha
in American Prasad Krishnan
Society B. Dr. Zakir Hussain – V.V. Giri
(b) Interest groups (ii) H. Zeigler C. Sanjeeva Reddy – B.D. Jatti
of four D. Dr. S. Radha – Dr. Zakir Hussain
Continents Krishnan
(c) Anonymous (iii) Graham Wallas 397. What is the percentage fixed by the
Empire constitution regarding the strength of the
(d) Human Nature (iv) Samuel Finer Ministers including the chief minister in a
in Politics state?
Codes : A. 10% B. 12%
(a) (b) (c) (d) C. 15% D. 16%
A. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) 398. Which one of the following is mainly
B. (ii) (iii) (i) (iv) associated with Panchayati Raj in tribal areas?
C. (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) A. P.K. Thungan Committee
D. (ii) (i) (iv) (iii) B. Dilip Singh Bhuria Committee
394. Which one of the following approaches C. Sadiq Ali Committee
studies, among others, public opinion and D. Doomarlal Baitha Committee
people’s political choices? 399. Arrange the following writs in the correct
A. Political Philosophical Approach sequence as given in the Indian Constitution:
B. Institutional Approach (i) Certiorari
C. Behavioural Approach (ii) Habeas Corpus
D. Legal Approach (iii) Quo Warranto
(iv) Prohibition
(v) Mandamus
List-I List-II Codes :
(Political Culture) (Countries) A. (i), (iii), (v), (ii), (iv)
(a) Homogeneous (i) Uganda B. (ii), (iv), (iii), (i), (v)
culture C. (ii), (v), (iv), (i), (iii)
(b) Elite mass culture (ii) U.K. D. (iii), (i), (ii), (iv), (v)
(c) Subject political (iii) India 400. Arrange the following in their chronological
culture sequence:
(d) Parochial culture (iv) China (i) Cripps Mission
Codes : (ii) Montague Chelmsford Report
(a) (b) (c) (d) (iii)Simon Commission
A. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (iv) Morley-Minto Reforms
B. (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) Codes :
C. (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) A. (ii), (iii), (i), (iv) B. (iv), (ii), (iii), (i)
D. (iv) (iii) (i) (ii) C. (iii), (i), (ii), (iv) D. (i), (iv), (iii), (ii)
401. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct Assertion (A) : Bulk of the provisions of the
answer from the codes given below : Constitution of India were adopted from the
List-I List-II Government of India Act of 1935.
(Parties) (Characteristic) Reason (R) : The Congress party passed a
(a) Indian National (i) National Party resolution adopting the government of India
Congress Act of 1935 as the basis of the constitution.
(b) Telugu Desam (ii) State Party Codes :
Party A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the
(c) Kerala Congress (iii) Umbrella Party correct explanation of (A).
(d) Communist (iv) Regional Party B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not
Party of India the correct explanation of (A).
(marxist) C. (A) is true, but (R) is false.
Codes : D. (R) is true, but (A) is false.
(a) (b) (c) (d) 405. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct
A. (ii) (i) (iv) (iii) answer from the codes given below :
B. (i) (iii) (iv) (ii) List-I List-II
C. (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) (Articles) (Provisions)
D. (iv) (ii) (i) (iii) (a) 359 (i) Financial Emergency
(b) 312 (ii) Finance Commission
402. Which one of the following was denounced
(c) 280 (iii) Suspension of
by congress as “inadequate, unsatisfactory
Fundamental Rights
and disappointing”?
(d) 360 (iv) All India Services
A. Indian Councils Act, 1909
B. Montague Chelmsford Report, 1918 Codes :
C. Simon Commission Report, 1930 (a) (b) (c) (d)
D. Communal Award, 1932 A. (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
B. (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
403. Given below are two statements, one labelled C. (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as D. (iv) (i) (iii) (ii)
Reason (R):
Assertion (A) : A federal arrangement aims at 406. Who among the following has created
reconciling freedom with unity and diversity eighteen definitions of public administration
of political cultures and identities with and put them in four categories of political,
effective collective action. legal, occupational and managerial?
Reason (R) : India opted for a pluralistic A. Gulick and Urwick
model of nation building. B. Shafritz and Russell
Codes : C. David H. Rosenbloom
A. Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is D. Paul H. Appleby
the correct explanation of (A). 407. Who among the following has not made a
B. Both (A) and (R) are correct, but (R) is distinction between public and private
not the correct explanation of (A). administration?
C. (A) is correct, but (R) is not correct. A. Henry Fayol B. Herbert Simon
D. (R) is correct, but (A) is not correct. C. Paul H. Appleby D. John Gaus
404. Given below are two statements, one labelled 408. What is the correct chronological sequence
as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as of the following reports?
Reason (R) : 1. A.D. Gorwala Report
(1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—40
2. Paul H. Appleby Report Codes :

3. Santhanam Committee Report (a) (b) (c) (d)
4. First Administrative Reforms Commission A. (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
Report. B. (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
Select the correct answer from the codes given C. (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
below : D. (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
A. 1, 2, 3, 4 B. 2, 1, 4, 3 413. Which one of the following was the first
C. 1, 3, 2, 4 D. 1, 3, 4, 2 state to establish the institution of the
409. Max Weber used the Greek word ‘Charisma’ Lokayukta in India?
to refer to A. Rajasthan B. Bihar
1. qualities acquired by experience C. Uttar Pradesh D. Maharashtra
2. inherited qualities 414. Given below are two statements, one labelled
3. supernatural qualities as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as
4. super human qualities Reason (R) :
Select the correct answer from the codes given Assertion (A) : Under the spoils system the
below : public offices are distributed to the members
A. 2, 3 and 4 B. 1, 3 and 4 of the party victorious at the polls.
C. 1 and 3 D. 3 and 4 Reason (R) : The public offices are considered
spoils to be enjoyed by the victors.
410. Which one of the following is not a base of
Codes :
organization?
A. Function B. Budgeting
correct explanation of (A).
C. Process D. Clientele
B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not
411. Which of the following statement is not the correct explanation of (A).
correct in respect of India? C. (A) is true, but (R) is false.
A. Tax can be levied except by authority of D. (A) is false, but (R) is true.
law
415. Who among the following are the pro-
B. No expenditure can be incurred from
tagonists of the integral view of public
public funds except in the manner
administration?
provided in the constitution and in
1. Henry Fayol
accordance with law
2. Marshall Dimock
C. Executive is bound to spend money in
3. Simon
the manner as sanctioned by Parliament
4. Gulick
D. None of the above
412. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct below :
List-I List-II Codes :
(a) Hierarchy (i) Dr. K.S. Kothari A. 1 and 4 B. 1 and 3
(b) Report on Public (ii) House keeping C. 1 and 2 D. 2 and 3
Administration 416. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct
(1951) answer from the codes given below :
(c) Preliminary scree- (iii) Scalar process List-I List-II
ning examination (Authors) (Books)
in Indian civil service (a) E.H. Carr (i) Neorealism
(d) Auxilliary Agency (iv) A.D. Gorwala and Its Critics
(b) R. Keohane (ii) From Wealth international peace; first explores ways to
to Power settle the dispute peacefully
(c) J. Mearsheimer (iii) The Twenty A. Chapter VI, Article 36
Year Crisis B. Chapter VI, Article 33
(d) F. Zakaria (iv) The Tragedy of C. Chapter VII, Article 47
Great Power D. Chapter VII, Article 42
Politics
421. Which of the following are correct features
Codes : of the modern institution of international law?
(a) (b) (c) (d) (i) Unilateral legislation
A. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (ii) Consent and legal obligation
B. (iv) (iii) (i) (ii) (iii) Language and practice of justification
C. (iii) (i) (iv) (ii)
(iv) Discourse of institutional antonomy
D. (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
417. Given below are two statements, one labelled below :
as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as A. (i), (ii) and (iii) are correct.
Reason (R) : B. (i), (iii) and (iv) are correct.
Assertion (A) : Globalization is a
C. (i), (ii) and (iv) are correct.
multidimensional process.
D. (ii), (iii) and (iv) are correct.
Reason (R) : It involves economic, political,
social and cultural globalizations. 422. The United Nations Conference well known
Codes : as Copenhagen, COP 15 dealt with the issue
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the of
right explanation of (A). A. Global Warming
B. Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not B. Climate Change
the right explanation of (A). C. Environment
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false. D. Population Explosion
D. (A) is false, but (R) is true.
418. When two combatants are so different in their answer from the codes given below:
characters, and in their areas of comparative List-I List-II
strategic advantage, that a confrontation (Regional (Year of
between them comes to turn one side’s ability Organization) Origin)
to force, the other side to fight on their own (a) Organization of (i) 1989
terms. Name the type of war? American States (OAS)
A. Unequal war
(b) North Atlantic Free (ii) 1948
B. Asymmetric war
Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
C. New war
(c) Arab Maghreb Union (iii) 1954
D. Post-westphalian war
(AMU)
419. Name the UN fact finding mission on the (d) South East Asian Treaty (iv) 1994
Gaza Conflict 2009 Report Organization (SEATO)
A. Golding Report
Codes :
B. Goldstone Report
(a) (b) (c) (d)
C. Goldman Sachs Report
A. (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
D. Gaza Report
B. (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
420. Under which chapter and article does the UN C. (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
security council consider a threat to D. (iii) (i) (iv) (ii)
424. Given below are two statements, one labelled 432. Which one of the following is correct
as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as regarding the writings of Machiavelli?
Reason (R) : A. Discourses B. The Golden Ass
Assertion (A) : India is pursuing a positive C. The Art of War D. All the above
asymmetry in South Asia.
Reason (R) : India is strategically contained
by China-Pakistan partnership. answer form the codes given below:
Codes : List-I List-II
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the (Thinker) (Dominent Concept)
right explanation of (A). (a) Beitz (i) Justice as mutual
B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not advantage
the right explanation of (A). (b) Gauthier (ii) Entitlement Theory
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false. of Justice
D. (A) is false, but (R) is true. (c) Dworkin (iii) On Global Justice
(d) Nozick (iv) On equality
425. Who is the author of the book “Pakistan’s
Arms Procurement and Military build-up Codes :
1979-99 : In search of a policy”? (a) (b) (c) (d)
A. Ahmed Rashid A. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
B. Ayesha Jalal B. (iii) (i) (iv) (ii)
C. Ayesha Siddiqa Ada C. (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
D. Stephen Cohen D. (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
426. Who described political theory as ‘the 434. Plato developed his theory of the nature of
systematic thinking about the purpose of the the ultimate reality explaining the actual
government’? world in
A. Leacock B. Garner A. The Republic B. The Politics
C. Plamenatz D. Berlin C. The Laws D. The Timaeus
427. Who is the author of the book ‘The Philosophy 435. Given below are two statements one labelled
of J.S. Mill’? as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as
A. M. Cowling B. J. Gray Reason (R):
C. R.P. Anschutz D. J.W. Mueller Assertion (A): For Rawls the Right is prior to
428. Who is the author of ‘Savitri’? good.
A. M.N. Roy B. Mahatma Gandhi Reason (R): The loss of freedom for some is
C. Aurobindo D. R. Tagore made right by greater good shared by others.
429. “Once God is let in, there is an end to the Codes :
sovereignty of man.” Who said this? A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the
A. B.R. Ambedkar B. Vivekananda right explanation of (A).
C. M.N. Roy D. J. Nehru B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not
the right explanation of (A).
430. Who said “Man is what he eats”?
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false.
A. Marx B. Engels
D. (A) is false, but (R) is true.
C. Lenin D. Feuerbach
431. Who is the propounder of labour theory of 436. Identify the correct sequence in ascending
value? order of Lenin’s writings :
A. Hobbes B. Locke (i) Left Wing Communism
C. Rousseau D. Bentham (ii) The State and Revolution
(iii) the Proletarian Revolution and the Codes:

Renegade Kautsky A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the
(iv) The War and the Second International correct explanation of (A)
B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not
the correct explanation of (A)
below:
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false
A. (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
D. (A) is false, but (R) is true
B. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
C. (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) 442. The process of socialization in Traditional
D. (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) Society is
1. diffuse 2. particularistic
437. Which one of the following is not included
3. ascriptive 4. instrumental
in the well known sayings of Mao?
A. Weapons are an important factor in war
below:
but not the decisive one.
B. Politics is war without bloodshed. Codes:
C. The party commands the gun and the A. 1, 2, 3 B. 2, 3, 4
gun must never be allowed to command C. 4, 3, 1 D. 1, 2, 4
the party. 443. Which one of the following is not a kind of
D. Let a hundred flowers blossom and a power mentioned by Alvin Tofler in his book
hundred schools of thought contend. Powershift?
A. Violence B. Social structure
438. Which one of the following books is not
C. Wealth D. Knowledge
written by Tilak?
A. The Orion 444. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct
B. Arctic Home in Vedas answer from the codes given below:
C. Gita Rahasya List-I List-II
D. Life Divine (Schools of (Authors)
Modernization)
439. Marx’s theory of the state and revolution is
(a) Structural School (i) Daniel Lerner
taken from
(b) Normative School (ii) G.A. Almond
A. German classical philosophy
(c) Technological (iii) Mahatma Gandhi
B. British political economy School
C. French revolutionary tradition (d) Psychological (iv) David Apter
D. American war of independence School
440. Aristotle devoted himself to a critical study Codes :
of the ideal states projected by (a) (b) (c) (d)
A. Phaleas B. Hippodamus A. (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
C. Plato D. All the above B. (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
441. Given below are two statements, one labelled C. (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as D. (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
Reason (R): 445. The Presidents and Vice-presidents of the
Assertion (A): According to Lucian W. Pye following countries can not seek re-election
political development is characterized by for a third term.
equality, capacity and differentiation. 1. The US President
Reason (R): A state should attempt to 2. The French President
strengthen these aspects. 3. Indian President
4. Indian Vice-President 448. “Efficiency Record” method for determining

Select the correct answer from the codes given the merit for promotion is practised in
below : A. The USA B. Switzerland
A. 1 B. 1 and 2 C. The U.K. D. India
C. 1 and 4 D. 1, 2 and 3 449. In which of the following countries judges
446. Which one is not the feature of the Presi- are elected by the people?
dential form of government of U.S.A.? Select the correct answer from the codes given
A. Direct election of the President below:
B. Fixed terms of offices for the president (i) U.S.A. (ii) Switzerland
and legislature (iii) India (iv) U.K.
C. Fusion of power between legislature and Codes:
executive A. (i), (ii) B. (i), (ii), (iii)
D. President serves as head of the state C. (ii), (iii) D. (ii), (iii), (iv)
447. Which one among the following countries, 450. In which of the following countries the courts
according to Almond and Verba, came closest do not have the power of Judicial Review?
to their conception of civic culture? (i) USA (ii) UK
A. U.S.A. (iii) France (iv) India
B. West Germany Codes :
C. Mexico A. (iii) B. (ii) and (iii)
D. Great Britain C. (i) and (iii) D. (ii)
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C D A A A A A A A B
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A C C C D B A D D A
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
D B B D C B D D D B
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
B C D A C C B C A D
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
D D D A B D C A A C
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
D C B C A C A B D C
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
D C A D C B B D C A
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
B D C B C C C C A B
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
D D D C B B A C C B
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
A C B B C D A D D D
101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110
B B A C D C C A B A
111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
D A D B A A C D D B
121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130
A B B B B C C C D D
131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140
A C D D D D C B D C
141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150
B C A C A B B D C B
151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160
C B A C B C D D C A
161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170
D D C C C D A A C C
171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180
A D C D B C D C A D
181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190
B A D C B D C D A C
191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200
B B C B D B D D B C
201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210
B D D B A B A D C B
211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220
C B C A B B C D C B
221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230
D B B B D D A A B B
231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240
A C B C D D B B C D
241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250
C A A D A B D D D C
251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260
C D D D A A D C C C
261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270
D D B A B D A B B D
271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280
B D C A C C C A B D
281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290
A A A C D B C B B C
291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300
B C B B A D D B D C
301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310
B B C D B D C C A A
311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320
C C A D C B B D B B
321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330
B B A B A B A D C B
331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340
A A B A C C D B B B
341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350
D B C B A D D B B C
351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360
B B C B C B D B D B
361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370
B B D B A B C B D B
371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380
B C C A B C D B A C
381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390
D C B B A A B D A D
391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400
D A D C B C C B C B
401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410
C B A C A B A A D B
411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420
A C D A C C A B B D
421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430
D B B B C C C C C D
431 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440
B D B D C A B D C D
441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450
B A B A B C D A A D
lll
R
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About the Book

Size: 20×30×8, Date: 05/2016

RAMESH PUBLISHING HOUSE, New Delhi

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Book Code: R-1822

 Political Theory ...................................................................3-38

 Political Thought ............................................................. 39-90

 Comparative Politics and Political Analysis ............ 91-137

 Indian Constitution ..................................................... 138-194

 Public Administration ................................................. 195-230

 International Relations ............................................... 231-268

 Miscellaneous Questions .......................................... 269-320

* Exam held on 05 July 2019. 1 1822 (DU-MA) (P. Sci.) ’19–1

B. Insecurity of the Congress leadership human misery in modern society’ can be

35. “Life is not determined by consciousness but Codes:

Ramesh Publishing House,

4457, Nai Sarak, Delhi-6

E-mail your order to: order@rameshpublishinghouse.com

Ramesh Publishing House, 4457, Nai Sarak, Delhi-6

* Exam held on 17 June, 2018. 1 1822 (DU-MA) (P. Sci.) ’18–1

A. 2000 B. 1996 26. What is the central assumption of

47. Pandita Ramabai’s political ideas fused several B. 1, 2, 3 and 4 only

C. McDonaldization whereby global D. The idea of ‘Complex Equality’ is

67. The dictum, ‘Imperialism is the highest stage A. Immanuel Wallerstein

A. Class division 2. Enhancing security and protection from

Ramesh Publishing House

4457, Nai Sarak, Delhi-110006

1. In POSDCORB, ‘C’ stands for: 7. McGregor is associated with :

* Exam held on 02 July, 2017. (1822) DU-M.A.(P. Sci.)-2017–1

A. Access B. Commitment A. Gandhi B. Nehru

A. 1 and 3 B. 2 and 3 27. Select the writings of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

A. 1 and 3 36. Which of the folloiwng can be attributed as

B. Inequalities of power in the public and A. Nagar Panchayat

B. Acquisitive individualism (b) Maratha 2. Capability Approach

2. He advocated a creative engagement A. Discrimination against women in the

A. October revolution 81. Which two of the following four scholars

Books 83. Match the following and select the correct

84. The Sixth Schedule of the Indian Consti- Books

C. 3 1 4 2 A. L.D. White B. Luther Guilik

* Exam held on 20 June, 2016. (1822) DU-M.A.(P. Sci.)-2016–1

13. Which one of the following is not associated C. Democratic decision-making

C. A sports meet (d) Afghanistan is a member of SAARC

98. Kautilya’s idea of sovereignty as a mandal is A. Thoreau B. John Dewey

14. In 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioural employee help programmes, etc.

1 (1822) Pol. Sci. [E]—1

DECLINE OF POLITICAL THEORY he points out that mere use of scientific

reductionism’ found in the works of Tracy, Comte RESURGENCE OF POLITICAL THEORY

Origin and Evolution Basic Feature

Factors for the rise of Liberalism MODERN AND CLASSICAL LIBERALISM

His opposition to the interventionist state is 5. It provided ideological base to the

‘‘everyone was to count for one and no one to be NEO-LIBERALISM

In his ‘‘Constitution of Liberty’’ Hayek defines NEW THEMES

1. Marxist accuse liberals of providing

Different Views Marx and Engels present a class theory of

RELEVANCE OF MARXISM Fourthly, The revolutionary tinge of Marxism

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

PLATO Nature of Greek Society

Conclusion Athenian system of education, guardian parents

Reasons for Communism of Wives 5. He wrongly treats the institution of marriage