NOUNS

DEFINITION OF NOUN
Anything or being that has a name is considered a noun depending on the context within which it
is used in a sentence. This implies that, the true meaning of a noun is found in its functions. Any
word that functions as the subject of the main verb, object of the main verb, object of the
preposition, complement of the main verb, complement of the preposition or apposition to
another noun in a sentence is a noun.

FUNCTIONS OF NOUN
Noun serves six basic functions in sentences. These functions are: subject of the main verb or
verb phrase, object of the main verb or verb phrase, object of the preposition, complement of the
main verb or verb phrase, complement of a preposition and apposition to a noun.

NOUN AS SUBJECT OF THE MAIN VERB OR MAIN VERB PHRASE

The subject of a sentence is the main idea or central focus expressed in a sentence. It can also be
defined as the doer of an action in a sentence, provided the main verb of the sentence is an active
one. The parts of speech that can function as a subject of a sentence are noun and pronoun. Other
forms of verbs like gerunds and infinitives can also function as subject of a sentence and once
they function as such, they are considered nouns. The subject of a sentence mostly precedes the
main verb or main verb phrase of a sentence. There are instances where the subject of a sentence
does not precede the main verb or main verb phrase of a sentence.
Examples:
1. Israel was subjected to slavery to reduce the number of her population. (The noun, Israel
is the subject of the main verb phrase, “was subjected”.)

2. Snakes eat sand. (The noun, snake is the subject of the main verb, “eat”.)

3. There are mangoes on the table. (The noun, mangoes is the subject of the main verb,
“are”)

NOUN AS OBJECT OF A MAIN VERB OR MAIN VERB PHRASE

Noun functions as object of a main verb or main verb phrase. The object of a sentence is that part
of the sentence that is at the receiving end of an active verb. This implies that, for a noun to
function as object of a main verb or main verb phrase of a sentence, the main verb or main verb
phrase ought to be an active one (eat, walk, drag, arrest, put, etc.)
Examples:

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 1. Snakes eat sand. (The noun, “sand” is the object of the main verb, “eat”. It is the object
because the main verb, “eat” is an active verb.)

2. The animal is grazing the grass. (The noun, “grass” is the object of the main verb phrase,
“is grazing”. It is the object because the main verb phrase is an active one.)

NOUN AS OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION

Noun functions as object of a preposition when it comes after a preposition. The proposition that
precedes the noun should be positioned after the main active verb of a sentence.
Examples:
1. I hid behind the tree. (The noun, “tree” is the object of the preposition, “behind”. It is the
object because the main verb “hid” is an active one.)

2. Sarah laments during the examination. (The noun, “examination” is the object of the
preposition “during”. It is the object because the main verb “laments” is an active one.)

NOUN AS COMPLEMENT OF A MAIN VERB OR MAIN VERB PHRASE

Noun functions as complement of a main verb or main verb phrase. A noun that functions as
complement of the main verb or main verb phrase is a noun that only gives information or
describes the subject of a sentence. It is always positioned after a main verb or a main verb
phrase which is a non-active one. This implies that, for a noun to function as complement of a
main verb or main verb phrase of a sentence, the main verb or main verb phrase ought to be a
non-active one (is, am, be, happen, exist, love, want, believe, etc.)
Examples:
1. Good Christians dislike sin. (The noun, “sin” is the complement of the main verb
“dislike”. It is the complement because the main verb “dislike” is a non-active verb.)

2. Grace is becoming a woman. (The noun, “woman” is the complement of the main verb
phrase “is becoming”. It is the complement because the main verb phrase “is becoming”
is a non-active verb.)

NOUN AS COMPLEMENT OF A PREPOSITION

Noun functions as complement of a preposition when it comes after a preposition. The
proposition that precedes the noun should be positioned after the main non-active verb of a
sentence.
Examples:

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 1. Jane is on the moon. (The noun, “moon” is the complement of the preposition “on”. It is
the complement because the main verb “is” is a non-active verb.)

2. The incident happened behind the scenes. (The noun, “scenes” is the complement of the
preposition “behind”. It is the complement because the main verb “happened” is a non-
active verb.)

NOUN AS AN APPOSITION TO A NOUN

A noun functions as an apposition if it adds extra information about another noun or pronoun in
the same part or region of a sentence.
Examples:
1. The president, Nelson Mandela left a great legacy. (The noun, “Nelson Mandela” is
appositive to the noun phrase “The president”. It describes or adds information to the
noun phrase “The president” in the same part of the sentence, which is the subject of the
sentence.)

2. He gave his wife an item of furniture, a couch. (The noun, “couch” is appositive to the
noun phrase “item of furniture”. It describes the noun phrase “item of furniture” in the
same part of the sentence, which is the predicate of the sentence.)

KINDS OF NOUNS
Proper Nouns
A proper noun is a special name of a particular person, animal or thing, that is, a name used for
an individual person or place, river, or mountain etc. For example: Mary, Rahul, Pra. River,
India, Everest
Common Nouns
A common noun is a general name of a person, place animal or thing. For example: cow, dog,
girl, boy, man, woman city, village.
Collective Nouns
A collective noun is the name of a collection, group of people, or things of the same kind. For
example: class of intellectuals, team of architects, government, jury, federation
Abstract Nouns
An abstract noun is the name of a quality, state, or concept. It is a noun that cannot be seen and
touched. For example: beauty, sweetness, love, pity, happiness, etc.

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Concrete Nouns
Concrete nouns are names of material things, that is, things that have material form, shape or
size. They are things that can be seen and touched. For example: sugar, book, table, flower, etc.
Counts of Nouns
Nouns are of two kinds from the counting point of view:
a. Countable nouns
b. Uncountable nouns
Countable Nouns
Nouns that can be counted are called countable nouns. They always take the articles “a” or “an”.
For example: a book, a bottle, an orange, a helicopter, etc.
Uncountable Nouns
Nouns that cannot be counted are called uncountable nouns. They do not take the articles “a” or
“an”, and they have no plural form. For example: furniture, butter, information, advice,
employment, water, sugar, milk, etc.
How to make uncountable nouns countable nouns
Some words can be used to make uncountable nouns countable nouns. Below are some
examples.
Uncountable Noun Countable Nouns
Furniture a set of furniture
Fish a basket of fish
Information a piece of information
Water a drop of water.

Compound Nouns
Compound nouns are nouns made up of two or more words, usually with hyphen(s) between or
among the words. Examples are: man-of-war; passer-by; brother-in-law; maid-servant, etc.
Possessive Nouns
Possessive nouns are nouns that show ownership, brand, kind or origin. They are formed with
apostrophe (’) or (’s).
Rules of forming Possessive Nouns
Singular Nouns
a. If a singular noun ends without ‘s’, add ’s to show possession. For example: child’s toy;
gent’s attire; cat’s paw; etc.

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 b. If a singular noun ends with ‘s’ or a noun with an ‘s-ending’ but has no plural form, add ’
to show possession. For example: Moses’ law; rabies’ symptoms; Rawlings’ speech;
Achilles’ heel; Jesus’ death; etc.

Plural Nouns
a. If a plural noun is one that ends in ‘s’ (regular plural noun), then add only an apostrophe
to form possession. For example: teachers’ affair; ladies’ talk; brothers’ machine; etc.

b. If a noun is an irregular plural noun (one not ending in s), then add apostrophe ‘s’. For
example: children’s event; men’s wear; women’s choice; etc.

Possessive Nouns Denoting Time

A moment’s hesitation; an hour’s delay; a three-hour’s work; a week’s wage; etc.
Possessive Nouns Denoting Joint Ownership
a. If the noun indicates two or more ownership, add the “apostrophe s” to the last owner
(noun). For example: Fosua and Christy’s textbook; Rodri and Ruth’s work; Kwame and
Ama’s wedding; Munira, Samira and Musa’s story; etc.

b. If you want to show separate ownership of distinct items, show possession of each name.
For example: Ruth’s and Rodri’s desks; Milan’s and Liverpool’s matches were the
toughest; etc.

Show Possession of Compound Nouns

To show the possessive form of a compound noun, place the apostrophe s after the final word in
the noun. For example: son-in-law’s wife (singular); sons-in-law’s wives (plural); etc.
Possessive Nouns Modifying Unexpressed Nouns
Sometimes the possessive noun is not followed by the noun it modifiers, this is because, either it
has been left out or it appears elsewhere in the sentence. In either case, the possessive noun
should still appear in the possessive form. For example:

1. The money is Sir Kumi’s.

2. Last year’s performance was better than this year’s.
3. What she took was Kwame’s.

PAST QUESTIONS ON NOUN

1. Fosua bought her daughter two

……………as her present. A. baby’s dresses

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 B. babies’ dress D. information
C. babies dress
D. baby dresses 7. I will attend ………. graduation
party next week.
2. I lost ……work when the computer
broke down yesterday. A. Kwaku and Akua
B. Kwaku and Akua’s
A. three hour C. Kwaku’s and Akua’s
B. three hour’s D. Kwaku’s and Akua
C. three hours’
D. three hours 8. We were asked to purchase enough
…….. before a shortage is created.
3. My own house is just a ………from
here. A. petrols
B. gallons of petrol
A. stone thrown C. gallon of petrol
B. stone throw D. gallons of petrols
C. stone’s throw
D. stone-throw 9. One of my ……….is visiting us at
Christmas.
4. We were advised to mind our own
business during the examination and A. sisters-in-law
not……. B. sister-in-laws
C. sisters-in-laws
A. somebody else D. sister-in-law’s
B. somebody else’s
C. somebody’s else 10. These old tables and chairs are very
D. somebody’s else’s valuable ………….

5. A six-man committee…….. set up A. items of furniture

by the president. B. furnitures
C. item of furniitures
A. was D. item of furniture
B. were
C. have been 11. With ……….. we entered the thick
D. were being forest.

6. We received ………. that the A. Kofi acted as our leader

workers would soon go on strike. B. Kofi to act as our leader
C. Kofi acts as our leader
A. an information D. Kofi acting as our leader
B. informations
C. those information

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12. The cherry is the favourite fruit of 17. One of my ………… is visiting us at
the English, but it isn’t a ………… Christmas.
in my country.
A. brothers-in-law
A. food B. brother-in-laws
B. delicacy C. brothers-in-laws
C. bane D. brother-in-law’s
D. choosing
18. I watched the ……… of Aidoo’s
13. Everybody marveled at the latest play at the National Theatre
………… with which Baaba told the yesterday.
story.
A. revival
A. hesitation B. drama
B. precision C. experiment
C. falsehood D. premiere
D. pleasure
19. How many ……….. did you see at
14. The minister denied all the ………. the airport?
levelled ……… him.
A. aircraft
A. charges; about B. aircrafts
B. statements; on C. of aircraft
C. allegations; against D. an aircrafts
D. crimes; before
20. …………… the trader but also stole
15. He studied African music for so long her money.
that he has become ………… in it.
A. Not he only did beat
A. a philosopher B. Not only did he beat
B. a master C. Only he did beat
C. an educationist D. Not did he only beat
D. an expert
21. The car isn’t mine, it belongs to
16. As I watched the dying little girl I …………
found it difficult to control my
………… A. Sam
B. Sam’s
A. morals. C. Sams
B. temperature. D. Sams’
C. temperament.
D. emotions. 22. Cyclists who ride on sidewalks are a
menace to ………….

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 C. target
A. motorists. D. enemy
B. traffic wardens.
C. pedestrians. 27. The queen mother plays a ………..
D. city guards. role in traditional society.

23. The political party’s ………. does A. single

not clearly spell out its policies. B. singular
C. simple
A. plan D. servile
B. document
C. manifesto 28. There is a great ………. between the
D. contract performance of students from public
schools and private ones.
24. While searching the room, the police
came upon a ……….. of arms. A. anomaly
B. comparison
A. cache C. division
B. supply D. disparity
C. pool
D. heap 29. Eric promised to do the job to the
best of his …………
25. The ……… at the end of the match
surprised the team. A. ability.
B. capacity.
A. points C. skills.
B. tallies D. strength.
C. scores
D. records 30. The landlord collected two ……….
rents advance.
26. A crocodile can be very fast pursuing
………. in water. A. month
B. month’s
A. prey C. months
B. food D. months’

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 PRONOUNS
DEFINITION OF PRONOUN
A pronoun is used as a substitute for a noun or a noun phrase. In other words, it is used in place
of a noun or a noun phrase. It implies that pronouns have the same functions as nouns. Some
examples of pronouns in sentences are:
1. Dromo read a book yesterday. (She read it yesterday.)
2. Miguel killed the ant. (He killed it.)

A pronoun is used to avoid repetition of nouns or noun phrases in sentences. For example:
Eliezer went to the shop to check up on Eliezer’s father, but unfortunately for Eliezer, Eliezer’s
father was not around at the time Eliezer went there.
By using pronoun, we have:
Eliezer went to the shop to check up on her father, but unfortunately for her, her father was not
around at the time she went there.
But a pronoun is different from a noun, in that, it cannot take a pre-modifying adjective neither
can it take a determiner or a prefix or a suffix. The form of a pronoun is fixed.

PRONOUN CASE
In grammar, the case of a pronoun shows the relationship between a pronoun and the other words
in a sentence, especially, the verb in that sentence. There are two types or categories of pronoun
cases, and these are the subjective pronoun case and objective pronoun case.

SUBJECTIVE PRONOUN CASE

When a pronoun in a sentence acts as the subject of the verb or a subject complement, we say, it
has been used in the subjective case. For example:
1. She read a book yesterday. (“She” is the subject of the verb “read”)
2. I asked the same question yesterday. (“I” is the subject of the verb “asked”)
3. She and I ate together. (“She and I” is the subject of the verb “ate”)
4. We and they are dancing tonight. (“We and they” is the subject of the verb “are
dancing”)

OBJECTIVE PRONOUN CASE

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When a pronoun in a sentence acts as the object of a verb or object of a preposition, we say, it
has been used in the objective case. For example:
1. The bottles were given to her. (“her” is the object of the verb “given”)
2. The man gave me the book. (“me” is the object of the verb “gave”)
3. She talked about them all day long. (“them” is the object of the preposition “about”)
4. The teacher invited us home. (“us” is the object of the verb “invited”)

NB1: Examples of pronouns in the subjective case are “I, he, she, we, they and it”.
NB2: Examples of pronouns in the objective case are “me, him, her, us, it and them”.
NB3: It is wrong to say or write:
1. She and me ate together. (“Me” is an objective pronoun case and should not act as a
subject of a verb).
2. Us and them will dance tonight. (“Us and them” are examples of objective pronoun
case, therefore, they should not act as subjects of a verb).
3. The teacher gave the book to Dromo and I. (“I” is a subjective pronoun case; therefore, it
should not act as an object of a verb).

KINDS OF PRONOUNS
There are ten kinds of pronouns and these are: Possessive Pronouns; Personal Pronouns;
Demonstrative Pronouns; Reciprocal Pronoun; Reflexive Pronouns; Interrogative Pronouns;
Distributive Pronouns; Relative Pronouns; Emphasizing Pronouns; Indefinite Pronouns.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
Possessive pronouns show ownership of a noun. Examples of possessive pronouns are: ours;
yours; his; hers; its; and theirs. Possessive pronouns are never written with apostrophes.
Examples of possessive pronouns used in sentences are:
1. This seat is his.
2. Prince is no more a friend of ours.
3. The breakup of our relationship was no fault of mine.
4. The car is theirs.
5. The book is hers.
6. It is yours.

NB: It is wrong to say or write:

1. Prince is no more a friend of our’s.
2. The car is their’s.

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PERSONAL PRONOUNS
Personal pronouns are pronouns basically associated with a particular “grammatical person” (not
limited to people only, but includes things, animal, ideas, etc.). Examples of personal pronouns
are: I; you; he; she; it; we; they.
Personal pronouns are divided into three forms, and these are:
1. First Person Pronoun: it refers to the direct speaker or speakers of a statement or
sentence. Examples are “I” (singular) and “we” (plural). Examples of their usage in
sentences:
a. I will be great.
b. We are moving to the top.

2. Second Person Pronoun: it refers to the person or persons being addressed. Example is
“you” (both singular and plural). Examples of its usage in sentences:
a. You are her friend. (singular).
b. You are her friends. (plural)
c. I played with you. (it can be plural or singular)

3. Third Person Pronouns: they refer to the third party or third parties being spoken about.
Examples are, “he”, “she”, “it”, “they” (plural). Examples of their usage in sentences.
a. I told you they are my friends. (plural)
b. It is for him.
c. She is a good girl.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
Demonstrative pronouns are used to point at specific persons, animals, things or places. They can
indicate items in space of time, and can be either singular or plural. Examples are, this (singular),
these (plural), that (singular), and those (plural).
“This” is used to point at “grammatical person” that is near in time or distance. The same applies
to its plural form, “these”.
“That” is used to point at “grammatical person” that is far in time or distance. The same applies
to its plural form, “those”.
Examples of their usage in sentences:
1. This is my brother. (near in distance)
2. That is my pen. (far in distance)
3. These are rough days. (far in time)
4. Those were moments of joy and happiness. (far in time)

RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS

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Reciprocal pronouns are pronouns used to express mutual relationships. Examples are each
other and one another.
Each other: it is used to refer to relationships only between two persons or things. Examples of
its usage in sentences are:
1. The couples love each other.
2. Eliezer and Dromo respect each other.
3. Both ladies know each other.

One another: it is used to refer to relationships among three or more persons and things.
Examples of its usage in sentences are:
1. The three brothers fight one another.
2. Ruth, Rodri, Fosuo and Christy know one another very well.
3. Brothers and sisters, let us begin to love one another.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun that is preceded by a noun, adverb, adjective or pronoun to
which it refers, so long as that antecedent is located in the same clause. In other words, it is
normally used when the object in a sentence is the same as the subject. It indicates that, the
action of the verb is received by the same person or thing that performs the action. Examples are,
myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselves, yourselves and oneself. Some
examples of their usage in sentences are:
1. He bullied himself.
2. They prayed by themselves.
3. We clapped for ourselves.
4. Fosua brought the marker herself.
5. I read the book myself.
6. Is the cheetah fighting itself?

NB: The reflexive pronoun must always correspond with its subject, that is:
a. I myself
b. We ourselves
c. He himself
d. She herself
e. They themselves
f. It itself
g. One oneself

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INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
Interrogative pronouns are pronouns which are used for asking questions. Examples are, what,
who, which, whom and whose.
1. “What” is used ask questions about information concerning people and things only.
Some examples of its usage are:
a. What are you looking for?
b. What is colour of the shirt?

2. “Who” and “whom” are used to ask questions about people only. Some examples of
their usages are:
a. Who is that man?
b. To whom did you give the letter to?
c. Do you know with whom I will attend the programme?
d. Who do you prefer studying with?

NB: Whereas who functions as the subject of the verb, whom functions as the object or
complement of the proposition in a sentence.
3. “Which” is used to ask questions about people and things or objects. It is used to imply
or demand a choice or selection. Some examples of its usage are:
a. Which is appropriate?
b. Which of these ladies do you work with?

4. “Whose” is used to ask questions about people and things and it is always used to show
possession. Examples of its usage in sentences are:
a. Whose is it?
b. Tell me about the buildings, whose are they?

DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS
Distributive pronouns are pronouns used to identify persons or things individually from a group.
They consider members of groups separately rather than collectively. Examples are, either,
neither, each, anyone, everyone, none, etc.
Either and neither are used only in writing or speaking of two persons or things. When more
than two persons or things are written or spoken of, any or anyone is used in place of either,
and no one or none is used in place of neither. Examples of their usage in sentences are:
RULE1: Either, Neither and Each are always singular and should be followed by a singular
noun and a singular verb.
1. Either foot kicks well.
2. Neither sentence is correct.
3. Each candidate was disappointed.

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RULE2: Anyone, everyone and none are always singular, but are followed by a plural noun and
a singular verb.
4. Anyone of the six leaders is competent.
5. Every one of them is a student here.
6. None of the students stays outside campus.

RULE3: Each of, neither of and either of are followed by plural nouns and singular verbs.
7. Each of the roads looks neat.
8. Neither of the three children hates her.
9. Either of them likes cooking.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS
Relative pronouns are pronouns that introduce a dependent or relative clause, and connect it to an
independent clause. Relative clauses are also sometimes referred to as adjective clauses, because
they identify or give us additional information about the subject of the independent clause they
relate to. Relative pronouns function as conjunctions in sentences. Examples are, who, whom
which, that, what, and whose.
1. “Who” is used to refer to persons and must function as the subject of the verb in a
sentence. Examples of its usage in sentences include:
a. The boy who wore the helmet is a good rider.
b. The lady who walked to the podium dresses well.

2. “Whom” is used to refer to persons and must function as the object of the verb in a
sentence. Examples of its usage in sentences include:
a. He is a teacher with whom we attended the meeting.
b. We are not sure to whom this car belongs.

3. “Which” is used to refer to animals and things. Examples of its usage in sentences
include:
a. The building which got demolished is theirs.
b. The dog which belongs to Theresa killed her cat.

4. “That” is used to refer to persons and things. In comparison, “that” is used after
adjectives in the superlative degree and after words like, there is, only, little, all,
nothing, any, etc. Examples of its usage in sentences include:
a. He finally visited the school that teaches music.
b. I danced with the only lady that played the piano.
c. Is there anything that I can do for you.

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 d. The robber took all that I had earned.
e. Mr. Kumi drives the fastest car that belongs to the company.

5. “What” is used to refer to only things. Examples of its usage in sentences include:
a. That is exactly what Kwame was talking about.
b. This is what he pointed at the other day.

6. “Whose” is used to refer to persons, animals and things. It is used to show possession.
Examples of its usage include:
a. She apologized to the man whose car got destroyed.
b. This is the house whose chef got arrested.
c. The dog whose tail caught fire belongs to Theresa.

NB: “That” and “which” are easily confused in their usages in sentences. The main difference
between the two is that, “that” introduces a restrictive (essential) clause, and “which” introduces
a non-restrictive (nonessential) clause.
A restrictive clause is an essential part of its sentence; if it were taken out of the sentence, the
sentence’s meaning would change. Non-restrictive clauses are just the opposite. For example:
The lorry that has the bags in it belongs to the company.
If we were to take off the clause “that has the bag in it” from the sentence, the meaning of the
sentence would change. We would no longer know which lorry belongs to the company, which
was the intention of the sentence. This kind of clause gets a that. The word which, on the other
hand, should introduce a nonessential clause that can be removed from a sentence without
changing the sentence’s meaning.
The lorry, which has numerous bags belongs to the company.
Here, “which has numerous bags” is a parenthetical remark that can be removed without
materially altering the sentence. Non-restrictive (or nonessential) clauses are set off with
commas, as shown in the example above.

Compound Relative Pronouns

When “ever” and “soever” are added to relative pronouns such as; “what”, “who”, “whom” and
“which”, whose antecedents are omitted in a sentence, then we have relative compound
pronouns. They perform a dual function which are: act as subjects or objects in their own clauses
and sometimes act as conjunctions joining their clause to the rest of the sentence. Examples are:
whatever, whoever, whomever and whichever. Examples of their usages in sentences are:
a. Eliezer can do whatever she like.
b. I do not care whoever they are.
c. Whoever comes to the door should wait.

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 d. She corrects whomever goes wrong.
e. I am okay with whichever way you choose.

EMPHASIZING PRONOUNS
Emphasizing pronouns are pronouns in the reflexive form that are used to emphasize on nouns or
pronouns in given sentences. They usually proceed the noun or pronoun they emphasize.
Examples of their usage in sentences are:
a. The chef himself will cook the food.
b. The child herself went there.
c. Dromo loves kitten itself and not the cat.
d. They themselves are not aware of the party.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
Indefinite pronouns are pronouns which refer to unspecific beings or persons, things or places.
They are used to replace nouns without specifying which noun they replace. They can be
singular or plural.
Singular indefinite pronouns include; anyone, anybody, somebody, someone, anything,
something, everything, everybody, everyone, no one, nothing, nobody, another, each, one,
other, either, neither, little, etc.
Plural indefinite pronouns include; both, many, more, few, others, several, etc.
Indefinite pronouns that can function as singular or plural include; all, any, more, some, none,
etc.
Singular indefinite pronouns take singular verbs and plural indefinite pronouns take plural verbs.
Examples of their usages in sentences include:
1. The man said, somebody is after the children.
2. One of the men took advantage of her weakness.
3. Many are called, but few are chosen.
4. A few of the justices were voicing their opinions.
5. All that glitters is not gold.
6. All of them were riders.
7. Some look dirty.

NB: In standard written English, “One” is not a substitute word and as such should be repeated
when used instead of the possessive “his” or “her”, if its use cannot be avoided.
Example: One cannot spend anyhow and expect one’s business to flourish.

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PAST QUESTIONS ON PRONOUN

1. Kwame is no more a friend of 6. The seven contestants shook hands

………… with ……….

A. them A. one another

B. him B. themselves
C. their C. to each other
D. ours D. each other

2. Like you and ………. Kate is a 7. Your actions on that morning speak
diabetic. for………..

A. me A. yourself
B. I B. yourselves
C. mine C. itself
D. myself D. themselves

3. Moji says she is better at Math 8. In attempting to punish us, the Social
…….. Studies teacher gave……..a lot of
pressure.
A. as me
B. than I am A. himself
C. as I am B. him self
D. with me C. themselves
D. ourselves
4. Salomay said that Ruth had asked
Victory and ……. to submit the 9. Cyria said that ………. will set the
assignment. table for the dignitaries.

A. she A. she herself

B. her B. herself
C. themselves C. hers
D. himself D. her’s

5. ………have been friends for years. 10. One can only donate what …… has
to the Lord.
A. He and her
B. I and her A. he
C. Him and I B. one
D. She and I C. I
D. You

17
11. …… of the two ministers gave 16. This is strictly between
sweeping promises. …….brothers.

A. Everyone A. we
B. Each B. us
C. All C. they and us
D. Every one D. we and them

12. The manager wanted to travel with 17. It was ……, whom they selected.
you and the secretary, but ………of
you ……… a passport. A. he
B. him
A. neither, has C. his
B. two, have D. himself
C. neither, have
D. each, has 18. Between …………, there is perfect
understanding.
13. Though Jim and Katty have the same
mother, they………have different A. him and I
fathers. B. he and I
C. him and me
A. all D. he and me
B. each
C. either 19. For……. did they design the
D. both information technology course?

14. ……was such an interesting A. who

experience. B. whose
C. whom
A. That D. which
B. These
C. Those 20. ……colour do you want, red or
D. Such blue?

15. Both answers are correct; you take A. whose

……one …….the other. B. whatever
C. whichever
A. either, or D. which
B. neither, nor
C. both, and 21. …….of the girls came last in the
D. neither, or contest?

A. Who

18
 B. Which D. which
C. Whom
D. What 26. Two men, neither of ……I had ever
met before, walked into the shop.
22. I live with my sister……… is a
nurse. A. whom
B. which
A. whom C. who
B. whose D. them
C. who
D. which 27. All …….she wanted was her peace
of mind.
23. This is the boy……..poems won the
first prize. A. what
B. that
A. whose C. which
B. who’s D. this
C. who
D. which 28. Bola, …….won the beauty contest is
my sister.
24. I don’t believe all……he says.
A. which
A. what B. that
B. that C. who
C. this D. whom
D. which
29. Can you remember the names of all
25. I really don’t know …….to address those….you want to see?
the request to.
A. who
A. whom B. which
B. what C. whoever
C. whose D. whom

19
 ADJECTIVES

DEFINITION OF ADJECTIVE
An adjective is a word that describes a noun or a pronoun by giving information about its shape,
size, age, colour, opinion, origin or material. Adjective simply modifies nouns or pronouns and
ensures precision and originality in writings. Examples are:
a. Ama reads huge books. (huge: adjective of size)
b. The stone is an old one. (old: adjective of age)
c. It is a Canadian novel. (Canadian: adjective of origin)
d. That image is the broken walls of Jerusalem. (broken: adjective of observation)
e. Let us sit around the rectangular table. (rectangular: adjective of shape)
f. It is a tea spoon. (tea: adjective of purpose)
g. I bought a leather shoe. (leather: adjective of material)
h. It is a boring show. (boring: adjective of opinion)
i. Dromo prefers pink dresses. (pink: adjective of colour)

TYPES OF ADJECTIVES
PROPER ADJECTIVES
When proper nouns describe or modify other nouns or pronouns, they become proper adjectives.
Simply put, proper adjectives are the adjective forms of proper nouns. For instance, Plato is a
proper noun, so, Platonic becomes a proper adjective derived from the noun Plato. Bright loves
reading Platonic books. Platonic is a proper adjective describing the kind of books Bright loves
reading. Other examples are:
a. Kantanka vehicles are expensive.
b. They prefer Ghanaian meals.

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
They are adjectives that show or indicate ownership. They help us to know to whom nouns
belong. They precede nouns. Examples are: my; your; his; her; its; our; their; etc.
a. My pen is not functioning.
b. Dad says this is our room.
c. Kindly put this book on your table.
d. It is her speech.
e. The cat wags its tail.

20
DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES
They are adjectives used to point at specific persons or things. They also show the near or far an
object is, in terms of time and distance. They include: this (singular); these (plural); that
(singular); and those (plural). This and these are used to point at object close in time or in
distance. That and those are used to point at object far in time and in distance. They always
precede nouns.
a. This boy is good.
b. Eliezer loves that rabbit.
c. Those books are hers.
d. He confirmed that, these arguments are sound.

INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES
They are adjectives that are used to ask questions. Examples are: whose; what; and which. They
always precede nouns.
a. What argument are you supporting?
b. Whose cars are these?
c. Which man did that to you?

DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES
They are adjectives that give qualitative information and attributes to nouns or pronouns.
Participles are also included in this type of adjective when they modify a noun.
a. Ama is happy. (the word “happy” is providing information about the subject “Ama”)
b. Cheetah is the fastest animal in the jungle.
c. We saw a drinking bull today.

INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES
They are adjectives that used to describe or modify unspecific nouns or pronouns. They provide
unspecific information about nouns or pronouns. Examples of indefinite adjectives include: few;
many; little; much; all; any; some; every; several; etc.
a. I want only a few moments of your time.
b. Kindly put a little sugar in my coffee.
c. There are several children in the ward.
d. The teacher gave me some books to read.

21
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN “FEW” AND “A FEW”
“Few” and “a few” are used to modify countable nouns.
“Few” means “not many” people or things. In other words, it is used to say that, there are not
many people or things. It is used to express negative thoughts or statements.
On the other hand, “a few” means “some.” It is used to express positive thoughts or statements.
a. Pius watches few movies. (not many movies or almost none)
b. Pius watches a few movies. (some movies)

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN “LITTLE’ AND “A LITTLE”

“Little” and “a little” are used to modify non-count nouns.
The difference between “little” and “a little” is the same as that of “few” and “a few”.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MUCH AND MANY

“Much” is only used with non-count nouns.
a. How much time do we have left?
b. There is much sand under the tree.

“Many” is only used with count nouns in plural forms.

a. How many bags of water do you want?
b. He ordered for many bottles.

ORDERING OF ADJECTIVES
In order to appreciate the techniques of ordering of adjective, there is the need to understand the
difference between coordinative adjectives and cumulative adjectives. When a noun is modified
by two or more adjectives, the adjectives are either coordinative or cumulative adjectives.

COORDINATIVE ADJECTIVES
Coordinative adjectives are adjectives of the same adjective group or class (adjective of shape,
adjective of opinion, etc.) that are used to modify nouns. They do not follow a specific order.
They are separated by commas if they are three or more with the conjunction “and” between the
last two adjectives. Two coordinative adjectives are separated by “and”.

22
For example: The house is full of leather and wooden furniture.
The noun “furniture” is modified by “leather” and “wooden”, which belong to the same class of
adjective (adjective of material). For this reason, the two adjectives do not need any special order
of position to make a meaningful thought. They only coordinate to modify the noun “furniture”.
Hence, “The house is full of wooden and leather furniture” is equally correct or appropriate.

CUMULATIVE ADJECTIVES
Cumulative adjectives are adjectives of different adjective group or class used to modify nouns.
In order to express a meaningful thought and achieve precision, the adjectives must appear in a
special order. Cumulative adjectives work together as they get nearer to the noun, to make a
more specific meaning. When placed in the wrong order, several adjectives can “sound
misplaced, uneven and somewhat cacophonous.” Cumulative adjectives are neither separated by
“and” or commas.
For example: A Ghanaian young bright student introduced the guest.
Reading the above example sounds weird because the adjectives (Ghanaian, young and bright)
used to describe the “student” are uneven and out of place or misplaced. Moreover, they do not
cumulate their meaning as they get nearer to the noun “student.” The correct expression must be
“A young bright Ghanaian student introduced the guest.”

THE GENERAL ORDER OF PLACEMENT OF ADJECTIVAL GROUPS

ORDER OF PLACEMENT ADJECTIVE GROUP EXAMPLES
1 Adjective of Quantity/ a, an, some, many, the, those,
Determiner seven, several, etc.
2 Adjective of Opinion expensive, beautiful, difficult,
boring, rich, sad, useful, etc.
3 Adjective of Size huge, small, tiny, big, long,
large, short, tall, etc.
4 Adjective of Physical Quality shiny, lumpy, wet, hot, hairy,
broken, stripped, etc.
5 Adjective of Shape round, square, oval,
triangular, spherical, etc.
6 Adjective of Age old, new, young, antique,
modern, ancient, recent, etc.
7 Adjective of Colour red, blue, yellow, black,
white, green, etc.
8 Adjective of Origin Ghanaian, Chinese, British,
etc.
9 Adjective of Material silk, wooden, leather, cotton,
woolen, rubber, paper, etc.

23
 10 Adjective of Purpose shopping, chopping, printing,
wedding, training, etc.

It is important to note that sometimes, an adjective and a noun are inseparable because they
belong together as a single semantic unit (a recognized thing). For example:

 My wooden Spanish guitar.

(As a "Spanish guitar" is a recognized thing, "Spanish" doesn't take its place
according to the precedence list. It cannot be separated from "guitar.")

 My Spanish wooden guitar.

(This is also correct, but it's different. These are cumulative adjectives taking
their order according to the order of placement list. This could be a bass guitar
made in Spain.)

It is also important to note that, it does not sound natural to use more than three adjectives in the
same sentence and it is very rare to hear or read four adjectives before a noun.

PAST QUESTIONS ON ADJECTIVES

1. The cobra shed off …… old skin 4. Could I borrow ….. cash please?
A. it’s
A. a little
B. its
B. a few
C. it
C. few
D. its’
D. much
2. Though both Fosua and Lois are
5. The test was so difficult that……..
eligible, neither ……. interested.
students passed.
A. was
A. some few
B. are
B. a few
C. were
C. few
D. is
D. a few
3. Either the class prefect or I ……. to
6. The woman refused to sell me
attend the meeting.
……..oil.
A. is
A. some
B. am
B. small
C. are
C. little
D. being
D. a little

24
7. I don’t go to my hometown often D. tallest
because I have ……friends there.
13. Of all the teachers, Mr. Kumi asks
A. little the ……..questions.
B. a little
C. few A. tough
D. a few B. toughest
C. most tougher
8. The caterer put ……salt in the soup. D. tougher

A. little 14. That bag is nice, but Salomay’s own

B. a little is ………
C. many
D. few A. most nice
B. nicer
9. Sir Pidio complained about …… C. more nicer
being absent of late. D. nicest

A. you 15. Among the guys who live in the

B. your uncompleted building, Kwaku is
C. yours the………
D. you’re
A. less intelligent
10. ………of what he said is incorrect. B. lesser intelligent
C. little intelligent
A. many D. least intelligent
B. much
C. few 16. Oil prices have gone up……….for
D. plenty the past three weeks.

11. The day Kwame passed his final A. much too rapidly
exams was the……day in his life. B. much rapidly
C. much more rapidly
A. more happier D. much rapid.
B. happier
C. most happiest 17. Mathematics is ………learnt in the
D. happiest morning than evening.

12. Of the three girls, Samira is the A. most easily

………… B. more easily
C. easily
A. taller D. easiest
B. tall
C. most taller

25
18. Theo is ………hardworking of all B. decorated beautifully American
the boys in the church. saloon
C. saloon beautifully decorated
A. much too American
B. the most D. decorated American beautifully
C. the more saloon
D. much
24. Mr. Adams bought an expensive
19. Jackie’s dress was the ……….at the
restaurant. A. custom-made black automatic
Benz car.
A. brightest B. custom-made automatic black
B. brighter Benz car.
C. bright C. black custom-made automatic
D. most brighter Benz car.
D. automatic custom-made black
20. Of all the animals in the jungle, Benz car.
snake is ………
25. My children admired those………
A. the more cunning elephants at the zoo.
B. the cunnier
C. the most cunning A. two fat Indian
D. the cunniest B. fat two Indian
C. Indian two fat
21. Kofi wore a …….to the party. D. two Indian fat

A. bright-blue striped shirt 26. Jones bought a ……..yesterday.

B. striped shirt bright-blue
C. bright-blue shirt striped A. new sports car white
D. striped bright-blue shirt B. sports white car new
C. white sports car new
22. A ……..student introduced the D. new white sports car
guests.
27. Lawrencia purchased………
A. Nigerian young bright
B. bright young Nigerian A. a pure leather bag import.
C. young Nigerian bright B. an imported pure leather bag.
D. bright Nigerian young C. a leather bag imported pure.
D. an imported bag pure leather.
23. We saw a ………car at the trade fair.
28. …….were arrested by the police in
A. beautifully decorated American Paris.
saloon
A. Young ten soccer fans

26
 B. Fans soccer ten young C. dancing red first
C. Ten young soccer fans D. red dancing first
D. Soccer ten young fans
30. I met a ……..university lecturer.
29. Everybody rejected the ……doll in
the shop. A. tall young looking smart
B. young tall smart looking
A. red first dancing C. tall young smart looking
B. first red dancing D. smart tall young looking

27
 VERBS
DEFINITION OF VERBS
It is insufficient to define verbs as doing words or action words. This is because not all verbs
portray actions. Verbs are words used to convey an action (run, eat, talk, do, etc.), an occurrence
(become, betide, ensue, etc.) or a state of being (live, exist, be, etc.). In effect, there are verbs that
are active (dance, talk, punish, eat, etc.) and those that are non-active (live, be, happen, become,
etc.) In English Grammar, verbs are inflected to express and convert tense, aspect, mood and
voice.
 Tense: it is a grammatical category which expresses an action in time, that is, whether it
is in the present, past or future.

He eats (present). He ate (past). He will eat (future).

 Aspect: it is a grammatical category which expresses the extension of the action in time,
that is, whether it is unitary (perfective), continuous or repeated (imperfective).

He ate (unitary). He was eating (continuous). He eats (repeated).

 Mood: it is a grammatical category which expresses the reality of the action, that is,
whether it is actual (realis), a possibility or a necessity (irrealis). It also tells whether a
sentence is an imperative or interrogative.

He eats (fact). I can eat (possibility). I must eat (necessity). Shall we go? (Interrogative)

 Voice: it is a grammatical category which describes the relationship between the action
or verb and the other parts of a sentence (the subject and the object).
There are two types of voices. These are the active voice and the passive voice.
When the subject is the doer of the action, the verb is in the active voice. When the
subject is the undergoer or target of the action, the verb is said to be in the passive voice.

The teacher taught the students. (active)

The students were taught by the teacher. (passive)

THE BASE FORM OF VERBS

The base form of a verb is the version of the verb without any endings (such as “s”, “ed”, “ing”).
In other words, it is the original form of the present, past, participle, infinitive or gerund form of
a verb. For instance, the base form of drinks, drank, drinking, drunk is drink. Other examples
include, see, occur, run, walk, pray, access, think, teach, be, etc.
The base form of a verb is used in the following ways:
1. It follows modal auxiliary or helping verbs (can/could, may/might, will/would,
shall/should and must).

28
 a. He may be a little nice.
b. My friend can teach you to perfection.

Modal auxiliary or helping verbs do not have infinitive, present participle or past
participle form; they only have past forms.
Other verbs followed by the base form of a verb include dare (with not), need (with to or
not), etc.
c. You dare not eat the food.
d. You need to teach me tomorrow.

2. The base form is used in imperatives.

a. Open the gate for her.
b. Create a definite plan for carrying out your desire and begin at once, whether you are
ready or not.
c. Hail the king!

3. The base form of a verb is also used in the infinitive form (that is, to + the base verb).
a. Ewa wants to attend classes at First Grade.
b. It is good to protect one’s human right.

REGULAR VERBS
Regular verbs are base verbs which follow the same pattern to create their past simple and past
participle. That is, by using the same word endings “d”, “ed” or “ied”.
Base verb Past simple Past participle
1. arrive arrived arrived
2. marry married married
3. hate hated hated
4. like liked liked
5. call called called

IRREGULAR VERBS
Irregular verbs are base verbs which do not follow the same pattern to create their past simple
and past participle. They are divided into four groups. These are:
a. Verbs which have the same base form, past simple and past participle.

Base verb Past simple Past participle

1. put put put

2. cost cost cost
3. cut cut cut
4. let let let
5. hurt hurt hurt

29
 b. Verbs which have the same past simple and past participle.

1. bring brought brought

2. catch caught caught
3. feel felt felt
4. get got got
5. hear heard heard

c. Verbs which have the same base form and past participle.

1. become became become

2. come came come
3. run ran run

d. Verbs which have different base form, past simple and past participle.

1. be was/were been
2. choose chose chosen
3. do did done
4. eat ate eaten
5. fall fell fallen

TRANSITIVE VERBS
Transitive verbs are verbs which demand an object to act upon in order to achieve
comprehension. A transitive verb needs to transfer its action to something or someone.
a. I drank a glass of water this morning.
b. She calls me Papa Pio.

Each of the verbs in these sentences have objects that complete the verb’s action to make sense.
If the objects were taken out, the results would be absurd and illogical.

INTRANSITIVE VERBS
Intransitive verbs are verbs which do not demand or require an object to act upon in order to
achieve comprehension.
a. Deborah sang.
b. The light shines.
c. He sings.
d. Kofi fell.

Some verbs are only intransitive. They will never make sense when used with an object. Some
examples are: die, arrive, fall, etc. This is because, you cannot arrive something, neither can you
die or fall something or someone. However, prepositional phrases can function as objects to
these verbs.

30
 a. He fell on the table.
b. We were able to arrive at a solution.

Some verbs can be both transitive and intransitive.

a. Urged by others, she sang. (Intransitive)
b. She sang a song at church. (Transitive)
c. He left after the clean-up. (Intransitive)
d. He left the item in the bag. (Transitive)

TENSE FORMATION AND USAGE

Tenses of verbs show the location of an action in terms of time, that is, whether an action is in
the present, the past or the future. These three-time divisions are integrated with the three aspect
categories of verb tense, which are simple tenses, perfect tenses and progressive tenses.
There are twelve forms of tenses in English Grammar. These forms are categorized under four
broad groups. They are highlighted below.
1. The Three Simple Tenses:
a. Simple Present Tense;
b. Simple Past Tense;
c. Simple Future Tense.

2. The Three Perfect Tenses:

d. Present Perfect Tense;
e. Past Perfect Tense;
f. Future Perfect Tense.

3. The Three Progressive Tenses:

g. Present Progressive Tense;
h. Past Progressive Tense;
i. Future Progressive Tense.

4. The Three Perfect Progressive Tenses:

j. Present Perfect Progressive Tense;
k. Past Perfect Progressive Tense;
l. Future Perfect Progressive Tense.

SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

The Simple Present Tense of most verbs is derived directly from their base form. Unlike nouns,
almost all verbs in their plain forms are plural, consequently, to form the third person singular of
a present tense verb, add “s”, “es” or “ies”. Aside this, all other simple present tenses are
identical to the base form of verbs.
Examples:
a. We manage businesses. (“We” is not a third person singular pronoun, so it agrees with
the base verb “manage” which is a plural and is in the simple present tense)

31
 b. He manages businesses. (“He” is a third person singular pronoun, so it agrees with
“manages” which is the singular form of “manage” and is in the simple present tense)

Other examples:
Base Form Third Person Singular Present Form
call calls
eat eats
come comes
do does
say says
fix fixes
agree agrees
attach attaches
swim swims
cross crosses
cry cries
wish wishes
read reads
study studies
The simple present tense does not actually signify present time. However, it is used to make
factual statements or generalizations; or to describe habitual actions; or to describe predictable
future events or actions.
Usage 1: Simple present tense is used to express or describe facts that are not restricted by time.
a. The sun rises in the east.
b. Earth is a planet.

Usage 2: Simple present tense is also used to express or describe facts or generalizations that are
true for the foreseeable future.
c. We school at Scholar’s Brain Institute.
d. He lives on the hill.
e. Drinking alcohol causes cancer.

Usage 3: Simple present tense is used to express or describe habitual actions.

f. He eats slowly.
g. Kwame runs every morning.

Usage 4: Simple present tense is used to describe near future events or actions that are expected
to happen.
h. The president joins us on Monday.
i. The bus leaves at exactly 6am.

Usage 5: Simple present tense is used to tell a story or describe a fictional event.

32
 j. Skeletons walk at night.
k. The bird sings alleluia.

SIMPLE PAST TENSE

The simple past tense describes an action, occurrence or state of being, that was completed
before the present moment in time. In other words, it expresses an action, occurrence or state of
being which occurred and was completed at a particular time in the past.
To form the past tense of a regular verb, add “ed”, “d” or “ied” to the base verb.
Base verb Past tense
pray prayed
access accessed
play played
hate hated
like liked
marry married
The formation of past tense of irregular verbs are very different. They are formed by adding
“ed”, “d” or “ied” to the base verb.
Base verb Past tense
break broke
sing sang
cut cut
put put
buy bought
Usage 1: The simple past tense can be used to refer to a single point in past time.
a. The English Language class began on 28th October, 2020.
b. Mr. Kumi played a vital role in yesterday’s game.

Usage 2: The simple past tense can also be used to refer a span of time in the past, as long as it
was completed before the present.
c. Frank worked as a teacher for almost five years.

Usage 3: The simple past tense can also be used in the subjunctive form of a sentence. That is,
making a hypothetical statement. However, this usage of past tense does not indicate past time.
d. If I were you, I would be certain I got the work done.
The use of “were” rather than the expected “was” is of a subjunctive form. The sentence does not
refer to past time, even with the use of “would” and “got” in the sentence.

SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE

The simple future tense describes an action, an occurrence or a state of being which is yet to take
place. The simple future tense is formed by employing the helping verbs “will” or “shall”,
followed by the base form of the main verb.
The present tense of a verb plus an indication of time other than now or the past is also another
way to say or write a sentence indicating the future tense.

33
 a. We shall overcome the storm.
b. She will be disappointed if you do not speak to the audience.
c. The bus takes off at 3pm.
d. Abigail eats here tonight.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

The present perfect tense describes an action, an occurrence, or a state of being, that began in the
past and has continued up to the present time, with the implication that it will continue into the
future. It employs the use of the auxiliary verbs “has” (singular) or “have” (plural) with the past
participle form of the main verb. The best way to understand the present perfect tense is to
compare it to the past tense.
a. Sir Frank taught in Scholar’s Brain for seven years. (Past Tense)
b. Sir Frank has taught in Scholar’s Brain for seven years. (Present Perfect Tense)

In the first sentence, Sir Frank no longer teaches in Scholar’s Brain. But according to the second
sentence, Sir Frank still teaches in Scholar’s Brain and he is expected to continue teaching there
into the foreseeable future. Other examples include:
c. Has she taken the drug?
d. Jennifer has learnt for long.
e. We have taken record of the scores.

PAST PERFECT TENSE

The past perfect tense describes an action, an occurrence or a state of being, that began and
ended in the past before a more recent action, occurrence or state of being took place. In other
words, it is used to emphasize that, two events took place in the past. One event is expressed in
the past perfect tense while the other event is expressed in the simple past. It employs the use of
the auxiliary verb “had” which is the past tense of “has” and “have”, with past participle form of
the main verb.
a. Sir Pidio had left the school before the students arrived.

This sentence describes two past-time events. The first event is Sir Pidio’s leaving the school,
and the second event is the arrival of the students. The use of the past perfect tense makes it clear
that the first event was completed before the second one occurred. Note that events can be stated
in reverse order. (Before the students arrived, Sir Pidio had left the school.)
b. Rodrigue had studied before the exams took place.
c. We had finished the party when they arrived.
d. The class had named Kofi as the thief before Yaa confessed.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

The future perfect tense describes a future event that must be completed before a second future
event takes place. In other words, it describes an action which will begin and end in the future
before another future action takes place. It is also used to describe an event completed before a

34
specific time in the future. It employs the use of the verb phrases “shall have” or “will have”
followed by the past participle of the main verb.
a. By the time the students come, I will have finished eating my food.
b. They will have acted by noon.
c. The game will have started before we get to the stadium.
d. I shall have written my exit letter before his departure by tomorrow.

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

The present progressive tense employs the use of the helping verbs “am”, “is” or “are”, followed
by the present participle of the main verb.
Usage 1: It describes an action, occurrence or state of being in a sentence at the precise moment
that the sentence is spoken or written.
a. Close the door! I am sleeping.
b. Kwame is driving to the studio.

Usage 2: It can also describe future plans or events.

c. We are going to Paris this June.
d. The school is competing in this year’s regional quiz.

PAST PROGRESSIVE TENSE

The past progressive tense describes an event that took place at or during some time in the past,
whether it occurred at a specific moment or during a span of time in the past. The time in the past
can be defined by another event. It employs the use of the past helping verbs “was” or “were”,
followed by the present participle of the main verb.
a. I was working at my desk by 9 am.
b. During the game, he was talking on his cell phone.
c. We were reading in class, when they interrupted us.

FUTURE PROGRESSIVE TENSE

The future progressive tense describes an activity that will occur at some point in the future,
whether it will occur at a specific moment or more commonly, during a span of time in the
future. It employs the use of the verb phrases “will be” or “shall be”, followed by the present
participle of the main verb.
a. I will be schooling at the University of Ghana.
b. The class shall be going out on a trip after the Easter holidays.
c. We will be staying in the motel while they remodel the kitchen.

PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

The present perfect progressive tense describes an action or event that started in the past and is
continuing at the present time. It employs the verb phrases “has been” or “have been”, followed
by the present participle of the main verb.
a. Esther has been eating wheat lately.

35
In this sentence, using the present perfect progressive tense conveys that, “eating wheat” is an
activity that began sometime in the past and is not yet completed in the present.
b. We have been competing in class recently.
c. She has not been feeling well off late.

PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

The past perfect progressive tense describes an action or event that happened in the past and
continued up until another time in the past. It is formed by employing the use of “had been” and
the present participle of the main verb.
a. Frank had been working here for two years when I got the promotion.
b. She had been reading since I arrived.

When, for, since and before are words that are mostly used alongside the past perfect
progressive tense.

FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

The future perfect progressive tense describes an action or an event that will continue up until a
point of time in the future. It is formed by employing the use of “will have been” and the present
participle of the main verb. The event or action will have begun sometime in the past, present or
in the future, and is expected to continue in the future.
a. I will have been going to rehearsals when I was 10 years old.
b. At five o’clock, I will have been waiting for thirty minutes.
c. Miguel will have been sleeping, had I not called his phone.

NB: Nonactive verbs like “be”, “seem” or “know” are not suited for the future perfect
progressive tense.
For instance, it is grammatically incorrect to say or write “On Thursday, I will have been
knowing you for a week.”
The correct sentence should be “On Thursday, I will have known you for a week”.
VERBAL
Verbal is a form of verb or non-finite verb that functions as a noun, adjective and adverb. It
basically performs the grammatical role of other parts of speech. They are three types of verbal,
and they are gerunds, participles and infinitives.

GERUND
Gerund is non-finite verb or verbal that functions as nouns. In other words, it is a form of verb
that functions as subject of verbs, object of verbs, object of prepositions, and complement of
verbs. They are formed by adding “ing” to the base verbs.
a. Teaching is favourite hobby. (subject)
b. Eliezer enjoys drawing. (object of the verb)
c. He was stoned for blaspheming. (object of the preposition)
d. Swimming is exciting. (complement of the verb)

36
The gerund formed from the verbs “be” and “have” may have compound form with past
participle placed after them.
e. Being honest is a virtue for successful men.
f. Kwame has an aim of being educated.
g. Emmah was punished of having stolen the watch.

Gerunds must be modified with possessive adjectives, not pronouns in the objective case.
h. The headmaster approved of your son’s being an artist.
i. Sir. Pidio will punish you for your coming to class late.
j. My writing to you is a sign of respect.
k. I don’t mind your going early.

“To” as a preposition must precede a gerund and must not be considered as an infinitive.
l. Sir Kumi devoted himself to perfecting his work.
m. Rachel says, she is looking forward to going to school.

PARTICIPLE
Participle is a non-finite verb or verbal that functions as an adjective. In other words, it is a form
of verb that describes or qualifies a noun or a pronoun. It is also used to form part of verb
phrases and it can be used to form sentences in the passive voice.
There are two types participle. They are: Present Participle and Past Participle.
Present participles are formed by adding “ing” to base verbs. Some examples are: laughing,
suffering, jumping, eating, etc.
Past participles are formed by adding “d”, “ed” or “ied” to base verbs. Some examples are:
laughed, danced, jumped, etc. Others are irregularly formed. Examples include: taken, eaten, put,
chosen, etc.

THE USAGE OF PARTICIPLES IN SENTENCES

The use of present participles as adjectives:
a. A starving dog eats anything.
b. The only thing that comes to a sleeping man is dreams.
c. Beneath the ocean is a caring nature for fish.
(In the sentences above, the present participles, “starving”, “sleeping” and “caring” function
as adjectives describing the nouns, “dog”, “man” and “nature” respectively.)
The use of past participles as adjective:
d. The defeated team paid the bill.
e. Osei painted the broken wall.
f. Interested fellows should register.
(In the sentences above, the past participles, “defeated”, “broken” and “interested” function
as adjectives describing the nouns, “team”, “wall”, and “fellows” respectively.)
The use of present participles as part of verb phrases:
g. Samira is boiling water.

37
 h. The boys are playing cards.
i. They were speaking to the class before I arrived.

The use of past participles as part of verb phrases:

j. The student has been chosen for the competition.
k. The car was taken to the shop for repairs.
l. He has learnt for long.

The use of past participles to form a sentence in the passive voice:

m. The documents were given to the secretary.
n. My sister will be taken to the mall soon.
o. The boys were arrested just after committing the crime.

PARTICIPLE PHRASE
Participle can also be in phrases and function like adjectives. Below are some examples:
p. Lawrencia showed me a bowl crammed with cream. (The participle phrase, “crammed
with cream describes the noun, “bowl”)

q. Jumping the bricks, the dog scared me. (The participle phrase, “Jumping the bricks”
describes the noun, “dog”)

r. The woman carrying the baby on her back is my friend. (The participle phrase
“carrying the baby on her back” describes the noun phrase, “The woman”)

s. Surprised by the news, Amina ran home. (The participle phrase, “Surprised by the
news” describes the noun, “Amina”)

INFINITIVES
Infinitive is a non-finite verb or verbal that functions as a noun, adjective or adverb. In other
words, it is a form of verb that can serve as subject of a verb, object of verb, object of a
preposition and can modify nouns, pronouns or verbs. It consists of base verbs, preceded by “to”.
1. The man to speak today is my father.
(In this example, “to speak” is an infinitive that functions as an adjective, modifying the
noun phrase, “The man”.)

2. The man speaks today.

(In this example, “speak” is not in the infinitive form. It functions as the main verb or
finite verb in the sentence.)

Note 1: The word “to” that make up the infinitive form of a verb is not a preposition. It is known
as the “sign of the infinitive”.

38
Note 2: When “to” precedes a noun, it is known as prepositional phrase but not infinitive. (to
her, to school, to market, etc. are prepositional phrases.)

THE USAGE OF INFINITIVE IN SENTENCES

The use of infinitives as nouns:
A noun functions as subject of a verb, object of a verb or object of a preposition.
a. To forgive is divine.
(The infinitive, “To forgive” functions as the subject of the verb “is”.)

b. He loves to teach.
(The infinitive, “to teach” functions as the object of the verb “loves”.)

c. Except to laugh, he refused to help.

(The infinitives “to laugh” functions as the object of the preposition “except” and “to
help” functions as the object of the verb “refused”.)

The use of infinitives as adjectives:

An adjective modifies or provides information about a noun or a pronoun.
d. Irene’s attitude towards work is an attitude to emulate.
(The infinitive, “to emulate” modifies the noun phrase “an attitude”, therefore, it
functions as an adjective)

e. Lydia gave me a book to read.

(The infinitive, “to read” modifies the noun phrase “a book”, therefore, it functions as
an adjective)

f. “If one is wise, it is a profitable thing to seem foolish.”

(The infinitive, “to seem” modifies the noun “thing”, therefore, it functions as an
adjective)

The use of infinitives as adverbs:

An adverb usually modifies a verb, that is, to tell us when, where, why, how, or in what manner
an action is performed. An adverb modifies adjectives too.
g. Eager to win the Spelling B competition, Esther studied all the winning words of the
previous competitions.
(The infinitive, “to win” modifies the adjective “Eager”, therefore, it functions as an
adverb)

h. Esther must study well to excel in the exams.

(The infinitive, “to excel” modifies the verb “study”, therefore, it functions as an
adverb.)

i. The young man returned to help the old man.

39
 (The infinitive, “to help” modifies the verb “returned”, therefore, it functions as an
adverb.)

ZERO INFINITIVES OR BARE INFINITIVES

Bare infinitives are non-finite verbs without the sign of the infinitive “to”. They follow some
special verbs which function as the main or finite verbs in sentences, with some followed by
direct objects. Some of these special verbs are: but, except, feel, hear, help, let, make, know, see
than, and watch. Some examples of bare infinitives in sentences are:
a. I watched them hunt the game.
b. Sir Raymond made him clean the classroom.
c. Ruth helped her friends wash the bowls.
d. We did nothing but sleep all day.
e. Saul did everything right except disobey the rule of Holy Wars.
f. Adom is more willing to show interest in the project than commit himself to it.

THE ISSUE OF DARE AND NEED

1. It is appropriate to use an infinitive after need and dare, if the sentence is affirmative, but
if the sentence is negative, it is appropriate to use a bare infinitive after them.

a. I need to go home. (Correct)

b. I need go home. (Incorrect)

c. I need not go home. (Correct)

d. I need not to go home. (Incorrect)

2. It is appropriate to use an infinitive after need and dare, even if the sentence is negative,
provided they are preceded by auxiliaries.

a. He did not dare to go home. (Correct)

b. He did not dare go home. (Incorrect)

c. He will not need to ask for your help. (Correct)

d. He will not need ask for your help. (Incorrect)

3. The third person singular form of “dare” is dare if the sentence is a negative one:

a. She dare not do that.

b. Kofi dare not shout at you.

NB: “Dare” is almost always used in negative sentences.

40
 4. The third person singular form of “need” is need if the sentence is a negative one, but it is
needs if the sentence is an affirmative one.

a. Esther need not to sleep in the hostel. (Correct)

b. Esther needs not to sleep in the hostel. (Incorrect)

c. Esther needs to sleep in the hostel. (Correct)

d. Esther need to sleep in the hostel. (Incorrect)

PAST QUESTIONS ON VERBS

1. I’d rather …….. Kofi the truth now. 5. I detest your ……… for
extravagance.
A. tells
B. is telling A. likehood
C. told B. liking
D. will tell C. like
D. likeness
2. It had …… to rain when we left
home. 6. A good knowledge of Russian and
Swahili …….. required.
A. begin
B. beginning
A. is to be
C. begun
B. is
D. began
C. are
D. are to be
3. Isn’t it time you …….. your own
mathematical set?
7. I’m looking forward to ……….. you
next week at church.
A. have got
B. get
A. meet
C. are getting
B. having to meet
D. got
C. meeting
D. have met
4. ……….more to this matter than you
are willing to tell me.
8. The players promised to play the
match as ………..
A. There is
B. There are
A. they could.
C. There have being
B. will they could.
D. There are
C. best they could.
D. best as they could.

41
9. The witness said he saw the man A. laughed
…….. into a car. B. to have laughed
C. laugh
A. been pushed D. laughing
B. being pushed
C. has been pushed 15. Please gentleman, excuse ………
D. has pushed now.

10. It is high time we ……..for the party. A. me to go

B. my going
A. leave C. me to be going
B. have to leave D. me to have gone
C. left
D. will leave 16. As the winner of the contest, he was
given an encyclopedia but he ………
11. We have had ……. of your an anthology of short stories.
complaints!
A. had rather
A. those B. will rather be having
B. enough C. would rather be having
C. any D. would rather have had
D. so much
17. All of us saw the man …….. up the
12. ……….. you go so soon? She asked bucket.
disappointingly.
A. pick
A. Must B. picked
B. May C. to pick
C. Can D. to have picked
D. Should
18. When I was in London,
13. I am not going to the stadium with
you as I ……..those teams play A. I put up with Jojo.
before. B. Jojo put up by me.
C. I was put up by Jojo.
A. am seeing D. Jojo and I put up.
B. have seen
C. had seen 19. It never rains, but it ………
D. was seeing
A. is pouring.
14. The film she was watching made her B. poured.
……. C. will pour.

42
 D. pours. A. had returned
B. will return
20. It’s time we all ……. for home. C. returns
D. returns
A. left
B. leave 26. I told him that the pair of shoes
C. be leaving …….. not match his shirt.
D. begin leaving
A. can
21. If we had cup, we …….. water. B. should
C. will
A. would have drunk D. would
B. shall drink
C. would drink 27. Since the beginning of this term, the
D. had drunk French teacher ……… in school.

22. If your uncle had cup, we ………. A. had not been

water. B. has not been
C. is not been
A. had D. has not being
B. would have
C. would 28. If he had done the job, he ………
D. will have punished.

23. The labourers confirmed that I A. will not have been

……… them their overtime B. would not have being
allowance. C. would not have been
D. would not had been
A. would pay
B. will pay 29. If should rain for two more days, we
C. had paid ……..in more trouble.
D. was paid
A. will be
24. Supposed she had come, what ……. B. would be
your reaction? C. will have been
D. would have been
A. would be
B. will be 30. We left for school after we ……….
C. will have been our breakfast.
D. would have been
A. have taken
25. I wished the carpenter ……. earlier. B. have eating
C. had eaten

43
 D. were eating 36. The management ordered that the
rude messenger …….. sacked.
31. I wish I ………..as much
opportunity as you have now. A. is
B. to be
A. have C. was
B. had had D. be
C. had
D. have had 37. If it’s true that Fafa is in Accra, then
she …… at Kaneshie.
32. Ohenewaa has assured us that she
………. the cup next time. A. must stay
B. stays
A. would win C. is staying
B. win D. would stay
C. could win
D. will win 38. Before leaving the house, the
housewife …….. her washing on the
33. Anita ………. home last week but clothes line.
she didn’t.
A. hanged
A. should have visited B. hang
B. had had to visit C. has hung
C. would have to visit D. had hung
D. had visited
39. Last night a rat …….. out from
34. My mother insisted that we ……… behind that box.
stay overnight.
A. was running
A. might B. ran
B. would C. run
C. should D. is running
D. could
40. Had you waited, you ……… seen
35. You ……. be dreaming if you think my fate.
I’ll leave the car for you.
A. had
A. may B. would have
B. should C. will have
C. could D. have
D. must
41. We ………. much earlier if it hadn’t
been for the heavy traffic.

44
 A. will have arrived A. finds
B. would arrive B. will find
C. would have been arriving C. found
D. would have arrived D. had found

42. John ……. on the bed thinking about 47. The school store was so untidy that
all that his father said. we thought it ………burgled.

A. laid A. is being
B. lied B. has been
C. lay C. had been
D. lain D. was being

43. One of the men who ………fishing 48. Fifi would have been fluent in
on the pier caught a big fish. French if he ……….. tertiary
education.
A. been
B. is A. has
C. were B. had
D. was C. had had
D. has had
44. If he had asked for the book I …….it
to him. 49. Ama refused to marry Kwame
because he ……..into prison some
A. gave years ago.
B. have given
C. would have given A. was cast
D. had given B. had cast
C. were cast
45. The Minister of Interior promised D. is cast
that he ………… all illegal aliens.
50. When he removed the clothes, he
A. had repatriated …….. her stiff and cold.
B. will repatriate
C. would repatriate A. finds
D. has repatriated B. found
C. find
46. Nana Ama will go back to the town D. has found
if she ………. the door locked.

45
 ADVERBS
DEFINITION OF ADVERB
Adverb is a part of speech that modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, another adverb or even
a whole sentence. An adverb tells how, when, why, where, or to what extent an action is
performed or something is true or false. Adverb helps one to express one’s idea clearly and
precisely.
Many adverbs are formed by adding -ly- to adjectives (i.e., beautifully, neatly, nicely, accurately,
badly. However, some do not take the -ly- ending (i.e., fast, far, well, there, too, etc.).
The use of adverbs with verbs
Adverbs are typically used to modify verbs. They describe the way an action is performed. They
may appear either before or after the verb they modify.
1. I want the director to seriously consider my suggestions.
The adverb, “seriously” tells us how I want the director to consider my suggestions. It
modifies the verb “consider”.

2. The class prefect will post the next slides soon.

The adverb, “soon” tells us when the next slides will be posted. It modifies the verb
phrase “will post”.

3. Debbie Darling sings beautifully.

The adverb, “beautifully” tell us in what manner she sings. It modifies the verb “sings”.

The use of adverbs with adjectives

Beside modifying verbs, adverbs also modify adjectives. Often, the aim of an adverb modifying
an adjective is to add a degree of precision to the adjective.
4. The lady is very beautiful.
The adverb, “very” tells us to what extent the lady is beautiful. It modifies the adjective
“beautiful”.

5. The neatly dressed student is one of the prefects in this school.

The adverb, “neatly” modifies the adjective “dressed”.

6. The African prose is more interesting than the non-African prose.

The adverb, “more” modifies the adjective “interesting”.

46
The use of adverbs with other adverbs
Adverbs can also be used to modify other adverbs.
7. He ran very quickly.
The adverb, “very” tells us how quickly he ran. It therefore modifies the adverb
“quickly”.

8. She spoke too loudly.

The adverb, “too” modifies the adverb “loudly”.

9. The bus moved quite slowly.

The adverb, “quite” modifies the adverb “slowly”.

The use of adverbs with other clauses

Some adverbs can modify entire sentences.
10. Interestingly, Chelsea defeated Madrid.
The adverb, “interestingly” modifies the entire sentence “Chelsea defeated Madrid.”

11. Amazingly, I inscribed her name on the wall.

The adverb, “amazingly” modifies the sentence, “I inscribed her name on the wall.”

12. Fortunately, we got there in time.

The adverb, “fortunately” modifies the sentence, “we got there in time.”

NB: Some adverbs that often modify adjective and adverbs are: so, most, rather, truly,
somewhat, etc.

TYPES OF ADVERBS
There are several types of adverbs, but the common ones are highlighted below.
1. Adverb of reason: it indicates why an action is performed or occurs. Adverb of reason
usually begins with subordinate conjunctions like: as, since, given, because, etc.

2. Adverb of time: it indicates when an action is performed or occurs. Examples include:

later, soon, now, daily, etc.

3. Adverb of place: it indicates where an action is performed or occurs. Examples include:

near, everywhere, anywhere, where, there, outside, etc.

47
 4. Adverb of manner: it indicates how an action happens. Examples are: quickly, easily,
loudly, simply, steadily, etc.

5. Adverb of condition: it indicates the condition under which an action happens. It is

mostly identified in phrases and clauses, and it often begins with “if” or “unless” in the
phrases and clauses.

6. Adverb of concession: it is used to indicate circumstances contrary to the main idea. It is

mostly identified in phrases and clauses, and it is introduced by words, though, although,
yet, nevertheless, however, while, etc.

7. Adverb of degree: it is used to indicate to what degree an action happens. In other

words, it shows how much or how far or the extent at which an action occurs. Some
examples include: very, more, most, rather, extremely, quite, etc.

DEGREE OF ADVERBIAL COMPARISON

Like adjectives, adverbs can show degree of comparison. Plain or base adverbs have two special
forms of degree of comparison, and these are, the comparative form and superlative form.
A plain adverb describes verb, adjective or other adverb in its own right. For example:
1. He writes fast.
2. The neatly decorated box has jewels in it.

The comparative form of a plain adverb compares the description of one verb or adjective with
the description of another. There are two ways of making the comparative form of adverbs.
a. To form the comparative form of adverbs which do not end in -ly-, add -er-. For example:
He writes faster than his sister.
b. To form the comparative form of adverbs which end in -ly-, add the word “more” and it
should precede the adverb. For example:

The more neatly decorated box was presented to the chairperson.

The superlative form of a plain adverb compares the description of one verb or adjective with the
description of two or more others.
a. To form the superlative form of adverbs which do not end in -ly-, add -est-. For example:

He is the fastest writer among his colleagues.

b. To form the superlative form of adverbs which end in -ly-, add the word “most”, and it
should precede the adverb. For example:

48
 Nene Padi is the most neatly dressed among his peers.

Some adverbs deviate from the regular rules of forming their comparative and superlative forms,
as they completely change their comparative and superlative form. Some examples include the
following:
Adverb Comparative Superlative
1. much more most
2. little less least
3. well better best
4. badly worse worst

INTENSIFIERS
Intensifiers are adverbs that are used to strengthen or weaken other works (mostly adjectives) in
sentences. They tell us about the intensity of other words. Some examples of intensifiers are,
very, really, too, quite, enough, extremely, fairly, rather, etc.

THE USAGE OF “VERY”

“Very” is used to strengthen an adjective or an adverb. It is positioned before the adjective or
adverb it modifies. It is also used to modify adjectives in the positive and superlative degrees.
However, if it is used with the superlative degree of adjectives, the article “the” is placed before
it.
1. The boy is very smart.
2. The debate competition was very interesting.
3. Einstein was the very smartest thinker of his generation.
4. Sage is a very decent girl in the class.

THE USAGE OF “TOO”

“Too” is always an adverb, but not always an intensifier. It has two different meanings, each
meaning with its own usage pattern.
a. “Too” can mean “also” in a sentence, that is when it is positioned at the end of the phrase
or clause it modifies.

1. She wants to attend the meeting too.

2. He says buy a pen for him too.
3. Is Dromo your friend too?

49
 b. “Too” can also mean “excessively” or “beyond proper limit”. In this case, it is positioned
before the adjective or adverb it modifies.

4. The load is too heavy. (it means, one cannot carry the load.)
5. Ama is too young to engage in such a conversation. (it means, Ama should not engage in
such a conversation.)
6. The desks are too small. (it means, students cannot sit on them)
7. The assignment is too difficult. (it means, one cannot do it)

THE USAGE OF “MUCH”

“Much” is used to modify adjectives in the comparative degree and with the superlative degree
of adjectives. However, if it is used with the superlative degree of adjectives, the article “the” it.
1. He plays much better than the other guy.
2. Eliezer runs much faster than Dromo.
3. She is much the smartest girl in the class.

THE USAGE OF “MOST”

“Most” is the superlative form of much or very and it is used to modify adjective.
1. She is the most beautiful lady I have ever seen.
2. Sophie is the most annoying girl in the group.

THE USAGE OF “VERY MUCH”

“Very much” means enough and it is always positioned before adjectives and participles.
1. Prince in very much ashamed of his performance.
2. She can be very much annoying sometimes.
3. We are very much thankful for your efforts towards the work.

“TOO MUCH” VS “MUCH TOO”

“Too much” functions as an adjective since it is used to modify nouns but “much too” is an
adverb since it is used to modify adjectives.
1. There is too much sugar in the tea. (“too much” modifies the noun, “sugar”)
2. The atmosphere is much too calm. (“much too” modifies the adjective “calm”)

PAST QUESTION ON ADVERBS

50
1. ……… Mariama is only six years old, A. however
she can easily pass for ten. B. no matter
C. so
A. Although D. even
B. Since
C. But 7. I can visit you on any day of the
D. After week, but Sunday will suit me
………….
2. Gifty was occupied all day ………
she couldn’t visit her mother at the A. better.
hospital. B. even.
C. best.
A. because
D. as well.
B. yet
C. so
8. The play had hardly started ……….
D. since
the lights went off.
3. ……… had I entered the room than
A. than
the telephone rang.
B. when
C. so
A. Hardly
D. even
B. No sooner
C. After
9. ………. Mike was ill, the coach
D. Before
decided to play Joe in goal.
4. Your remark was right, ………. it
A. Since
was cheeky.
B. Although
C. However
A. so
D. So
B. since
C. because
10. Which of these two houses is the
D. nevertheless
……….?
5. ………. I didn’t register, I couldn’t
A. more beautiful
vote during the election.
B. most beautiful
C. beautiful
A. Although
D. very beautiful
B. Despite
C. For
11. If you can convince your friends to
D. Since
come, so much the ………
6. We hope to succeed ………. long it
A. more
takes.
B. most

51
 C. best 17. Since they heard of your accident,
D. better the …….. they could have done was
to pay you a visit.
12. Kofi said he was ……… tired to
drive home. A. least
B. better
A. so C. best
B. too D. latest
C. very
D. extremely 18. Which of these two sisters is the
…….. cruel?
13. My foot hurts so ………. that I
cannot walk. A. most
B. more
A. worse C. lesser
B. worst D. less
C. bad
D. badly 19. I don’t like this house; ……… it is
too big.
14. ………. the food was cold, I enjoyed
it. A. also
B. besides
A. Hence C. while
B. However D. however
C. Although
D. If 20. I was ………. sad to hear of his
death.
15. The girl appears ………… big for
his class. A. enough
B. so
A. much C. too
B. so D. much
C. very
D. too 21. ………… Albert saw the snake, he
jumped.
16. I thank you ………. much for your
thoughtful advice. A. While
B. Immediately
A. so C. Since
B. too D. Although
C. as
D. really 22. I ……… ever go to late night parties.

52
 A. often B. as
B. hardly C. since
C. barely D. so
D. usually
28. Crime is becoming …………
23. The food was ……….. hot that the widespread these days than it was in
baby couldn’t eat it. the past.

A. much A. most
B. very B. much
C. too C. more
D. so D. many

24. The labourers had to rest; they were 29. To avoid trouble, it is best to say
……….. exhausted to continue very ………… about the case.
working.
A. much
A. more B. little
B. most C. least
C. too D. few
D. so
30. When walking in a crowd, one
25. ………… she apologised for her cannot be ……….. cautious of
absence, I refused to talk to her. thieves.

A. Although A. very
B. While B. so
C. If C. even
D. Unless D. too

26. The city of Accra has developed 31. I will not come ……….. if I am
………….. than we expected. invited.

A. much A. only
B. much too rapidly B. just
C. much rapid C. as
D. much more rapidly D. even

27. I have been in Accra for many years 32. Can you ……….. discuss HIV/AIDS
………….. I have not entered the with your children?
stadium.
A. kindly
A. yet B. openly

53
 C. clearly
D. truly 38. James’ new novel is …………
interesting than the previous one.
33. I can’t give you the money
…………. you show me the bill. A. much so
B. much more
A. unless C. more so
B. before D. so much
C. as
D. since 39. She ………… ever talks in class.

34. He does not want to work, A. hardly

…………. he wants to enjoy life. B. almost
C. quite
A. then D. fairly
B. otherwise
C. though 40. I had …………. come in when the
D. for telephone rang.

35. When he made his second speech, he A. no sooner

was …………. less nervous. B. clearly
C. hardly
A. fairly D. no earlier
B. rather
C. quite 41. What you said was true; ………. it
D. little was unkind.

36. Catherine is …………. good at A. despite

Mathematics that everybody nodded B. so
in agreement. C. since
D. nevertheless
A. very
B. too 42. He came to the meeting ………….
C. so his serious illness.
D. extremely
A. despite
37. Motorists who drive ………… fast B. against
are prone to accidents on rainy days. C. regarding
D. though
A. too
B. very 43. The students now walk into the
C. quite library ………….. than before.
D. fairly

54
 A. quietly
B. quieter A. very too
C. more quietly B. too much
D. most quietly C. quite so
D. so quite
44. Ada is ………….. to do that kind of
thing. 48. With his reading glasses on, he could
see the words ……………
A. too intelligent much
B. too much intelligent A. much more clearly
C. intelligent too much B. clearly much more
D. much too intelligent C. much clearly more
D. more much clearly
45. The load was …………. heavy for
us to carry. 49. The coffee is ………. cold for us to
drink.
A. that
B. too A. too much
C. so B. much too
D. very C. more too
D. too more
46. She accepted the conditions you
gave her ……….. for my liking. 50. I didn’t know his illness was
………… serious.
A. quickly too much
B. too much quickly A. that much
C. much too quickly B. much that
D. much quickly too C. so that
D. that so
47. I was amazed to see the manager’s
wife; she was ………… young.

55
 PREPOSITION
DEFINITION OF PREPOSITION
Prepositions are parts of speech and connectives that express a relationship between noun or
pronoun and some other word in sentences. They are used before nouns, pronouns or noun
phrases to show time, place, direction, location, and spatial relationships.

USAGES OF PREPOSITIONS
1. Prepositions of Time

To express relationship between the parts of a sentence in order to refer to one point in
time, use the prepositions: in; at; and on.

a. “In” is often used to show unspecific time of the day, week, month, year, or season.

i. Eliezer draws beautifully in the morning.

ii. He was inducted to the hall of fame in May.
iii. The player was transferred to his new team in the summer.

b. “At” is often used to show specific time of the day. It is also used with night, dawn,
and midnight.

i. Pulchram reads comfortably at dawn.

ii. She reports to work at exactly 7:00 am.
iii. They always pray at night.

c. “On” is often used to days or specific dates.

i. Sage was born on the 24th December, 2010.

ii. We have our praises and worship on Fridays.

d. “Since”, “by”, “for”, “during”, “with”, “within” “from…until”, and “from…to,

prepositions used to refer to extension of time.

i. He has taught here since 2013.

ii. We should complete the assignment by 4:30 pm.
iii. They will be trained from Monday to Friday.

56
2. Prepositions of Place

To express relationship between the parts of a sentence in order to refer to a place, use the
prepositions: in; at; on; inside; under; beneath; above; over; etc.

a. “In” is used to refer to an object at the exact place or point.

i. Let us meet in the lab for the discussion.

ii. The teachers are in the headmaster’s office.

b. “At” is used to refer to an object at the general area or locality.

i. Please, I am at the market.

ii. Mamle is at the municipal centre.

c. “On” is used to refer to an object on the surface of an area or object.

i. Kindly take the books on the table for me.

ii. Anita put the food on top of the shelf.

d. “Inside” is used to refer to an object in the interior of an area or an object.

i. He is waiting inside the room; quickly enter.

ii. The boots are locked inside the drawer.

e. “Under”, “below”, “beneath”, or “underneath” is used to refer to an object lower

than a point.

i. The cat is under the table.

ii. The drug is put underneath the huge rag.

f. “Over” and “above” are used to refer to objects extending upwards a point.

i. Anita put the food on top of the shelf above the dais.
ii. He ran over the line and fell.

3. Preposition of Direction

To express a relationship between the parts of a sentence in order to show direction, use
the prepositions: to; in; into; on; or onto.

i. The boys run to the house.

57
 ii. Go into the room and switch off the radio.
iii. The man is in the canteen.
iv. He walked onto the street and stopped the car.

4. Preposition of Spatial Relationship

To express a relationship between the parts of a sentence in order to show spatial

relationship, use the prepositions: “across”; “along”; “between”; “among”; “behind”;
“beside”; “out of”; “in front of”; “beneath”; “inside”; “within”; “towards”;
“through”; “off”; “out of”; up; against; before; from; etc.

WORDS AND THEIR PREPOSITIONS

absorb in abide by/with accustom to
abscond to acquit of accuse of
accompanied by/with adapted to/from/for anxious of
antidote to alternate with aware of
arrive at approve of agree with
ban from/on bent on beam with
believe in bear with beneficial of
bestow on built with blame on
complain about occur in concentrate on
care for/of connive with confide in
contrast with curious about characteristics of
differ from disagree with deal with
depend on die of deter from
essential to employed at/by expelled from
exclusive of eligible to/for exonerate from
familiar with fall on/upon fond of
fundamental to good at/for guilty of
glance through grateful for/to happy about/for
heed to interested in incline to

58
indulge in interdict from infer from
inoculate against invoke on liable for/to
liken to lavish on meddle with
persist with/in/for preliminary to peculiar to
proceed with/to proud of proficient in
repugnant to resort to responsible for/to
result in read about reckon with
refrain from resentful at suffer from
search for smile at succeed in/at
smell of severe with submit to
swim in superior to shoot at
similar to sorry about/ for worry about
wait for/on/upon wreak on vouch for

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A PREPOSITION AND AN ADVERB

A few words can function as prepositions and as adverbs as well. A preposition is always
followed by a noun, a pronoun or a noun phrase. If the word has an object, it is probably a
preposition, however, if the word has no object, it is probably an adverb. For instance:
a. They came around yesterday. (adverb)
b. They came around the alter yesterday. (preposition)

PAST QUESTIONS ON PREPOSITION

1. Many of the accident victims were 2. Martha can easily get these goods;
admitted ………. the hospital. she knows the shop that deals
……… them.
A. at
B. in A. with
C. to B. in
D. inside C. by
D. at

59
3. “Go ………. your business without 8. The riotous students were bent
any fear”. Mavis advised his friends. ………. beating up their headmaster.

A. with A. to
B. about B. on
C. for C. upon
D. to D. for

4. At the meeting, the chairman 9. A whole generation of youth was

promptly jumped ………. my wiped ……….. during the war.
suggestion.
A. away
A. to B. off
B. for C. up
C. at D. out
D. on
10. We can rely on those buses; they
5. ……….. reasons best known to him, always arrive ……… time.
he refused to accept the prize.
A. for
A. With B. to
B. For C. on
C. Depending D. by
D. According to
11. The teacher told her pupils they
6. In accordance ……….. the rule of could only succeed …….. learning
the game, the referee awarded a hard.
penalty.
A. from
A. with B. in
B. to C. at
C. by D. by
D. under
12. The deceased did not have any
7. The director’s pride puts many of his achievements to be remembered
subordinates ………. ………..

A. down. A. with
B. away. B. for
C. off. C. by
D. through. D. on

60
13. I owe a lot of gratitude …….. my 18. The rebels threatened that they
rescuers. would kill anyone who would inform
……… them.
A. from
B. for A. on
C. through B. of
D. to C. about
D. over
14. It is a pity that Akua and Ama are
quarrelling ……… a boyfriend. 19. There is a dispute ……….. the two
families.
A. for
B. over A. by
C. at B. for
D. on C. with
D. between
15. Researchers have established a
strong link ………. smoking and 20. She turned ………. the offer
cancer. politely.

A. in A. over
B. with B. in
C. between C. on
D. to D. down

16. Isa is a strong believer ………. 21. The old library is infested ……….
teachings of Islam. mice.

A. on A. of
B. towards B. in
C. at C. with
D. in D. through

17. I made my mother so angry that she 22. The increase ………. the price of
swore …….. me. petrol was sharply criticised.

A. at A. of
B. on B. in
C. to C. for
D. for D. on

23. He is sensitive ……… criticism.

61
 A. with D. with
B. in
C. to 29. The witness was asked to swear
D. of ………. the Bible.

24. There are many reasons …….. the A. on

secretary’s dismissal. B. at
C. to
A. on D. by
B. to
C. of 30. You have to pluck …….. courage to
D. for tell them the truth.

25. Doctors try to keep abreast ……… A. up

the latest developments in Medicine. B. on
C. out
A. on D. off
B. in
C. of 31. A good citizen abides ……… the
D. about rules of the land.

26. The boys attacked Robert and made A. with

……… with his wallet. B. by
C. to
A. up D. in
B. away
C. over 32. The patient died ………. malaria.
D. out
A. from
27. Adebayo was absorbed ……… his B. off
story book. C. of
D. through
A. at
B. on 33. Left ……. me, there will be no
C. over lectures.
D. in
A. with
28. I don’t approve ………. your B. by
comments. C. to
D. for
A. of
B. on 34. We bumped ……. Vivian at
C. in Takoradi.

62
 C. up
A. after D. around
B. down
C. for 40. The bus was travelling ………. 100
D. into kilometres per hour at the time of the
accident.
35. In accordance ………. the law, the
murderer was denied bail. A. with
B. in
A. to C. on
B. as D. at
C. by
D. with 41. We organised a fund-raising dinner
………. aid of the building project.
36. The recent elections passed ……….
peacefully. A. as
B. in
A. away C. with
B. on D. for
C. off
D. out 42. I used to go to farm in the company
……… my father.
37. The bus stopped to pick ………
more passengers. A. with
B. of
A. in C. by
B. out D. from
C. up
D. on 43. You can tell a man’s character
……….. his appearance.
38. We were surprised ………. her
sudden outburst. A. on
B. at
A. at C. by
B. with D. of
C. of
D. about 44. My father sent the orphan to school
………. his own expense.
39. The thieves ran into the bush when
the police closed ……… on them. A. at
B. from
A. at C. on
B. in D. by

63
45. I was surprised at his objection 48. The police were criticised for leaving
……….. the plan. the robbers ………. the hook.

A. about A. in
B. of B. off
C. for C. of
D. to D. by

46. Everyone was surprised that your 49. The celebrations were rounded …….
quarrel was ……… one cedis. with a football match.

A. on A. off
B. at B. up
C. for C. down
D. over D. out

47. That project started ………. last 50. The waitress refused to wait …….
year. the guests.

A. through A. by
B. since B. with
C. by C. on
D. at D. at

64
 CONJUNCTIONS
DEFINITION OF CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions are parts of speech that function as connectives. They are used to connect words,
phrases or clauses in a sentence or sentences. They are used to join two or more simple sentences
to construct a complex sentence. The words connected or joined together with conjunctions in a
sentence must be of parallel structure or the similar structure.

Example of connecting clauses with conjunctions

a. He wants to pass the examination.

b. He does not study.

1. He wants to pass the examination yet he does not study.

a. I like drinking.
b. I like eating.
c. I don’t like cooking.

2. I like drinking and eating, but I don’t like cooking.

In the above examples, “yet”, “and” and “but” are examples of conjunctions used to join the
clauses.

TYPES OF CONJUNCTIONS

There are three types of conjunctions. These are coordinating conjunctions, correlative
conjunctions and subordinating conjunction.

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

Coordinating conjunctions are types of conjunctions that are used to join words, phrases and
clauses of similar grammatical ranks in sentences. They grouped into four classes, and these are:

a. Conjunctions suggesting alternative (examples are: or, nor, otherwise, etc);

65
 i. Dusan says he will play chess or ludu.
ii. Students must study well otherwise they will lack understanding.

b. Conjunctions suggesting addition (examples are: and, besides, as well as, etc.);
i. I like eating and drinking.
ii. Besides eating well, she also trains every day.

c. Conjunctions suggesting contrast (examples are: yet, but, nevertheless, although, etc.);
i. Sage has a good voice yet she doesn’t like singing.
ii. We have gone through hardship for the past years but we thank God.

d. Conjunctions suggesting consequence (examples are: so, therefore, etc.)

i. He was judged guilty, so the court sentenced him to 5 years in prison.
ii. I reported at 7:30 am, therefore, I was not late.

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

Correlative conjunctions are types of conjunctions that come in pairs to connect words, phrases
and clauses together in sentences. Some examples are neither…nor, either…or, not only…but
also, no sooner…than, barely…when, hardly…when etc.

a. Neither the dog nor the cat ate the meat.

b. He is not only intelligent but also smart.
c. Barely had he eaten the food when his mother arrived.
d. No sooner has he arrived home than it started to rain.

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

Subordinating conjunctions are types of conjunctions that connect independent and dependent
clauses to make complete sentences. Subordinating conjunctions are used to express
relationships of reason, manner, time, condition, concession, purpose, etc.

a. Subordinating conjunction of reason (examples are: because, since, for, etc.)

i. He chose the programmes for her because he paid her fees.
ii. Jane went to work early for she did not want to miss the meeting with the CEO.

b. Subordinating conjunction of manner (examples are: as, as if, as though, etc.)

i. Barnes walks as though he is a king.
ii. She cried as a baby cries.

66
 c. Subordinating conjunction of time (examples are: after, when, before, since, etc.)
i. She entered the room after we had finished eating.
ii. They were best friends before she interfered in their friendship.

d. Subordinating conjunction of condition (examples are: if, unless, etc.)

i. Unless the company pays me, I won’t submit the detailed work.
ii. I will fall sick if I eat fatty foods.

e. Subordinating conjunction of concession (examples are: although, though, whatever, etc.)

i. The teacher taught the student though he wasn’t well.
ii. I will proceed whatever the outcome may be.

f. Subordinating conjunction of purpose (examples are: that, in case, so that, etc)

i. The cat chased the mouse that it may not enter the room.
ii. The pastor prayed so that the heaven would hear him.

g. Subordinating conjunction of comparison (examples are: as, than, etc.)

i. He is passed as he studied.
ii. The man is taller than she.

PAST QUESTIONS ON CONJUNCTIONS

1. Gifty was occupied all day ………. 3. Hardly had Kofi scored the winning
She couldn’t visit her mother at the goal …….. the football match came
hospital. to an end.

A. because
A. than
B. yet
B. when
C. so
C. after
D. since
D. and

2. James is very ill, ………..we’re sure 4. I can speak French, ……… I can’t
he’ll pull through. write it very well.

A. hence A. after
B. so B. besides
C. but C. and
D. nevertheless D. but

67
5. ………. of the difficulties, we 10. The question is ……… to go with
reached home safely. him or stay at home.

A. Because A. whether
B. For all B. if
C. In spite C. why
D. Apart D. what

6. The rent is too high for my income; 11. Amo had hardly left the classroom
………. the house isn’t in a suitable ………. the teacher arrived.
location.
A. than
A. rather B. when
B. moreover C. and
C. so D. then
D. therefore
12. The teacher not only reprimanded
7. Many goats were sold in the market ………. also punished the boy for
that day …….. had ever been. his misconduct.

A. which A. though
B. than B. but
C. or C. yet
D. as D. and

8. There has been a great deal of 13. They attended the party, ……… they
progress …….. Mr. Coffie assumed were not invited.
duty as Head of the Planning Unit.
A. as
A. when B. even
B. since C. though
C. unless D. while
D. as
14. Kwesi did not sit through the
9. The witness said he saw the man examination ……… he fell sick.
…….. into a car.
A. while
A. been pushed B. otherwise
B. being pushed C. because
C. has been pushed D. nevertheless
D. has pushed
15. ……….. his father’s orders, Kofi
boycotted classes.

68
 B. when
A. Despite C. as
B. Heedless D. after
C. Though
D. Nevertheless
21. I have no friend ………… you.
16. Scarcely had the teacher left the
A. than
classroom …….. the bully sneaked
B. as
away.
C. but
D. aside
A. than
B. then
C. when 22. John did not only win the hundred
D. and metres dash …………. also the Best
Athlete Award.
17. ……. he studies hard, he failed.
A. and
A. However B. with
B. Though C. so
C. Actually D. but
D. Since

18. If you had promised to visit, 23. I wouldn’t have employed you
……….. redeem your promise. …….. for your humility.

A. thus A. but
B. next B. however
C. at last C. if not
D. then D. nevertheless

19. The tomatoes are fresh …….. a few 24. He can ……… read nor write.
are rotten.
A. either
A. and B. also
B. so C. but
C. but D. neither
D. therefore
25. ………. you speak up, they can’t
20. The principal arrived no sooner hear you.
……….. you had left.
A. Since
A. than B. Unless

69
 C. As
D. If A. when
B. then
26. What you said was true; ……….. it C. than
was unkind. D. before

A. despite
29. I’ll eat the egg ……….. you fry it or
B. so
boil it.
C. nevertheless
D. since
A. either
B. if
27. She couldn’t drink the water ……….
C. whether
she was thirsty.
D. unless
A. although
B. despite 30. The sun was shining very brightly;
C. since …….. it kept raining.
D. while
A. otherwise
B. unless
28. No sooner had the bell gone C. nevertheless
………... the students assembled. D. so

70
 INTERJECTIONS
DEFINITION OF INTERJECTIONS

Interjections are parts of speech that are used in sentences to express emotions or feelings. They
can be used alone, however, they can be meaning or not meaningful depending on whether there
is pre-description of a situation or not.

There is no strict rule about the positioning of an interjection in a sentence. Interjections often
make use of exclamation marks.

It is not appropriate to use interjections in formal writings. They can be used in casual and
informal writings.

Examples:

Wow! I didn’t expect that from you.

What a shock!

Hey, you need to sit up.

71
 CONCORD
DEFINITION OF CONCORD

Concord simply means agreement between two things. In grammar, concord is the agreement
between the subject and the predicate of a sentence. For a sentence to be grammatically correct,
the subject must agree with the predicate (especially, the verb predicate or main verb) in terms of
number. In effect, if the subject of the sentence is singular, the main verb should also be singular,
and if the subject is plural, the main verb should be plural. In addition, there should be agreement
between the gender of a noun and its related pronoun. {Kofi submitted his assignment on time
(not her)}

RULES OF CONCORD

Sentences with singular or simple subjects

a. If the subject of the sentence is singular, the main verb should also be singular.
i. The sun radiates light. (not radiate)
ii. To err is human. (not are)
iii. Sage has passed with distinction. (not have)
iv. It was the tail of a lion. (not were)

The first-person singular pronoun “I” agrees with the auxiliary verb “am” (not is) on the
condition that, the sentence is expressed in the present and present progressive tenses. It
also agrees with the plural verb “have” (not has), if the sentence is expressed in the
present perfect tense and the present perfect progressive tense. It also agrees with plural
verbs.

v. I am a teacher.
vi. I have been studying well off late.
vii. I study every day.

b. If the subject of the sentence is plural, the main verb should also be plural.
i. The stars radiate light. (not radiates)
ii. Children have funny attitudes. (not has)
iii. Players were prone to injury. (not was)
iv. They call us Romans. (not calls)

72
 c. Simple subjects that are plural should agree with a plural verb.
i. Dogs are more friendly than cats. (not is)
ii. Secretaries write minutes at meetings. (not writes)
iii. Humans have flesh and blood. (not has)
iv. They do balloon every week. (not does)

d. If the simple subject of a sentence is a collective noun or a non-count noun, the main verb
should be singular.
i. The soccer team plays well.
ii. Furniture includes tables and chairs.
iii. The class has just one male student.

e. If a plural subject is a proper noun and refers to a single thing or a group or things taken
collectively, the main verb should be singular.
i. United Nations is an intergovernmental organization. (not are)

Sentences with compound subjects

f. If the subject of a sentence contains two or more words connected with the conjunction
“and”, the main verb should be plural.
i. The cat and the dog are friends. (not is)
ii. Man and woman were created on the same day. (not was)
iv. Dede and Korkor play on the green grass at all times. (not plays)

g. If two words connected with “and” refer to the same person, things, animal or idea, the
main verb should be singular.
i. His father and teacher advises him every day. (not advise)
ii. The footballer and accountant is a very kind person. (not are)
iii. Bread and butter is my favourite snack. (not are)
v. My wife and best friend has arrived. (not have)

h. If “and not” occurs between two singular words of a compound subject, the main verb
should be singular.
i. Parker and not Fraizer teaches Geography.
ii. His wife and not his daughter cooks every Sunday.

i. If two singular words of a compound subject connected with “and” are qualified by
“each” or “every”, the main verb should be singular.
i. Every husband and every wife is aware of the dangers of extramarital affairs.
ii. Each man and each woman has the ability to succeed.

73
 j. If the subject of the sentence contains two or more singular words connected with the
conjunctions “or”, “either…or”, or “neither…nor”, the main verb should be singular.
i. The cat or the mouse eats the maize at dawn. (not eat)
ii. Either her mother or her elder sister goes to the market to shop. (not go)
iii. Neither the god nor the priest is to be blamed. (not are)

k. If the subject of the sentence contains two words of different numerical strength (singular
and plural) connected with “or”, “either…or” or “neither…nor”, the main verb should
agree with the closer conjunct, and the closer conjunct must be the one in the plural form.
i. Either the cat or the mice eat the maize at dawn. (not eats)
ii. Neither the pen nor the books belong to her. (not belongs)
iii. The priest or the gods are to be blamed. (not is)

NB: It is incorrect to write or say the following

i. Either the mice or the cat eats the maize at dawn.

ii. Neither the books nor the pen belongs to her.
iii. The gods or the priest is to be blamed.

l. If the compound subject contains two pronouns of different classes connected the
conjunctions “or”, “either…or” or “neither…nor” (the positioning of personal pronouns
and nouns occurring together must follow a certain order: the second-person pronoun
must be first, the third-person pronoun (or noun) must be second, and the first-person
pronoun must be last), the main verb should agree with the closer conjunct.
i. Neither Esther nor I am there.
ii. Either you or Sage is to attend the meeting.

NB: It is incorrect to write or say:

i. Neither I nor Esther is there.

ii. Either Sage or you are to attend the meeting.

Sentences with complex subjects

m. If the subject of a sentence is a complex one, the main verb should agree in number with
the antecedent of the relative pronoun. The antecedent of a relative pronoun is the word
in the sentence that the relative pronoun refers to.
i. She is one of those girls who do not joke with their studies. (not does)
ii. Nene Padi is one person among the staff members who is highly talented.

74
 (not are)
iii. Kwame Nkrumah is the man who has greatly contributed to the development of
Ghana. (not have)

The rules regarding subjects with Phrases

n. If two singular subjects are connected by phrases such as “together with”, “in addition
to”, “accompanied by”, “as well as” and the likes, the main verb should be singular.
i. The Speaker of Parliament, accompanied by his health personnel, has arrived in
the United Kingdom. (not have)
ii. The carpenter, together with his son produces quality furniture. (not produce)

o. If the subject of a sentence is any of the pronouns, “either”, “neither”, or “each”, and are
qualified by prepositional phrases, the prepositional phrases should be ignored, hence, the
main verb should be singular.
i. Each of the students has submitted the assignment. (not have)
ii. Neither of the two drives properly. (not drive)

p. If the phrase, “the number” is part of the subject of a sentence, the main verb should be
singular. However, if the phrase, “a number” is part of the subject of a sentence, the main
verb should be plural.
i. A number of people are concerned about the lack of progress.
ii. The number of successes in the examination has increased.

The rules regarding Nouns and Pronouns

q. If nouns and pronouns of different persons occurs together in the same part of a sentence
(subject or predicate), the second-person pronoun should be written first, the third-person
pronoun (or noun) should be second and the first-person pronoun should be last.
i. You, Miguel and I will build together.
ii. The teacher gave the book to Kofi and me. (not me and Kofi)
iii. She and I were given the opportunity to advertise our products to the staff.
(not I and she)

r. If a pronoun is used after a comparative conjunction like “than” or “as”, it should be in

the same pronoun case as the one used before it.
i. I am taller than he. (not him)
ii. She is as smart as I. (not me)

75
 s. If two pronouns connected with “and” are governed by transitive verb or preposition, the
second pronoun must be in the objective case.
i. Between you and me, who is smart? (not you and I)
ii. The incident was witnessed by you and him. (not he)

t. If a pronoun is used as complement of the verb “to be”, it should be in the subjective
case.
i. You are not he. (not him)
ii. I am she. (not her)

PAST QUESTIONS ON CONCORD

1. Only I ………qualified to the contest. C. were trimming

D. have trimmed
A. is
B. are 5. Neither you nor the accountant
C. am ………. able to solve the problem
D. were yesterday.
2. Ayariga, with five friends, ………….
arriving today. A. is
B. was
A. is C. are
B. were D. were
C. are
D. to be 6. Either the soldiers or their leader
………. to blame for the defeat.
3. The hunter, together with his
children ……….. meat by the A. is
roadside. B. are
C. has
A. sell D. have
B. sells
C. selling 7. Each man or the woman ……….. the
D. are selling weekly dues.

4. Either the father or the children A. are paying

……….. the hedge. B. pay
C. pays
A. trims D. have paid.
B. trim

76
8. Neither the teacher nor the student 13. Corn from the United Kingdom and
……… the thief. France ……… arrived for sale next
week.
A. have seen
B. see A. have
C. seen B. are
D. has seen C. has
D. is
9. One of the most fundamental
changes ……… the transition from 14. No one except her friends ………..
trading to manufacturing. her.

A. is A. likes
B. have been B. like
C. was being C. have liked
D. are D. is liking

10. Neither Otu nor his sons ………. 15. If Thomas ………. our leader, no
her. one would disobey him.

A. are A. had been

B. is B. was
C. has been C. is
D. has being D. were

11. My dad, together with our teachers, 16. He ……… to meet the minister if he
regularly …….. us to study hard. wants to win the contract.

A. are advising A. has

B. is advising B. should have
C. advises C. needed
D. advise D. has had

12. Though Sam and Tom are eligible, 17. If she ……….. your Senior Prefect,
neither ……….. interested. would you insult her.

A. was A. were
B. are B. was
C. were C. is
D. is D. would be

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18. All but one of the factories ……… 23. Neither the country nor the cities
collapsed. ………. entirely free of crime these
days.
A. was
B. is A. are
C. has B. was
D. have C. is
D. were
19. Romeo and Juliet …… a play by
William Shakespeare. 24. In Animal Farm, Orwell ……. about
the evils of communism.
A. are
B. were A. has been writing
C. is B. writes
D. was C. will write
D. will be writing
20. He was the only one among the boys
who ……… bored. 25. Either the coach or I …………
attending a training course.
A. were
B. are A. is
C. being B. being
D. was C. been
D. am
21. My friend and counsellor …….
gone. 26. The committee agreed that neither
the watchman nor the traders ……..
A. have to blame for the fire outbreak at the
B. is market.
C. are
D. were A. is
B. were
22. The farmer, as well as his sons C. are
………. maize. D. was

A. grow 27. None of the teachers ……… in the

B. were growing dining hall before the trouble started.
C. grows
D. have been growing A. were
B. was
C. have been

78
 D. is A. were
B. has been
28. Behind the new houses ……… a C. was
group of people. D. had been

A. are 30. He is one of the few students who

B. is still ………. basketball.
C. be
D. were A. plays
B. play
29. Are you the person who ……….. C. played
beaten last night? D. is playing

79
 PUNCTUATIONS
DEFINITION OF PUNCTUATIONS

Punctuations are symbols that are used in sentence structures to clarify meanings. Some of the
key punctuation symbols in English grammar are: full stop (.), question mark (?), exclamation
mark (!), comma (,), colon (:), semicolon (;), quotation marks (“”/‘’), apostrophe (‘), hyphen (-),
ellipsis (…), etc.

FULL STOP (.)

Full stop is a punctuation mark used to end a declarative sentence. In other words, it shows the
end of a declarative sentence. Any word used after a full stop must begin with a capital letter.

Examples:

1. The meal is quite delicious.

2. My attention was stolen by her utterances.

3. Keep that card clean.

QUESTION MARK (?)

Question mark is a punctuation mark used at the end of an interrogative sentence. It shows that a
sentence is a question. Any word used after a full stop must begin with a capital letter.

Examples:

1. What is the colour of the paint?

2. Which of the two do you prefer?

3. How was the journey?

EXCLAMATION MARK (!)

Exclamation mark is a punctuation mark used at the end of interjections or exclamatory

sentences. It is often used at the end of sentence fragments, and it is occasionally used at the end
of interrogative sentences that are meant to be exclamatory.

Examples:

80
 1. What a surprise!

2. Hey! Take good care of yourself.

3. You know what! Be cool!

COMMA (,)

Comma is a punctuation mark used to show or indicate separation of words or phrases within a
sentence. Comma is also used to separate two nouns where one functions as noun apposition to
the other. Comma must not be used to separate two or more independent clauses. Comma must
not be used to separate two nouns in a compound subject or two verbs in a compound predicate.

Examples:

1. Sage, my daughter is a smart child.

2. I was sent to buy pencil, ruler, eraser and paper.

It is incorrect to write the following:

1. Sage my daughter, is a smart child.

2. I was sent to buy, pencil, ruler, eraser and paper.

3. The meeting I attended, was very interesting.

COLON (:)

Colon is a punctuation mark used to introduce an expression that explains the expression or
information that precedes the colon. In other words, it is used to join two expressions where the
second gives us direct explanation or information about the first. Colon is simply used to imply
phrases like “which is”, “which are”, “as follows” or a word like “thus”. Colon can also be used
to introduce quotations.

Examples:

1. The coach says his team has two options: to win or to go home.

2. There are two kinds of people: the weak and the strong.

3. Bat is not a bird: it is a mammal.

4. John once stood on the pulpit and said: “The church is not meant for saints but sinners”.

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SEMICOLON (;)

Semicolon is a punctuation mark used to connect two closely related independent clauses
without using the conjunction, “and” or “or”. The expression that comes after a semicolon should
be a complete sentence. The word used after the introduction of a semicolon must not begin with
a capital letter unless it is a proper noun. Avoid the use of a semicolon and a conjunction in the
same sentence structure.

Examples:

1. He was crucified; he rose on the third day. (Correct)

2. He was crucified, but he rose on the third day. (Correct)

3. He was crucified; but he rose on the third day. (Incorrect)

Semicolon can also be used to separate and connect a list of items or activities that has more than
two words or/and make up a sentence or contain internal punctuation.

5. My intention is to attend the meeting; go to the gym to train, which is good for the fitness
of my body; and return home to spend time with my lovely family.

When two independent clauses are connected with a conjunctive adverb (however, nevertheless,
moreover, furthermore, then, otherwise, also, etc.), a semicolon should be used before the
introduction of the conjunctive adverb.

6. I reported to the field on time; however, I was denied access to the dressing room.

QUOTATION MARKS (“”/‘’)

Quotation marks are punctuations used to identify the direct words of someone. They always
come in pair: the first opens the quote and the second closes the quote. There are two forms of
quotation marks: the double quotation mark (“”) and the single quotation mark (‘’). The single
quotation mark is used to identify direct quotes, but the double quotation mark is used to identify
quotes within exact quotes. Full stops and commas should always be position after quotes have
been closed.

Examples:

1. Socrates once said: ‘The unexamined life is not worth living’.

2. ‘The soul can split the sky into two and let the face of God shine through’. There were the
words of Edna St. Vincent Millay.

82
 3. ‘He lamented and said: “I am badly distressed”, but that was not the actual problem
though’.

APOSTROPHE (’)

Apostrophe is a punctuation mark used for possessive nouns and contractions.

Possessive nouns are nouns that express ownership or origin of words.

Examples:

1. The dog’s tail is short.

2. They prayed in Jesus’ name.

3. Children’s Park is a fun place to be on weekends.

Contractions are short forms of word that omits certain letters. In contractions, apostrophes are
used to represent omitted letters from the contracted words.

4. I have a dream. = I’ve a dream.

5. I cannot quit. = I can’t quit.
6. You are not a loser. = You aren’t a loser.
7. That is my mother. = That’s my mother.

HYPHEN (-)

Hyphen is a punctuation mark used to join two or more words to form a compound word. It is
also used to join two words that form a compound modifier. A compound modifier functions just
like an adjective, that is, it describes a noun. Use a hyphen the two words of a compound
modifier only if the modifier precedes the noun.

Examples:

1. I suggest we give the rock-hard cake to the drake on the stream. (Correct)
2. The cake is rock hard. (Correct)
3. The cake is rock-hard. (Incorrect)

A modifier made up of an adverb and an adjective must not be hyphenated.

Example:

4. A semicolon is used to connect two closely-related clauses in a sentence. (Incorrect)

83
 5. A semicolon is used to connect two closely related clauses in a sentence. (Correct)

Hyphen is used to connect a compound modifier made up of an adjective and a present

participle.

Example:

6. The smart-looking lady is my best friend.

Numbers between 21 (twenty-one) and 99 (ninety-nine) should be hyphenated when spelt out.

ELLIPSIS (…)

Ellipsis has three dots and it is a punctuation mark used to the omission of a word or group of
words in a sentence. In other words, it is used to use that a word or some words have been left
out of the sentence.

Example:

‘The unexamined life is not worth living’.

‘The … life is not worth living’.

84
 QUESTION TAGS
DEFINITION OF QUESTION TAGS

Question tags are phrases that turns declarative statements into interrogative statements. A
negative declarative statement demands a positive question tag, and a positive declarative
statement demands a negative question tag.

A negative declarative statement takes a positive question tag. Examples:

1. We did not abrogate the contract: did we?

2. They were not punished after all: were they?

A positive declarative statement takes a negative question tag. Examples:

3. They were punished after all: weren’t they?

4. We abrogated the contract: didn’t we?

When has, have or had functions as the main verb in a positive declarative statement, it must not
be repeated in the question tag; rather, “doesn’t”, “don’t” or “didn’t” must be used in the
question tag. Has agrees with doesn’t; have agrees with don’t; and had agrees with didn’t.

5. Sophie has a good attitude towards work: doesn’t she?

6. They have good attitude towards work: don’t they?

7. She had good attitude towards work: didn’t she?

When has, have or had functions as a helping verb in a positive declarative statement, their
negative forms must be used in the question tag.

8. He has scored again: hasn’t he?

9. They have won the match: haven’t they?

10. It had jumped over the table again: hadn’t it?

Statements with the subject and verb predicate “I am” take “aren’t” as the question tag.

11. I am a Catholic: aren’t I?

When “Let” begins a statement, the question tag must be “shall”.

12. Let us rise and pray: shall we?

85
To form a question tag from a conditional statement, use the first auxiliary verb in consequential
part of the statement to form the question tag.

13. If she had trained well, she would have won the match: wouldn’t she?

14. If I were you, I could turn things around: couldn’t I?

PAST QUESTIONS ON QUESTION TAGS

1. You promised to pass your

examinations, ……? A. isn’t he
B. wasn’t he
A. isn’t it C. wasn’t it
B. do you D. isn’t it
C. didn’t you
D. wasn’t you 6. You found your cell phone, ………?
2. There is no point in acquiring a tool
unless one means to use it, …….? A. is it
B. don’t you
A. wasn’t there C. isn’t it
B. is there D. didn’t you
C. isn’t there
D. doesn’t there 7. They will volunteer, ……….?

3. The boys stole the mangoes, …….?

A. won’t they
A. do they B. don’t they
B. didn’t they C. can they
C. were they D. do they
D. weren’t they
8. People shouldn’t drop litter on the
4. He had thought his wife would be pavement, ……….?
angry, …….?
A. don’t they
A. did he B. should they
B. wouldn’t he C. can they
C. hadn’t he D. shouldn’t they
D. didn’t he
9. The author has written many books,
5. He was certainly going to swim, …………?
……..?

86
 A. hadn’t he 15. The hunter has shot the wild buffalo,
B. hasn’t he ……..?
C. didn’t he
D. isn’t her A. didn’t he
B. hasn’t he
10. Let’s go to the stadium, ………? C. has he
D. hadn’t he
A. shall we
B. shan’t we 16. My sister promised that she would
C. will we visit us next week, ………?
D. can we
A. didn’t she
11. You dare not complain, ……..? B. hasn’t she
C. would she
A. will you D. wouldn’t she
B. isn’t it
C. dare you 17. The assignment given by the teacher
D. you dare is very difficult, ………..?

12. Kwesi fears dark places, ……….? A. wasn’t it

B. isn’t it
A. hasn’t he C. aren’t they
B. doesn’t he D. hasn’t it
C. isn’t it
D. isn’t he 18. It has been rough so far, ……….?

13. Will you be here for long? No, I A. hasn’t it

……. B. hadn’t it
C. isn’t it
A. will D. haven’t it
B. won’t
C. would 19. They didn’t see you at the market
D. wouldn’t this morning, ………...?

14. You can drive a car, can’t you? A. did they

B. isn’t it
A. yes, I can C. would they
B. no, I can D. did you
C. yes, I can’t
D. no, I do 20. The boy knows what he should say,
………?

87
 A. was
A. shouldn’t he B. didn’t
B. isn’t it C. wasn’t
C. won’t it D. did
D. doesn’t he
26. We ought to build a gutter, ………..
21. Certainly, he will deny that he broke we?
the glass, ……….?
A. should
A. is it B. oughtn’t
B. isn’t it C. didn’t
C. isn’t he D. can’t
D. won’t he
27. Jacob said that the girl would
22. You’ve never visited Kumasi, recognise the car, ……….?
………?
A. didn’t he
A. haven’t you B. wouldn’t he
B. have you C. wasn’t it
C. isn’t it D. will she
D. is it
28. Thomas agreed it was his fault,
23. Ado: can you spare me a minute of ………..?
your time? Dansu: ……….
A. didn’t he
A. yes, I can’t B. wasn’t it
B. no, I can C. isn’t it
C. well, I’ll try D. was it
D. I’m afraid I can’t
29. There is hardly any place like home,
24. Let’s sit and discuss the matter, ……….?
……….?
A. is it
A. shan’t we B. is there
B. may we C. isn’t it
C. can we D. isn’t there
D. shall we
30. Certainly, you knew you were
25. I told you I wasn’t at school wrong, ……… you?
yesterday, ……… I?
A. weren’t

88
 B. aren’t B. didn’t you
C. didn’t C. couldn’t you
D. don’t D. wasn’t you

31. You had to answer the question, 36. Her father was annoyed that he went
……….? out with that boy, ………..?

A. hadn’t you A. wasn’t he

B. didn’t you B. didn’t he
C. must you C. didn’t she
D. isn’t it D. wasn’t she

32. She did not murder her husband, 37. You didn’t return home early, …….?
………..?
A. did you
A. is it B. it is
B. isn’t it C. didn’t you
C. did she D. is it
D. she did
38. You would be happy if I came,
33. Mrs. Quist would have sworn that ………?
her daughter was not involved in the
theft, ………? A. won’t you
B. will you
A. hasn’t she C. wouldn’t you
B. didn’t she D. isn’t it
C. wouldn’t she
D. wasn’t she 39. Nobody phoned the house, did
……….?
34. You could have stolen my book,
………? A. he
B. anybody
A. didn’t you C. they
B. wouldn’t you D. somebody
C. won’t you
D. don’t you 40. I don’t suppose you want to go,
……….?
35. You could have gone home,
………….? A. will you
B. is it
A. haven’t you C. do you

89
D. have you

CLAUSE ANALYSIS

90
DEFINITION OF CLAUSE

Clause is an expression that has a subject and a verb and may or may not be meaningful. There
are two types of clauses, they are: main or independent clause and subordinate or dependent
clause.

MAIN OR INDEPENDENT CLAUSE

Main or independent clause is a type of clause that is meaningful. A main or independent clause
is a sentence.

Examples:

1. She arrived very early.

2. He is an honest man.

The above examples are independent clauses because they contain subjects and verbs and they
are complete and meaningful.

SUBORDINATE OR DEPENDENT CLAUSE

Subordinate or dependent clause is a type of clause that is not complete and meaningful. It
depends on an independent clause to express its meaning. Subordinate clause can be introduced
by relative pronouns (who, what, that, etc.) or subordinate conjunction (though, so, because,
etc.).

Examples:

3. though she was stuck in traffic

4. because he is not corrupt

The above examples are clauses because they contain subjects (she and he) and verbs (was and
is). However, there are not meaningful, and they will only be relevant if they connected to
independent clauses.

5. She arrived very early though she was stuck in traffic. (Complete sentence)

6. He is an honest man because he is not corrupt. (Complete sentence)

TYPES OF SUBORDINATE OR DEPENDENT CLAUSES

There are three types of subordinate clauses, they are: adjectival clauses, noun clauses and
adverbial clauses.

ADJECTIVAL CLAUSE

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Adjectival clause is a type of subordinate clause that functions as an adjective. In effect, it
modifies or describes or gives information about a noun in a given sentence. It is also known as
relative clause. This is because it is mostly introduced by a relative pronoun (who, whom, which,
what, whose and that). It can also be introduced by subordinating conjunctions such as where,
when, etc.

Adjectival clause is a grammatical name of a subordinate clause whose grammatical function

describes or modifies a noun or a noun phrase. Adjectival clause is often positioned immediately
after the noun or noun phrase it modifies.

Examples:

1. The teacher on duty, who happened to know how close my brother’s house was to the
school asked me, “When did you leave home for school?”

Grammatical name of the underlined expression: it is an adjectival clause.

Grammatical function: it modifies the noun phrase “The teacher on duty”.

2. By then, only the driver who was waiting in the get-away vehicle, was spared the gory
ordeal.

Grammatical name: it is an adjectival clause.

Grammatical function: it modifies the noun “driver”

3. In the waiting room, he met other applicants for the interview, which had been slated for
9.00am.

Grammatical name: it is an adjectival clause.

Grammatical function: it modifies the noun phrase “the interview”

4. This reasoning is based on yet another superstition – a foetus in the womb takes after the
features of any object that its mother constantly views.

Grammatical name: it is an adjectival clause.

Grammatical function: it modifies the noun “object”.

5. Yet, it is the only organ that never really rests.

Grammatical name: it is an adjectival clause.

Grammatical function: it modifies the noun “organ”

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NB: The essence of adjectival clause is that, it modifies or describes only a noun or a noun
phrase within the structure of a sentence. The noun it modifies is not within the structure
of the clause itself.

NOUN CLAUSE

Noun clause is a subordinate clause and a grammatical name that functions as a noun. In effect,
any clause that has the grammatical function to be “subject of a main verb”, “object of a main
verb”, “object of a preposition”, complement of a main verb”, or “complement of a preposition”
is a noun clause. It is introduced by the conjunction “that” or by interrogative words such
“what”, “how”, “where”, etc. It is important to note that a noun clause is never a modifier.

How to identify a noun clause

To identify a noun clause, one needs to ask the question “what?” or “who?” and find out whether
or not the underlined expression or clause answers the question. If the underlined expression or
clause answers the question, “what?” or “who?”, then the underlined expression or clause is a
noun clause. However, if it does not, then it is not a noun clause.

Example:

1. ‘Come to think of it’, Sorie continued, ‘Kojo, you must take something yourself, then we’ll
know we are safe’.

Question: …then we will know what? Or, what will we know?

Answer: …we will know we are safe.

Form the above illustration, we can conclude that the underlined expression or clause “we
are safe” is a noun clause because it answers the question, “what will we know?”

Another way to identify a noun clause is to replace the whole underlined expression or clause
within the sentence with any pronoun or noun, and if the sentence remains meaningful, then, the
underlined expression or clause which has been replaced is a noun clause.

1. ‘Come to think of it’, Sorie continued, ‘Kojo, you must take something yourself, then we’ll
know we are safe’.

Let’s replace the underlined clause with the pronoun, “her”, and find out if the sentence
will remain meaningful.

2. ‘Come to think of it’, Sorie continues, ‘Kojo, you must take something yourself, then
we’ll know her’.

93
 The above sentence (2) is meaningful after the underlined expression or clause, ‘we are
safe’ was replaced with ‘her’. It can therefore be concluded that the underlined
expression or clause is a noun clause.

FUNCTIONS OF NOUN CLAUSE

1. Noun clause as subject of the main verb or main verb phrase in a sentence

The subject of a sentence is the main idea or central focus expressed in a sentence. It can
also be defined as the doer of an action in a sentence. The subject of a sentence mostly
precedes the main verb or main verb phrase of a sentence. For a noun clause to function
as the subject of the main verb in a sentence, it must precede the main verb or main verb
phrase in the sentence.
Examples:
a. What he did not want from anybody was pity.

Grammatical name: it is a noun clause.

Grammatical function: it functions as the subject of the verb ‘was’.

b. What you put in your mouth can change your mood, memory and clarity of
thought.

Grammatical name: it is a noun clause.

Grammatical function: it functions as the subject of the verb phrase ‘can change’

2. Noun clause as object of the main verb or main verb phrase in a sentence

Noun clause functions as object of a main verb or main verb phrase. The object of a
sentence is that part of the sentence that is at the receiving end of an active verb. This
implies that, for a noun clause to function as object of a main verb or main verb phrase of
a sentence, the main verb or main verb phrase ought to be an active one (eat, walk, drag,
arrest, put, etc.).
Example:
c. The British officials realised that there was danger looming and took a very wise
course of action.

Grammatical name: it is a noun clause.

Grammatical function: it functions as the object of the verb ‘realised’

d. James teaches that faith without work is useless.

Grammatical name: it is a noun clause.

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 Grammatical function: it functions as the object of the verb ‘teaches’.

3. Noun clause as object of a preposition in a sentence

Noun clause functions as object of a preposition when it comes after a preposition. The
proposition that precedes the noun clause should be positioned after the main active verb
of a sentence.
Examples:
e. He always thanks me for what I did for him in the past.

Grammatical name: it is a noun clause.

Grammatical function: it functions as the object of the preposition ‘for’

f. Parliament argued on that bill meant to rob the poor.

Grammatical name: it is a noun clause.

Grammatical function: it functions as the object of the preposition ‘on’.

4. Noun clause as complement of a main verb or main verb phrase in a sentence

Noun clause functions as complement of a main verb or main verb phrase. A noun clause
that functions as complement of the main verb or main verb phrase is a noun clause that
only gives information or describes the subject of a sentence. It is always positioned after
a main verb or a main verb phrase which is a non-active one. This implies that, for a noun
clause to function as complement of a main verb or main verb phrase of a sentence, the
main verb or main verb phrase ought to be a non-active one (is, am, be, happen, exist,
love, want, believe, etc.)
Examples:
g. ‘Come to think of it’, Sorie continued, ‘Kojo, you must take something yourself,
then we’ll know we are safe’.

Grammatical name: it is a noun clause.

Grammatical function: it functions as complement of the verb phrase ‘will know’.

h. The disturbances are what brought about the death of the two ladies.

Grammatical name: it is a noun clause.

Grammatical function: it functions as the complement of the verb ‘are’.

5. Noun clause as complement of a preposition in a sentence

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 Noun clause functions as complement of a preposition when it comes after a preposition.
The proposition that precedes the noun should be positioned after the main non-active
verb of a sentence.
i. They live on what we call mountain of diamond.

Grammatical name: it is a noun clause.

Grammatical function: it functions as the complement of the preposition ‘on’.

j. The argument was for who suffered the disaster the most.

Grammatical name: it is a noun clause.

Grammatical function: it functions as the complement of the preposition ‘for’.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE
Adverbial clause is a subordinate clause and a grammatical name that functions as an adverb. In
effect, it mostly modifies verbs; it is also used to modify adjectives and other adverbs. Adverbial
clause tells us: when, where, how, why, to what degree, or under what condition the action of the
main verb in a sentence occurs. The essence of an adverbial clause is that, it modifies verbs
Adverbial clause can be grouped into several types. Some of these types are explained below.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME

Adverbial clause of time indicates when the action of the main verb in a sentence occurs. It is
mostly introduced by words like: since, when, while, before, after, until, etc.
Example:
a. Marcus will not be there when you put in your vote.
Grammatical name: it is an adverbial clause of time.
Grammatical function: it modifies the verb phrase ‘will not be’.
b. Eyecorn designed the cover page after he was paid.
Grammatical name: it is an adverbial clause of time.
Grammatical function: it modifies the verb ‘designed’.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF PLACE

Adverbial clause of place indicates where the action of the main verb in a sentence occurs. It is
mostly introduced by words like: where, wherever, etc.
Examples:
c. They always argue where we normally the foodstuff.

Grammatical name: it is an adverbial clause of place.

Grammatical function: it modifies the verb ‘argue’.

d. He shows up wherever they hold the meeting.

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 Grammatical name: it is an adverbial clause of place.
Grammatical function: it modifies the verb phrase ‘show up’.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF MANNER

Adverbial clause of manner indicates how the action of the main verb in a sentence occurs. It is
mostly introduced by words like: as, as though, like, etc.
Examples:
e. She sang the song as if she were the originator of the song.

Grammatical name: it is an adverbial clause of manner.

Grammatical function: it modifies the verb ‘sang’.

f. Manuel ate the food as though he had not eaten for days.

Grammatical name: it is an adverbial clause of manner.

Grammatical function: it modifies the verb ‘ate’.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF REASON

Adverbial clause of reason indicates why the action of the main verb in a sentence occurs. It is
mostly introduced by words like: because, that, since, etc.
Example:
g. Selassie was punished because he was involved in exams malpractice.

Grammatical name: it is an adverbial clause of reason.

Grammatical function: it modifies the verb ‘punished’

h. The budget bill was rejected since it will not serve the interest of the people.

Grammatical name: it is an adverbial clause of reason.

Grammatical function: it modifies the verb phrase ‘was rejected’.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CONCESSION

Adverbial clause of concession indicates the contrast in the action of the main verb of the
sentence. It is mostly introduced by words like: though, although, however, etc.
Examples:
i. An athlete, although he has trained intensively, credits his victory to a mere article of
clothing.

Grammatical name: it is an adverbial clause of concession.

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 Grammatical function: it modifies the verb ‘credits’

j. Though the child’s parents are his earliest and most important models, he is exposed to
many other potent influences: siblings, television, school, celebrities and so on.

Grammatical name: it is an adverbial clause of concession.

Grammatical function: it modifies the verb phrase ‘is exposed’.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CONDITION

Adverbial clause of condition indicates the circumstances under which the action of the verb in
the sentence will occur. It is mostly introduced by words like: if, should, unless, etc.
Examples:
k. Should danger approach either its nest or the crocodile’s nest, the bird would emit
warning cries.

Grammatical name: it is an adverbial clause of condition.

Grammatical function: it modifies the verb phrase ‘would emit’.

l. She will congratulate him if he impresses her.

Grammatical name: it is an adverbial clause of time.

Grammatical function: it modifies the verb phrase ‘will congratulate’.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF DEGREE

Adverbial clause of degree indicates the extent or proportion at which the action of the main verb
in the sentence occurs or the extent of an adjective in a sentence. It is mostly introduced by
words like: than, as, etc.
m. Emily argues better than Atinga does.

Grammatical name: it is an adverbial clause of degree.

Grammatical function: it modifies the adjective ‘better’.

n. The load was so heavy that I could not carry it alone.

Grammatical name: it is an adverbial clause of degree.

Grammatical function: it modifies the adjective ‘heavy’.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF RESULT

Adverbial clause of result indicates the consequence of the action of the main verb in the
sentence. It is mostly introduced by words like: so, therefore, etc.

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 o. He slipped on the floor, so he broke his left leg.

Grammatical name: it is an adverbial clause of result.

Grammatical function: it modifies the verb ‘slipped’.

p. The team played well, therefore they won.

Grammatical name: it is an adverbial clause of result.

Grammatical function: it modifies the verb ‘played’.

SENTENCE
DEFINITION OF SENTENCE
Sentence is an expression or group of words put together to express a complete and meaningful
thought. A sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop (.), a question mark (?)
or an exclamation mark (!).
Examples:
a. We are dispassionate and reason drives us.
b. Where do we go from here?
c. Let’s rise and walk!

PARTS OF A SENTENCE
A sentence has two major parts: the subject and the predicate.

SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE
The subject of a sentence is the main idea or the central focus expressed in a sentence or the doer
of the action of the main verb in the sentence. It can be featured with a noun, a pronoun, a noun
phrase or a noun clause.
The subject of a sentence can be grouped into three division: simple subject, compound subject
and complex subject.
SIMPLE SUBJECT
A simple subject is a subject of a sentence that expresses a single idea. It can be made of a noun
or a noun phrase.
Examples:

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1. Angelo is a great painter. (‘Angelo’ is the subject of the sentence; it is a noun.)
2. The table has been turned around. (‘The table’ is the subject of the sentence; it is a noun
phrase.
COMPOUND SUBJECT
A compound subject is a subject that expresses two ideas. These ideas are connected with a
conjunction.
Examples:
1. Adjectives and adverbs are modifiers.
2. The cat or the mouse ate the grain at dawn.
3. Either Jane or Lydia is to attend to the guest.
COMPLEX SUBJECT
A complex subject is a subject that expresses one or more ideas qualified with a modifier.
Prepositional phrases can also be used to form complex subjects.
Examples:
1. The man who entered the house joined the protest.
(‘who entered the house’ is a modifier that gives information about the simple subject ‘The
man’)
2. The cat or the mouse that came from the bushy area ate the grain at dawn.
(‘that came from the bushy area’ is a modifier that gives information about the compound subject
‘the cat or the mouse)
3. That the lion is the king of the jungle does not mean it is the strongest in the jungle.
4. The pastor, in addition with his ministers prays for the church at all times.

PREDICATE OF A SENTENCE
The predicate of a sentence is what is being said about the subject of the sentence. It simply
states the complement or the action of the subject. The predicate of a sentence may be simple or
compound.
A simple predicate expresses one action or complement of the subject. Examples:
1. Sage reads any good book for purpose of knowledge acquisition.
(In this example, the expressed action of the subject is ‘reads any good book…’ and nothing
else; hence the predicate is a simple one.)

2. The apparel is elegant.

(In this example, the expressed complement of the subject is ‘is elegant’; hence the predicate
is a simple one.)

A compound predicate expresses two actions or complements of the subject. Examples:

3. The boy tripped and fell on the floor.
(In this example, there are two actions expressed in the predicate: ‘tripped’ and ‘fell’; hence
the predicate is a compound one.)
4. Nene Padi is not only intelligent, but smart.
(In this example, there are two complements expressed in the predicate: ‘intelligent’ and

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 ‘smart’; hence the predicate is a compound one.)
A predicate of a sentence has two main parts. These parts are verb predicate and object predicate
or complement predicate.
VERB PREDICATE
The verb predicate is the main or finite verb or main or finite verb phrase in a sentence. It
introduces the predicate of the sentence.
Examples:
1. Sage reads any good book.
In the above example, ‘reads any good book’ is the predicate of the sentence. However, ‘reads’ is
the verb predicate since it is the main verb in the sentence.
2. The boy is kicking the ball.
In this example, ‘is kicking the ball’ is the predicate of the sentence. However, ‘is kicking’ is the
verb predicate since it is the main verb phrase in the sentence.
OBJECT PREDICATE
The object predicate is that part of the predicate that is at the receiving end of the action of the
main verb in the sentence. This implies that for there to be an object predicate in sentence, the
main verb or verb predicate ought to be an active verb or the subject of the verb must be a doer
of the action of the main verb.
Example:
The boy is kicking the ball.
In the above example, ‘the ball’ is the object predicate. This is because it is at the receiving end
of the action of the main verb phrase ‘is kicking’.
COMPLEMENT PREDICATE
The complement predicate is that part of the predicate that gives information about the subject of
the sentence. In a sentence that has a complement predicate, the subject is not a doer of the verb
predicate since the verb predicate is not active verb.
Example:
Man is mortal.
In the above example, ‘mortal’ is the complement predicate. This is because the verb predicate
‘is’ is a non-active main verb.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
Conditional sentences are sentences made up of two clauses: one clause expresses a hypothetical
situation (conditional clause or the if – clause) and the other expresses the results of the
conditional clause (consequential clause).
Examples:
1. If man eats well, he grows well.
2. I will apply for scholarship if I gain admission to the university.
It is imperative to adhere to the rules of verb tense when forming conditional sentences.
When the conditional clause precedes the consequential clause, comma must be used after the
conditional clause. (Check example 1)

TYPES OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

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There are four types of conditional sentences. They are zero conditional sentences, first
conditional sentences, second conditional sentences, and third conditional sentence. Each of the
types expresses distinct meaning and structure.

ZERO CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Zero conditional sentences express situations that posit general truth. They express cause and
effect situations. When forming a zero conditional sentence, simple present tense must be used in
both clauses.
Examples:
1. If you study well, you gain knowledge.
2. If the sperm fertilizes the ovum, then a zygote is formed.
In the first example, the verbs in both clauses are ‘study’ and ‘gain’, and they are both in the
simple present tense. Same can be said of the second example, where ‘fertilizes’ and ‘is’ are the
verbs in both clauses and are in the simple present tense.
NB: Use the zero conditional sentence only when the consequence or outcome is
guaranteed.

FIRST CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

First conditional sentences express situations in which the result is likely to happen in the future.
In forming a first conditional sentence, the verb in the conditional clause ought to be in the
simple present tense, and the verb in the consequential clause ought to be in the simple future
tense.
Examples:
1. If you train well, you will win every match.
2. If she takes her drugs, she will be hale.
NB: Use the first conditional sentence only when the outcome is likely but not guaranteed.
EXCEPTION TO FIRST CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
Use the simple future form of a verb in the conditional clause only if the action in the said clause
will take place after the action of the verb in the consequential clause.
Example:
1. If I will go to the market this morning, then she will visit me in the evening.
In this example, the action of going to the market will not happen if it is not certain she will visit
in the evening.

SECOND CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Second conditional sentences express situations with unrealistic outcomes. In forming a second
conditional sentence, the verb in the conditional clause ought to be in the simple past tense, and
the verb phrase in the consequential clause ought to be a modal auxiliary verb + a base verb. The
modal auxiliary verb should be one an irrealis one, that is, one that expresses unrealistic
outcomes.
Examples:
1. If the sun shone, I would go to the room.
2. If he owned the business, he might manage it properly.

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NB: Use the second conditional sentence only when the outcome is completely unrealistic.

THIRD CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Third conditional sentences express situations in which the present circumstances would be
different if something had happened in the past. In effect, they express situations that could have
happened in the past if certain conditions had been met. In forming a third conditional sentence,
the verb in the conditional clause ought to be in the past perfect tense, and the verb in the
consequential clause ought to be in the form ‘modal auxiliary verb + have + past participle.
Examples:
1. If it had rained yesterday, I would have fetched water.
2. If they had reported the case, the police might have made an arrest.

Usage of ‘were’ in conditional sentences

The verb ‘were’ is used in a conditional sentence that expresses unrealistic situation or events
that are hypothetical. It is used irrespective of the number (singular or plural) of the subject in the
conditional clause.
It is incorrect to say or write:
If she was my friend, I would make her a beautiful apparel.
The correct sentence should be:
If she were my friend, I would make her a beautiful apparel.

PAST QUESTIONS ON CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

1. If that …….the case, he would have B. am

protested C. had been
D. have been
A. is
B. were
C. had been 4. If they had offended her, she ………
D. should have been punished them
2. If Kwashie …….. my son, I would A. had
beat him. B. would
C. will have
A. were
D. would have
B. has been
C. had been
5. If you ……..early, you will get there
D. was
before nightfall.
3. If I ……you, I’d jump at the chance A. left
of a job like that. B. are leaving
C. had left
A. were D. leave

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 WORDS AND THEIR SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS

S/N WORD SYNONYM ANTONYM

1 abducted seized; hijacked released; let go
2 abominable detestable; damnable lovable; admirable
3 abrogated rescinded; revoked enacted; ratified
4 absconded decamped; escaped appeared; showed-up
5 accentuated accented; emphasized Understated; trivialised
6 accidental unexpected; unintentional expected; intentional
7 acclimatised adapted; adjusted unadjusted; unacclimated
8 accolades awards; honours condemnations; chastisements
9 accustomed habitual; usual unhabitual; unusual
10 achieve attain; accomplish fail; lose
11 acquired obtain; procure lose; drop
12 adherent follower; advocate opponent; critic
13 adjourned postponed; deferred continued; resumed
14 admonished reprimanded; rebuked praised; applauded
15 adversary opponent; rival ally; supporter
16 affluent wealthy; opulent poor; impoverished
17 aftermath outcome; consequence cause; source
18 aggressive assertive; belligerent submissive; peaceful
19 agitated troubled; perturbed relaxed; calm
20 alien foreign; strange familiar; native
21 alleviate relieve; lessen aggravate; exasperate
22 ambiguous equivocal; uncertain unambiguous; clear

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23 ameliorated improve; enhance worsen; exacerbate
24 amiable friendly; affable unfriendly; hostile
25 anarchy disorder; turmoil order; discipline
26 anathema abhorrent; curse blessing; benison
27 anonymous unnamed; unknown known; identified
28 antique ancient; antiquity modern; latest
29 anxious worried; eager unconcerned; nonchalant
30 apathetic indifferent; uninterested eager; enthusiastic
31 apathy passivity; indifference interest; passion
32 appalling deplorable; shocking admirable; outstanding
33 appropriate suitable; pertinent inappropriate; irrelevant
34 aptitude ability; talent inability; inaptitude
35 ardent avid; passionate unenthusiastic; lukewarm
36 arduous difficult; onerous effortless; easy
37 aroma scent; savour stink; stench
38 arrogant haughty; imperious humble; meek
39 ascribe attribute; accredit dissociate; exclude
40 assent accept; approve refuse; decline
41 assume suppose; handled waive; concede
42 astute shrewd; acute ignorant; unintelligent
43 atone expiate; recompense abandon; betray
44 attractive appealing; stunning unattractive; ugly
45 audacious daring; impudent timid; polite
46 audible clear; perceptible inaudible; faint
47 authentic genuine; original fake; spurious
48 avarice greed; cupidity generosity; kindness
49 avenge retaliate; reciprocate forgive; remit

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50 aversion disgust; revulsion inclination; desire
51 avoidable preventable; evitable inevitable; unpreventable
52 barred prohibited; secured admitted; unbarred
53 begrudge envy; resent noble; generous
54 beguiled charmed; lured deterred; repelled
55 beneath underneath; below above; on
56 beneficially profitably; fruitfully detrimentally; banefully
57 benevolent kind-hearted; benign unkind; tight-fisted
58 blemish defect; imperfection enhancement; perfection
59 blossom burgeon; bloom wilt; perish
60 blunt dull; candid sharp; tactful
61 boisterous ebullient; gusty quiet; calm
62 boredom humdrum; tedium fun; pleasure
63 bottom base; lowest top; highest
64 brevity shortness; transience verbosity; longevity
65 buried hid; covered exposed; uncovered
66 callous heartless; cruel compassionate; caring
67 candid honest; frank secretive; insincere
68 castigate admonish; reprimand praise; commend
69 catastrophe disaster; crisis godsend; boon
70 certain definite; unequivocal doubtful; indefinite
71 chaos disorder; pandemonium order; control
72 chaotic confused; disordered orderly; law-abiding
73 chastened humbled; curbed comforted; encouraged
74 cheerful joyful; happy sad; cheerless
75 chorus refrain; chorale nonconformity; strangeness
76 clamoured shouted; yelled murmured; mumbled

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77 clarity lucidity; simplicity obscurity; vagueness
78 collapsed fainted; fell lived; rebuilt
79 collided clashed; conflicted harmonized; concurred
80 colossal enormous; great tiny; small
81 combat battle; war surrender; endure
82 commend praise; applaud criticize; admonish
83 communal collective; public individual; private
84 comparable similar; akin different; incomparable
85 competence expertise; capability incompetence; ineptitude
86 complacent content; satisfied discontent; dissatisfied
87 complicated intricated; convoluted simple; straightforward
88 complimentary commendatory; laudatory derogatory; scathing
89 conceal hide; cover reveal; expose
90 concerted coordinated; collaborative separated; discrete
91 concise succinct; brief lengthy; wordy
92 confidence trust; faith distrust; scepticism
93 conflict dispute; contrast agreement; harmonious
94 confused bewildered; jumbled lucid; clear
95 conjectured guessed; speculated worked-out; proved
96 consummate complete; dexterous incomplete; inept
97 contrived manufactured; unnatural spontaneous; natural
98 controversial contentious; arguable uncontroversial; anodyne
99 cordial genial; fervent unfriendly; mild
100 corroborated endorsed; confirmed contradicted; confuted
101 counterfeit fake; copied genuine; original
102 courteous polite; civil rude; discourteous
103 cowardly craven; feeble brave; courageous

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104 crucial critical; key minor; unimportant
105 cultivated cultured; refined uncouth; uneducated
106 damage harm; disrupt repair; mend
107 daunted intimidated; abashed heartened; encouraged
108 defamed libelled; slandered complimented; lauded
109 definite certain; clear indefinite; uncertain
110 defunct inoperative; non-functioning operative; working
111 dejected downhearted; demoralized cheered-up; elated
112 deliberate intentional; cautious accidental; hasty
113 dense thick; stupid thin; clever
114 departure exit; egress arrival; advent
115 derogatory disrespectful; uncomplimentary complimentary; commendatory
116 despondent disheartened; discourages cheerful; hopeful
117 despotic autocratic; dictatorial democratic; egalitarian
118 destined intended; bound unintended; unsure
119 destitute impoverish; bereft opulence; wealth
120 detailed thorough; comprehensive brief; concise
121 deteriorate worsen; degenerate improve; enhance
122 devastation destruction; ruin reconstruction; renovation
123 diffident shy; bashful confident; conceited
124 diplomacy prudence; sensitivity discourtesy; impoliteness
125 discern perceive; determine overlook; disregard
126 discord strife; disagreement accord; agreement
127 disdain contempt; derision respect; value
128 disguise impersonate; guise genuineness; frankness
129 dislocated displaced; disengaged fixed; unscramble
130 disowned renounce; reject announce; acknowledge

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131 disposition character; inclination indisposition; disinclination
132 dissipating debauchery; decadence asceticism; restraint
133 distasteful unpleasant; obnoxious pleasant; delightful
134 distort misreport; contort accurate; straight
135 distract divert; disturb focus; concentrate
136 distraught worried; distressed composed; calm
137 diverse varied; distinct similar; uniform
138 divulge disclose; reveal conceal; disguise
139 docile compliant; obedient disobedient; insubordinate
140 dominant prepotent; controlling subservient; submissive
141 doubtful uncertain; dubious certain; confident
142 drought deficiency; drouth excess; abundance
143 dusk twilight; subset dawn; daylight
144 ease alleviate; soothe aggravate; difficult
145 eclipse reduce; lower blossom; enhance
146 effusive lavish; gushy restrained; modest
147 ego self-conceit; arrogance humility; self-consciousness
148 eject emit; discharge admit; input
149 eloquent fluent; expressive inarticulate; unspoken
150 emaciated skeletal; scrawny fat; obesity
151 embitter sour; vex appease; pacify
152 embroiled entangled; ensnare released; emancipated
153 emerged appeared; surfaced disappeared; withdrew
154 emulation imitation; copy original; authentic
155 encourage support; motivate discourage; demotivate
156 endless limitless; infinite finite; limit
157 endorsed validated; signed declined; abrogated

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158 endowed bestowed; gifted denied; took
159 engrossed captivated; engaged distracted; inattentive
160 enraptured enchant; ravish repel; disgust
161 enthusiasm excitement; keenness apathy; indifference
162 entire whole; complete partial; incomplete
163 equivocal ambiguous; indefinite unequivocal; definite
164 eradication elimination; annihilation institution; prescription
165 errant guilty; culpable innocent; guiltless
166 erratic inconsistent; irregular consistent; regular
167 escalating increasing; rising decreasing; reducing
168 etched inscribed; ingrained erased; expunged
169 etiquette courtesy; civility uncouth; impoliteness
170 evasive elusive; inconvenient reliable; convenient
171 exactly precisely; accurately imprecisely; inaccurately
172 exasperate infuriate; irritate delight; please
173 excruciating agonising; tormenting soothing; slighting
174 exonerated vindicate; liberate charge; convict
175 exotic foreign; alien native; familiar
176 expunge delete; remove preserve; create
178 exquisite elegant; superb shallow; coarse
179 exterminate massacre; destroy restore; fix
180 extravagant spendthrift; wasteful thrifty; frugal
181 fading waning; diming brightening; increasing
182 fairness impartial; justice partial; injustice
183 fake counterfeit; forgery original; authentic
184 fame renown; eminence oblivion; disgrace
185 fancy desire; imagination intellect; reason

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186 fatal deadly; ruinous harmless; beneficial
187 fervent ardent; vehement apathetic; passive
188 feud fight; dispute order; peace
189 fidgeting jiggling; fiddling relaxing; resting
190 firm solidified; stiff soft; yielding
191 flamboyant ostentatious; exuberant modest; simple
192 flaunting exhibiting; parading hiding; covering
194 flourish growing; thriving withering; collapsing
198 fortified strengthened; ramparted weakened; damaged
199 fortuitous chance; unanticipated predictable; intended
200 foster promote; support neglect; suppress
201 frail weak; feeble strong; fit
202 Freedom liberty; privilege captivity; prison
203 frugal thrifty; economical extravagant; lavish
204 fussy choosy; particular unselective; understated
205 gallantry bravery; chivalry cowardice; rudeness
206 garrulous talkative; verbose taciturn; reticent
208 gentle benign; mild unkind; brutal
211 gleamed shined; sparkled dusked; dimmed
212 gloomy shadowy; dejected bright; cheerful
213 gorgeous attractive; pretty ugly; drab
214 gory bloody; brutal lenient; disarming
215 graceful dignified; distinguished maladroit; inept
216 grandiosity pompousness; self-conceit lowliness; humility
218 grotesque malformed; strange ordinary; normal
219 grovel crawl; creep scamper; dart
220 gullible naïve; unwary cynical; suspicious

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222 halt stop; cease start; continue
223 haphazard unmethodical; random methodical; systematic
224 harassing
226 haughty
228 herald
229 heterogeneous
232 honour
233 hospitable
234 humane
235 hunch
236 illegal
238 immaterial
240 impeccable
241 impel
242 imperceptibly
244 impregnable
246 impulsive
247 incarcerated
248 incentives
249 incessantly
250 incorrigible
255 indolent
256 industrious
257 inefficiency
258 ineligible
259 inevitable

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260 inexpensive
261 infamous
262 infatuated
263 inflame
264 ingratiated
265 inhibitions
266 inimical
267 innate
268 innocuous
269 inordinate
271 insolence
272 insolvent
273 install
274 instigator
277 intermittently
278 intimacy
279 intolerable
280 inundation
281 irrational
282 irrevocable
283 isolate
284 jeered
285 jittery
286 jocular
287 jovial
288 jumbled
290 lame

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291 lauded
292 lax
293 legitimate
294 lewd
295 limelight
296 lively
297 loathe
298 loquacious
299 lured
300 luring
301 makeshift
302 mature
303 mediocre
304 meticulous
308 mingle
309 momentous
310 moody
311 motionless
312 motivational
313 mourning
314 muddled
315 muddy
316 mundane
317 mystery
318 nags
319 narcissistic
320 nasty

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321 negligent
322 nervous
323 nonchalant
325 notorious
326 nuisance
328 obscurity
329 odious
331 outstanding
332 overawed
333 overruled
334 pacify
335 painstaking
336 pandemonium
338 parochial
339 passionate
340 perilous
341 perished
342 perseverance
343 persistence
344 pervasive
345 pestering
346 placid
347 plump
348 potential
349 poverty
352 precarious
353 premature

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354 premeditated
355 prepared
356 prescribed
357 press
358 pressure
359 prestigious
360 prime
361 prodigal
362 proficient
363 prominence
364 prospective
365 protest
366 provisional
367 provocative
368 prudent
369 purposely
370 pursued
371 quack
372 rare
373 ratified
374 rebuff
375 recalcitrant
376 receptive
377 redundant
378 refined
379 refined
380 rehearsed

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381 reinstated
382 rejected
383 release
384 relentless
385 relevance
386 relinquished
387 remnants
388 remorse
389 remote
390 rendering
391 renounced
392 reprisal
393 reproach
394 repulsion
395 resent
396 resented
397 reserved
398 resilient
399 resist
400 respect
401 resplendent
402 response
403 restive
404 restore
405 retard
406 riddle
407 rigid

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408 roomy
409 rudely
410 rush
411 sabotage
412 safeguard
413 saunter
414 savage
415 scandal
416 scandalous
417 scatter
418 sceptical
419 scrupulous
420 secular
421 serene
422 serenity
423 shabbily
424 sham
425 sheer
426 shortage
427 shunning
428 shy
429 singular
430 sly
431 smart
432 soaring
433 sound
434 spendthrift

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435 spiteful
436 sporadic
437 startling
438 staunch
439 stem
440 sterling
441 stingy
442 stipulates
443 stormy
444 strange
445 stringent
446 stunned
447 succumb
448 summon
449 sumptuous
450 suppress
451 swindled
452 tangible
453 temporal
454 temporary
455 tender
456 tepid
457 terrifying
458 theories
459 throttled
460 tranquillity
461 transient

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462 traumatic
463 tremendous
464 trite
465 trivial
466 typical
467 unapproachable
468 uncouth
469 unearthed
470 unethical
471 unfaithful
472 unforeseen
473 unilateral
474 unqualified
475 unravel
476 unrepentant
477 unreserved
478 unsettled
479 valuable
480 velocity
481 venerated
482 vengeance
483 vibrant
484 victor
485 vindictive
486 violent
487 vital
488 vocal

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489 volatile
490 waned
491 warily
492 warm
493 welfare
494 whims
495 wilting
456 worship
497 worthless
498 wrangle
499 wrecked
500 zeal

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 IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS AND THEIR MEANINGS
DEFINITION OF IDIOMS
Idioms are phrases or expressions whose meanings in most cases cannot be deduced directly
from the individual words that make the phrases or expression.
In the table below are idiomatic expressions and their meaning and their usage in sentences.

S/ IDIOMATIC EXPRESSION MEANING USAGE IN SENTENCE

N
1 Strike while the iron is hot To make good use of a The moment he arrived, he
situation or an opportunity decided to strike while the
iron was hot.
2 Fair-weather friend A person who is a friend He was advised against the
only in good times or a attitudes of his fair-weather
friend who cannot be friend.
relied on in difficult times
3 Get cold feet To feel frightened or Adams gets cold feet any
nervous about something time he is asked to talk to
the crowd.
4 Make a pile To earn a huge amount of The trader makes a pile
money when she sells the
vegetables.
5 Bolt from the blue A complete surprise The award given to the
actress was a bolt from the
blue.
6 Spread like wildfire Spread with intense speed The news spread like
wildfire
7 Hit the ceiling To become furious The boy hit the ceiling
when his friend mocked
him.
8 A red-letter day A special day It is a red-letter day on the

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 church’s calenda.
9 Put one’s cards on the table To be open and sincere in We have to put our cards
declaring one’s intention on the table when we meet
the board of directors
today.
10 Keep at arm’s length To avoid something or They always kept her at
someone from being close arm’s length due to her
dishonesty.
11 Put hand in pocket To give money or to He lost the elections
practise charity because he failed to put his
hands in his pocket.
12 Have a loose tongue To talk too much about The lady was chastised for
things meant to be secret having a loose tongue.
13 Ebb and flow A repeated pattern decline He danced to the eb and
and regrowth. flow of the music.
14 Pour cold water Discourage or demotivate They decided to retreat
because the spy poured
cold water on their plans.
15 Water under the bridge Conditions, situations or The matter is already water
problems that cannot be under the bridge.
changed
16 Grin from ear to ear To smile broadly I know she will return from
the office grinning from
ear to ear.
17 To make somebody’s hair To make someone very Last night’s experience
stand on end frightened made Abena’s hair stand
on end.
18 Show a clean pair of heels To run away extremely When the whistle was
fast blown, he showed a clean
pair of heels.
19 An end in itself An aim that is pursued in Happiness is an end in
its own right itself.
20 Loom on the horizon Danger or trouble is likely There is danger looming on
to happen soon or is the horizon.
imminent.
21 To win fair and square To win cleanly and He won the competition

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 without cheating fair and square.
22 fly in the face of To challenge someone or We were advised not to fly
something in the face of spirits.
23 Put in black and white To make something The headmaster said our
official permissions should be
written in black and white.
24 Through thick and thin Under all circumstances She was with me through
thick and thin.
25 To sell something for a song To sell something very The man sold the house for
cheaply a song
26 To keep fingers crossed To hope strongly that My fingers are crossed on
something will happen my gaining admission to
the university.
27 Stir up a hornets’ nest To provoke trouble Management of the school
fears that decision to
increase fees in these
difficult times will stir up a
hornets’ nest.
28 Back against the wall To be in a difficult After he was lured to get
situation from where into the pit, he realised he
escape is difficult had his back against the
wall.
29 Up in arms to be angry about The citizens are up in arms
something with the government.
30 Drive a hard bargain To argue hard to get a The sellers drove a hard
favourable deal bargain with the traders on
the sale of the electrical
gadget.
31 A chip off the old block To have similar His son’s attitude is a proof
characteristics with that he is chip off the old
someone (father or block.
mother)
32 Blow your own trumpet To be boastful But for his recent failure
and disgrace, he always
blows his own trumpet.
33 Once in a blue moon Rare happening or activity I go to the gym once in a

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 blue moon.
34 Break new ground To achieve or do Messi and Ronaldo are
something that was not breaking new grounds in
done before the world of football.
35 Sell like hot cake If something sells fast, it The new edition of
sells like hot cake. Academic Shrine Series
will sell like hot cake.
36 Burn the candle at both ends To work excessively hard He always burns the candle
on two things or jobs at both ends to make his
family lack nothing.
37 Run around in circles to be active without The teacher run around in
achieving any worthwhile circles trying to make the
result students understand the
new topic.
38 On cloud nine To be very happy She was on cloud nine after
receiving the award.
39 Left out in the cold To be ignored He left me out in the cold
while I was on call
speaking to a friend.
40 Cut corners To find cheaper or easier If you desire to finish the
ways to do things work on time, then cut
corners.
41 Boil the ocean To try to accomplish The board of directors
something too ambitious want us to get over 1000
customers in just three
days. In my opinion, that is
boiling the ocean.
42 Handle with kid gloves To treat someone or The woman urged her to
something with extreme handle her children with
care kid gloves.
43 Between the devil and the To be caught between two The poor girl is caught
deep blue sea. undesirable alternatives between the devil and the
deep blue sea.
44 Hold your horse To be patient The lady was advised to
hold her horse.
45 Get someone off the hook To get someone out of The company’s

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 trouble intervention got me off the
hook.
46 Toe the line To behave according to a The students were forced
rule to toe the line.
47 Pay through the nose To pay too much for My dad complained of
something paying through the nose for
foodstuff.
48 Raining cats and dogs To rain heavily It rained cat and dog the
whole of yesterday.
49 No string attached Free of conditions The telecommunication
network offered favourable
services with no string
attached.
50 Blow someone’s cover To reveal someone’s secret They punished him
identity because he blew the cover
on them.

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 LITERATURE
DEFINITION OF LITERATURE

Literature is a body of written works that describes and discusses particular subjects or themes. It
is features with imaginations and aesthetic excellence which gives insight, pleasure and
illumination. Literature has three main division, which are, poetry, prose and drama.

Poetry is a literary composition that rhythmically expressed and is orderly arranged in parts
known as verses. It is also called verse. It is featured with imaginations, emotions, facts, and has
the purpose of giving aesthetic pleasure, intellectual experience, knowledge and entertainment.

Prose is a literary composition that uses basic story-writing techniques. It may consist of facts
and fictional stories that is told in our everyday lives. The story lines are arranged in paragraphs,
and the language possesses pure syntax and natural speech.

Drama is a literary composition intended to be staged or performed before audience in a theatre.

It is basically made up of dialogue among characters on stage.

LITERARY DEVICES OR TERMS

1. Act: an act is the division in the actions of a play. In other words, a play is divided into
acts, which are further divided into scenes.

2. Adage: it is proverb that expresses something wise or a general truth.

3. Adaptation: it is when a prose (novel, storybook, etc,) has been adapted into another
literary genre like drama or stage play.

4. Allusion: it is a literary device or figure of speech that make reference to something or

someone in an indirect manner. There are three types of allusion: historic allusion; biblical
allusion and classical allusion.

5. Allegory: it is a story in which the characters are made to represent other people,
animals or abstract ideas to reveal hidden meanings. An example is Plato’s Allegory of
the Cave.

6. Anecdote: it is a short narrative that details interesting episodes about a real event or
person.

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7. Antithesis: it is a literary device that shows that two things or ideas strongly contrast in
many ways. Example: ‘She speaks like saint and acts like the devil’.

8. Annotation: it is a short explanatory notes that explain, comments or translates a text. It

is usually found at the end of the main text.

9. Antagonist: an antagonist is the character who actively opposes the antagonist in a drama
or a play or a narrative.

10. Anti-climax: it is a sudden change from increase in impressive series or events to

trivialization of the events in order to disappoint yearning expectations or to distract
suspense. Example: ‘Tension builds in a horror movie as a young girl approaches a
closed door. There is a scratching sound coming from behind the door. When she
opens it was a cat comes out’

11. Aphorism: it is a brief statement of truth. Example: ‘Action speaks louder than words’.

12. Atmosphere: it is a literary device that is based on the details of the mood, feeling, object
and generally, the background of a literary work.

13. Attitude: the mood and feeling of a writer or a speaker about his subject is known as
attitude.

14. Bathos: it is a sudden change in speech or writing from a significant subject to ridiculous
to ordinary subject.

15. Biography: it is an account of a person’s life written by another person.

16. Caesura: it is a pause or break in a line of poetry.

17. Character: is a person who features a drama, story or poem.

18. Characterisation: it is a literary term that highlights and explains the details of the
characters in a play or a story.

19. Comic relief: it is the interruption of a tragic event with a short humorous episode.

20. Conflict: it is the struggle of opposing forces in a plot of a play.

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21. Consonance: it is the repetition of similar consonant sounds at the middle or at the end of
some group of words in a line of a poem.

22. Comedy: it is a humorous drama which amuses the audience.

23. Diction: it is a writer’s choice of words in a literary work.

24. Dirge: it is a poem of lamentation recited to mourn the dead.

25. Euphemism: it is a literary device used to replace an unpleasant or offensive statement

with pleasant or polite statement. Example: Your story is a fairy tale. (it is not true)

26. Epic: it is a long narrative written to celebrate the achievement of a great man. It is
featured with myth, legend, folklore and history.

27. Fiction: it is an imaginary story created by a writer.

28. Preface: it is a brief introduction to a literary work written by the author stating his
intentions.

29. Foreword: it is an introduction to a literary work written by another person other than the
author.

30. Hyperbole: it is a literary device that is used to make an exaggeration of a person’s

quality for the purpose of emphasis.

31. Imagery: it is the use of language to represent any sensory experience. They are five
types of imagery:
a. Visual imagery: it appeals to the reader’s sense of sight.
b. Tactile imagery: it appeals to the reader’s sense of touch.
c. Olfactory imagery: it appeals to the reader’s sense of smell.
d. Auditory imagery: it appeals to the reader’s sense of hearing.
e. Gustatory imagery: it appeals to the reader’s sense of taste.

32. Irony: it is a literary device that expresses an idea or something in an exact opposite way.
It is usually meant for humorous or emphatic effect. Example: Ama is brilliant indeed,
having failed her exams the third time.

33. Litotes: it occurs when a negative is placed before a word to indicate the opposite
affirmative. It is a positive assertion made in a negative form. Example: The book is not
bad.

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34. Metonymy: it is a literary device in which an object or idea is referred to by the name of
something closely associated with it, as opposed to by its own name. Example: His grey
hair should save him from insult.

35. Metaphor: it is a literary device used to compare two unlike things or object by using the
feature of one for the other. Example: Pulchur is a beautiful rose flower. (comparing
Pulchur and a rose flower)

36. Mood: it is the overall atmosphere the writer or character creates for the reader or
audience.

37. Onomatopoeia: it is a literary device used for a word which resembles its sound and its
meaning. The sound of the words echoes its meaning. Examples: The water splashed on
him.

38. Oxymoron: it is a literary device in which two contrasting words are put side by side in a
statement to gain effect of emphasis. Example: The old man is a wise fool.

39. Paradox: it is a literary device that expresses a statement that appears to be self-
contradictory or untrue but on a second thought appears to contain some basis or truth.

40. Personification: it is where animate qualities are used for inanimate objects. Example:
The moon veiled her face.

41. Prologue: it is an introductory section to a play that prepares the reader for the actual
work.

42. Pun: it is playing on words.

43. Soliloquy: it is a speech of a character in a play where the speaker speaks alone
regardless of any hearers.

44. Simile: it is a literary device used to compare two unlike things or objects using the
connective words: ‘like’, ‘as’ and sometimes ‘than’. Example: Pulchur is as beautiful as
the rose flower.

45. Satire: it is the use of humorous or ironic statements to ridicule human weaknesses or
society.

46. Sarcasm: it is a literary device that uses irony to convey contempt.

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 47. Synecdoche: it is a literary device in which a part of something is used for a whole and a
whole used for a part. Example: The heavens shall be our helper.

48. Apostrophe: it is a direct address to someone who is absent as though the person were
present or capable of listening.

49. Rhyme: it is the repetition of similar sounds at the ends of lines of poetry.

50. Rhythm: it is the repetition of stressed and unstressed syllables and pauses that enforce
of a poem.

NON-AFRICAN POEMS

OSWALD M. MTSHALI – ‘Nightfall in Soweto’

Nightfall comes like
a dreaded disease
seeping through the pores
of a healthy body
and ravaging it beyond repair

A murderer’s hand,
lurking in the shadows,
clasping the dagger,
strikes down the helpless victim.

I am the victim
I am slaughtered
every night in the streets.
I am cornered by the fear
Gnawing at my timid heart
In my helplessness I languish.

Man has ceased to be man

Man has become beast
Man has become prey;
I am quarry to run down by the marauding beast
Let loose by the cruel nightfall
From his cage of death.

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Where is my refuge?
Where am I safe?
Not in my matchbox house
Where I barricade myself against nightfall.
I tremble at his crunching footsteps,
I quake at his deafening knock at the door.
“Open up!” he barks like rabid dog
thirsty for my blood.

Nightfall! Nightfall!
You are my mortal enemy.
But why were you ever created?
Why can’t it be daytime?
Daytime forever more?

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. What is the poem about? A. The poet feels helpless and

A. A man and his household insecure
B. Criminals B. There is an urgent demand for
C. Injustices in a society security
D. Fire on Soweto C. A man needs accommodation
D. The poet has lost his refuge
2. Who does the first-person pronoun
(I) refer to in the poem?
A. A certain man 6. “Why can’t it be daytime?” What is
B. The speaker the literary device in the lines above?
C. The people in Soweto A. Rhyme
D. Nightfall B. Rhetorical statement
C. Assonance
3. ‘Nightfall’ is an example of……. D. Alliteration
A. Alliteration
B. Symbol 7. “….he barks a rabid dog” is an
C. Personification example of ….
D. Hyperbole
A. Irony
4. The tone of the poem is …….. B. Simile
A. Criticism C. Proverb
B. Joy D. Symbolism
C. Fulfillment
D. Satisfaction 8. The “he” in the lines above refers
to…
5. What does the rhetorical statement in A. The poet
lines 24-25 suggest? B. The police

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 C. A certain man
D. A friend of the poet 10. “Man has become prey”. This
means….
9. The mood of the poet is one of …
A. Man is like a matchbox
A. Anger B. Man likes to prey
B. Silence C. Human beings have degeneration
C. Joy into animals
D. Contentment D. Human beings are sympathetic

DAVID RUBADIRI- “An African Thunderstorm”

From the West
Clouds come hurry with the wind
Turning
Sharply
Here and there
Like a plague of locusts
Whirling
Tossing up things on its tail
Like a madman chasing nothing

Pregnant clouds
Ride stately on its back
Gathering to perch on hills
Like dark sinister wings;
The wind whistles by
And trees bend to let it pass.
In the village
Screams of delighted children
Toss and turn
In the din of whirling wind,
Women-
Babies clinging on their backs-

Dart about
In and out
Madly
The wind whistles by
Whilst trees bend to let it pass.

Clothes wave like tattered flags

Fly off
To expose dangling breasts

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As jagged, blinding flashes
Rumble, tremble and crack
Amidst the small of forest smoke
And the pelting march of the storm.

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. What is the theme of the poem? is an example of….
A. An African thunderstorm A. allusion
B. Heavy rains in Soweto B. euphemism
C. Danger associated with playing in C. irony
the rain D. personification
D. A rainy home
7.” Pregnant clouds” This means
2. What is the speaker’s attitude in the that….
poem? A. the clouds are pregnant
A. He / She is happy B. the clouds are about to give
B. Mixed reaction birth
C. He / She is sad C. the rain is imminent
D. Confusion D. the weather is clear

8. The visual imagery in “delighted

3. The diction “Tossing up things on children” symbolizes….
its tail” is an example of …. A. innocence
A. alliteration B. maturity
B. assonance C. arrogance
C. simile D. pride
D. soliloquy
9. What does the exposure of
4. Where does the storm start from? woman’s breasts indicate
A. North A. That the women are bad
B. South B. That the storm is relentless
C. East C. That women need to be
D. West educated
D. That it is a rainy day
6. What is described as “turning
sharply”? 10. The diction ‘Rumble,’ ‘tremble,’
A. The trees ‘whirling’ and ‘crack’ are examples
B. The plague of locusts of …
C. The wind A. pun
D. A made man B. onomatopoeia
C. personification
7. The diction “The wind whistles by” D. assonance

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JOHN PEPPER CLARK - “Night Rain”

What time of night it is

I do not know
Except that like some fish
Doped out of the deep
I have bobbed up bellywise
From stream of sleep
And no cocks crow.
It is drumming hard here
And I suppose everywhere
Droning with insistent ardour upon
Our roof thatch and shed
And thro’ sheaves slit open
To lightening and rafters
I cannot quite make out overhead
Great water drops are dribbling
Falling like orange and mango
Fruits showered forth in the wind
Or perhaps I should say so
Much like beads I could in prayer tell
Them on string as they break
In wooden blows and earthen ware
Mother is busy now deploying
About our roomlet and floor.
Although it is so dark I know her practiced step as
She moves her bins, bags and vats
Out of the run water
That like ants filling out the wood
Will scatter and gain possession
Of the floor. Do not tremble then
But turn, brothers, turn upon your side
Of the loosening mats
To where the other lie.
We drunk tonight of a spell
Deeper than the owl’s or bays
That wet of wings may not fly
Bedraggle up on the iroko, they stand
Emptied of hearts, and
Therefore will not stir no not
Even at dawn for them
They must scurry into hide.
So let us roll over on our back
And gain roll to the beat
Of drumming all over the land
And under its ample soothing hand

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Joined to that of the sea
We will settle to sleep of the innocent and free.

OBEJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. The poem is about ….. D. synecdoche

A. a farmer and his household.
B. rain. 6. The phrase ‘But turn, brothers, turn
C. the effect of rain on a poor upon your side’ (line 3) is for…
household. A. fun
D. farming conditions in a village. B. love
C. explanation
2. What does the diction “doped” (line D. emphasis
4) depict?
A. The effect of the rain wakes the 7. The setting of the poem is…
speaker up A. a busy market day
B. A spell has been cast on the B. a rainy night
speaker C. a festive occasion
C. The speaker is daydreaming D. the death of the speaker’s mother
D. The fish in the water is stinking
8. The expression ‘Mother is busy now
3. What does the imagery “We have deploying/About our roomlet and
drunk tonight of a spell/deeper than floor’ (line 22 – 23) literarily
the owls or bats” (line 34 – 35) means…
connote? A. mother is busy calling for help
A. Anger B. mother is busy with roomlet and
B. Fear floor
C. Joy C. mother is washing the floor
D. Boredom D. mother is arranging the things in
the room
4. What kind of atmosphere does the
word ‘Droning’ (line 10) create? 9. The poem is …
A. Peace A. descriptive
B. Noise B. suggestive
C. Agitation C. narrative
D. Serenity D. argumentative

5. The imagery in ‘Falling like orange 10. The diction ‘And no cocks crow’
or mango: (line 16) is an example of (line 7) is an example of …
… A. simile
A. alliteration. B. onomatopoeia
B. simile. C. sarcasm
C. assonance. D. personification

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KOFI AWOONOR – “The Weaver Bird”

The weaver bird built in our house

And laid its eggs on our only tree.
We did not want to send it away.
We watched the building of the nest.
And supervised the egg- laying.
And the weaver returned in the guise of the owner
Preaching salvation to us that owned the house.
They say it came from the West.
Where the storm at sea had filled the gulls.
And the fishers dried their nets by lantern light.
Its sermon is the divination of ourselves.
And our new horizon limits at its nest.
But we cannot join the prayers and answers of the communicants.
We look for home every day.
For new altars we strive to build.
The old shrines defiled by the weaver’s excrement.

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. How many stanzas are there in the

poem? 5. What does the “prayers and answers
a. One of the communicants” represent?
b. Two a. Petitions from the church
c. Four b. The way of life of the colonisers
d. Six c. Prayers of the church
d. The activities of the fisher folks
2. The “ Weaverbird” is an example of
…. 6. What is the torn of the persona?
a. Symbolism a. Joyful
b. Hyperbole b. Sad
c. Onomatopoeia c. Anger and regret
d. Alliteration d. Joyful and content

3. The poet employs … 7. What is the setting of the poem?

a. Difficult diction a. Europe
b. Subtle diction b. America
c. Archaic and difficult diction c. An urban setting in Tema
d. Simple and subtle diction d. A rural setting in Ghana

4. The diction “eggs” refers to … 8. The poem is about…

a. The fishermen a. A weaverbird
b. The colonisers b. fishermen
c. The contractors c. colonisers and the colonized
d. The owners of the house d. pastors

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 d. They were individualistic
9. What does words such as “we, ‘us’
and our” depict? 10. What kind of imagery “excrement”
a. The people are selfish a. Visual and olfactory
b. The people believed in b. Tactile
communalism c. Visual and tactile
c. They were all workers in one d. Auditory
company

GABRIEL OKARA - “ONCE UPON A TIME”

Once upon a time, son

They used to laugh with their eyes.
But now they laugh with their teeth,
While their ice-block cold eyes
Search behind my shadow.

There was a time indeed

They used to shake hands
With their hearts
That’s gone, son
Now they shake hands without hearts
While their left hands search
My empty pockets
Feel at home! ‘come again’.
They say, and when I come
Again and I feel
At home, once, twice
There will be no thrice-
For then I find doors shout on me.

So I have learned many things, son.

I have learned to wear many faces
Like dresses-home face,
Office face, street face host face,
Cocktail face with all their conforming smiles
Like a fixed portrait smile.

And I have learned too

To laugh with only my teeth
And shake hands without my heart.
I have also learned to say, ‘Good bye’,
When I mean ‘Good-riddance’
To say ‘Glad to meet you’;
Without being glad, and to say’ its been

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Nice talking to you’, after being bored.

But believe me, son.

I want to be what I used to be
When I was like you. I want
To unlearn all these muting things
Most of all, I want to relearn
How to laugh, for my laugh in the mirror
Show my teeth like a snake’s bare fangs!

So, show me, son,

How to laugh; show how
I used to laugh and smile
Once upon a time when I was like you.

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. The diction of the poem is… a. Alliteration

a. Simile b. Simile
b. Difficult c. Hyperbole
c. Formal d. Personification
d. Archaic
6. The poet adopts … technique(s)
2. “ …. I have learned many things, a. Prescriptive
son”. b. Descriptive
What has the persona learned? c. Prescriptive and descriptive
a. How to decorate people’ faces d. Narrative and traditional
b. How to pretend monologue
c. How to simile
d. How to entertain visitors 7. What is the mood of the poem?
a. Sadness
3. “They used to laugh with their eyes” b. Carefree
connotes… c. Regret and sadness
a. Ignorance d. Carefree and happiness
b. Love and sincerity
c. Timidity 8. The “handshake” in the second
d. Affluence stanza of the poem connotes…
a. Cooperation
4. What is the torn of the poem? b. Corporation
a. Nostalgia c. Individualism
b. Not stated d. Injustice
c. Joy
d. Assurance 9. Who are referred to as “They” in the
poem?
5. What is the literary device in “their a. The poet and his sons
ice-block-cold eyes” b. The persona and the Europeans

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 c. The people in the persona’s a. Hearing and touch
community b. Sight and touch
d. The Europeans. c. Hearing and taste
d. smell
10. The poem predominantly evokes our
sense of…

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 TECHNIQUES FOR ANSWERING THE ORAL TESTS
The Oral English Paper (Paper 3) examines students on the alphabetical sounds and the right
pronunciation of words. It also helps students to analyse sentences to attain their proper
understanding as well as appreciate the tone of sentences. The Oral English Paper consists of
eight (8) tests. This chapter explains the techniques involved in answering the each of the tests.
There is no special technique to answering questions on test 8 since it contains passages
(conversation and narrative). Students are expected to listen attentively and answer the questions
that follow.

VOWELS

They are produced when the vocal cords vibrate and the air passes freely through the mouth.
Vowels in English are classified to be short when their pronunciation is not prolonged. They are
said to be long when their pronunciation is prolonged.

SHORT VOWELS LONG VOWELS

/ɪ/ - kit /kɪt/; hymn /hɪm /; bid /bɪd/ /ⅈ:/ - heat /hi:t/; wheel /wi:l/; fleece /fli:s/

/e/ - dress /dres/; head /hed/; many /menɪ/ /ɜ:/ - nurse /nɜ:s/; stir /stɜ:/; learn /lɜ:n/

/æ/ - cat /cæt/; trap /træp/; lap /læp/ /ɔ:/ - law /lɔ:/; north /nɔ:ө/; war /wɔ:/

/ ʌ / - cup /cʌp/; mud /m ʌd /; love /l ʌv /¿ /u:/ - goose /gu:s/; blue /blu:/; group/gru:p/

/Ʊ/ - put /pƱt/; foot /fƱt/; good /gƱd/ /a:/ - car /ca:/; father /fa:ðə /; start /sta:t/

/ɒ/ - odd /ɒd/; lot /lɒt/; wash /wɒʃ/

¿ ə /¿ - about /ə’baƱt/; that /ðət/; butter /b ʌt ə /¿

DIPHTHONGS

A diphthong is the combination of two vowels within the same syllable. Examples are:

/ɪə/ - near /nɪə/; hear /hɪə/; weary /’wɪəri/

/eə/ - fair /feə/; care /ceə/; pair /peə/

/eɪ/ - day /d/; break /breɪk; face /feɪs

/ɔɪ/ - choice /tʃɔɪs/; noise /nɔɪz/; boy /bɔɪ/

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/Ʊə/ - pure /pjƱə/; cure /kjƱə /; tour /tƱə/

/aɪ/ - price /praɪs/; high /haɪ/; try /traɪ/

/aƱ/ - mouth /maƱө/; now /naƱ/; fowl /faƱl

/əƱ/ - boat /bəƱt/; show /ʃəƱ/; know /nəƱ/

CONSONANTS

These are sounds produced when there is a complete or partial blockage of the airstream from the
lungs.

SOME VOICED CONSONANTS

/b/ - back /bæk/; bull /bƱl/; bump /b ʌ mp/¿

/d/ - din /dɪn/; aid /eɪd/; bed /bed/

/dƷ/ - joke /dƷəƱk/; junk /dƷ ʌ ŋk /; lunge /l ʌn dƷ /

/g/ - game /geɪm/; bag /bæg/; gauge /geɪdƷ/

/m/ - more /mɔ:/; hammer /hæmə /; sum /s ʌ m /

/Ʒ/ - beige /beɪƷ/; leisure /leƷə /; vision /vɪƷə n/

/v/ - van /væn/; leave /li:v/; of /ɒv/

/n/ - sun /s ʌ n /; run /r ʌn/; nice /naɪs/

/ð/ - the /ð/; this /ðɪs/; other / ʌ ðə /; smooth /smu:ð/

/ŋ/ - sung /s ʌ ŋ /; anger /æŋgə /; thanks /өæŋks/

/z/ - his /hɪz/; cause /kɔ:z/; plays /pleɪz/

SOME VIOCELESS CONSONANTS

/p/ - pack /pæk; copy /kɒpi/; hop /hɒp/

/ө/ - thin /өɪn/; author /ɔ:өə /; healthy /helөi/

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/t/ - tin /tɪn/; button /b ʌ t ən/; get /get/

/s/ - soon /su:n/; mister /mɪstə /; cease /si:s/

/k/ - came /keɪm/; lucky /l ʌki/; sick /sɪk/

/ʃ/ - ship /ʃɪp/; fish /fiʃ/; shush /ʃƱʃ/

/f/ - fat /fæt/; coffee /kɒfɪ/; rough /r ʌf /

/tʃ/ - choke /tʃəƱk/; teacher /ti:tʃə /; match /mætʃ/

TECHNIQUES FOR TEST 1 – 3

Test 1, 2 and 3 has to do with the three basic sounds.

a. Initial sound
b. Medial sound
c. Final sound

INITIAL SOUND

This the first sound produced when pronouncing a word. Example:

beat: initial sound is /b/

find: initial sound is /f/

thin: initial sound is /ө/

MEDIAL SOUND

This is the sound produced in the middle of a word. Example:

beat: middle sound is /i:/

bet: middle sound is /ɪ/

bet: middle sound is /e/

FINAL SOUND

This is the sound produced at the end of a word. Example:

beat: final sound is /t/

find: final sound is /d/

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thin: final sound is /n/

The major technique of Test 1,2 and 3 is to check the differences among the words in terms of
initial, medial, and final sounds.

TECHNIQUES FOR TEST 4

In test 4, you will be provided with three sentential options to choose the correct one. Here the
words sound almost the same but their spellings are different. It focuses on pure vowel sounds
and diphthongs. Some examples are:

a. pool pull
b. let lit
c. bout boat
d. sit set
e. word ward
f. beard bared

TECHNIQUES FOR TEST 5

This test is about rhyme scheme. Here the medial sounds and final sounds are combined to
form the words. Example: the speaker will pronounce the word “sing”, while in the options,
you will see:

A. singe
B. wing
C. sink
D. snick.

You will have to look for the word that rhymes with “sing”. Note at the medial and final
sounds to determine the correct answer.

TECHNIQUES FOR TEST 6

This test focuses on questions and answers. You will hear some questions and answers. The
questions will all be different but the answers the same.

Rule 1: Take note of the stressed word in what the speaker will say. The option without the
stressed word is mostly the correct answer.

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Eg.1: ‘He borrowed my newspaper.’

A. Who borrowed your newspaper?

B. Did John borrow your newspaper?
C. Did he steal your newspaper?

“C” is the correct option because it does not contain the stressed word ‘borrowed’.

Rule 2: At times, the stressed word may not be present in the three options. The candidate
should consider the WH word such as: what, whose, which, where, who, and when, that
corresponds with the speaker’s statement.

Eg.2: ‘Michael has gone to the park.’

A. Where has Michael gone?

B. Has Michael gone to school?
C. What has Michael done?

Here the stressed word “park” is not present in the three options. The correct option is A,
because it has the appropriate word “where” that corresponds with the speaker’s statement.

Rule 3: This rule states that the ‘tense’ used in the statement of the speaker must reflect in
the correct option. Again, the correct option should not have the stressed word.

Eg.2: ‘Patrick drove a car yesterday.’

A. What did Patrick do yesterday?

B. Did Patrick drive a car today?
C. Who drove a car yesterday?

The correct option is B because it reflects the tense in the speaker’s statement (past tense).
Also, it does not have the stressed word ‘yesterday’.

TECHNIQUES FOR TEST 7

This test focuses on intonation. In this test you will hear a short conversation between a man
and a woman. The candidate must be able to detect which of the speakers in the conversation
is, rude or polite, certain or not certain, sure or not sure, and or not angry, admiring or not
admiring, surprise or not surprise, happy or not happy, agrees or disagrees.

Rule 1: This simply means the rise and fall in the sound of your voice when you speak.
When the voice of any speaker falls, it shows that he or she is sure of what is being said, but
when the voice rises suddenly as if one is asking a question, it clearly shows that the speaker
is not sure. Obviously, when a speaker asks a question, it shows he or she is not sure.

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Eg; Speaker A: He was fine. (In this example, the fall in the tone of the voice means that the
speaker is sure or certain that he was fine.)

Speaker B: He was fine? (In this example, the rise in the tone of the voice means that the
speaker is not sure or not certain that he was fine)

Rule 2: When one of the speakers or both use the words “not sure” or “said”, it shows that he
or she is not sure or not certain. Example:

Speaker A: They have arrived.

Speaker B: He said so?

Speaker B is not sure or not certain.

Rule 3: When one or both of the speakers’ voices are rough, it clearly shows that he or she or
both of them are angry, rude or impolite.

Rule 4: When the speaker or speakers use any confirmation words like it’s true or obvious
and the voice falls, it shows that he or she is certain. Example:

A: The young man won the election.

B: It’s true.

Speaker B is sure or certain.

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 ANSWERS TO ALL OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON NOUNS

1. A 11. D 21. A
2. C 12. B 22. C
3. C 13. B 23. C
4. B 14. C 24. A
5. A 15. D 25. C
6. D 16. D 26. A
7. B 17. A 27. B
8. B 18. D 28. D
9. A 19. A 29. A
10. A 20. B 30. D

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PRONOUNS

1. D 11. B 21. B
2. A 12. A 22. C
3. B 13. B 23. A
4. B 14. A 24. A
5. D 15. A 25. A
6. A 16. B 26. A
7. D 17. A 27. A
8. A 18. C 28. C
9. A 19. C
10. B 20. D

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ADJECTIVES

1. B 10. A 19. A
2. D 11. D 20. C
3. B 12. D 21. D
4. A 13. B 22. B
5. C 14. B 23. A
6. C 15. D 24. C
7. C 16. C 25. A
8. A 17. B 26. D
9. B 18. B 27. B

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 28. C 29. B 30. B

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON VERBS

1. C 18. A 35. D
2. C 19. D 36. D
3. D 20. A 37. C
4. A 21. A 38. D
5. B 22. B 39. B
6. B 23. C 40. B
7. C 24. D 41. D
8. D 25. A 42. C
9. B 26. D 43. D
10. C 27. B 44. C
11. B 28. C 45. C
12. A 29. B 46. A
13. B 30. C 47. C
14. C 31. C 48. C
15. B 32. D 49. A
16. D 33. A 50. B
17. A 34. C

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ADVERBS

1. A 16. A 31. D
2. C 17. C 32. B
3. A 18. B 33. A
4. D 19. B 34. C
5. D 20. B 35. C
6. A 21. B 36. C
7. C 22. B 37. A
8. B 23. C 38. B
9. A 24. C 39. A
10. A 25. A 40. C
11. D 26. D 41. D
12. B 27. A 42. A
13. D 28. C 43. C
14. C 29. B 44. D
15. D 30. B 45. B

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 46. C 48. A 50. B
47. C 49. B

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PREPOSITION

1. C 18. A 35. D
2. B 19. D 36. C
3. B 20. D 37. C
4. D 21. C 38. A
5. B 22. B 39. B
6. A 23. C 40. D
7. C 24. D 41. D
8. B 25. C 42. B
9. B 26. B 43. C
10. C 27. D 44. A
11. D 28. A 45. D
12. B 29. D 46. D
13. D 30. A 47. B
14. B 31. B 48. B
15. C 32. C 49. A
16. D 33. C 50. C
17. A 34. D

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON CONJUNCTIONS

1. C 11. B 21. C
2. C 12. B 22. D
3. B 13. C 23. A
4. D 14. C 24. D
5. C 15. A 25. B
6. B 16. C 26. C
7. B 17. B 27. A
8. B 18. D 28. C
9. B 19. C 29. C
10. A 20. A 30. C

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

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 1. B 3. A 5. D
2. A 4. D

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON CONCORD

1. C 11. C 21. B
2. A 12. D 22. C
3. B 13. C 23. A
4. B 14. B 24. B
5. A 15. D 25. D
6. B 16. A 26. C
7. C 17. A 27. B
8. D 18. D 28. B
9. A 19. C 29. C
10. A 20. B 30. B

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON QUESTION TAGS

1. C 14. A 27. A
2. B 15. B 28. A
3. B 16. A 29. B
4. C 17. B 30. A
5. B 18. A 31. A
6. D 19. A 32. C
7. A 20. D 33. C
8. B 21. D 34. B
9. B 22. B 35. C
10. A 23. D 36. A
11. A 24. D 37. A
12. B 25. B 38. C
13. B 26. B 39. C

40. C

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ‘NIGHTFALL IN SOWETO

1. C 2. B 3. B

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 4. A 7. B 10. C
5. A 8. B
6. B 9. A

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ‘AN AFRICAN THUNDERSTORM’

1. A 5. C 9. B
2. B 6. D 10. B
3. A 7. C
4. D 8. A

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ‘NIGHT RAIN’

1. C 5. B 9. C
2. A 6. D 10. B
3. A 7. B
4. B 8. D

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ‘THE WEAVER BIRD’

1. A 5. B 9. B
2. A 6. C 10. A
3. D 7. D
4. B 8. C

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ‘ONCE UPON A TIME’

1. A

2. B 5. D 8. A
3. B 6. D 9. C
4. A 7. C 10. B

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 REFERENCES

Agyare, K. (2016). Digested Notes on English Language for Senior High School.

Ansford Printing Press. Accra, Ghana.

Anil. (2021). Figurative Language. http://www.lemongrad.com

Aryee, G. (2021). Malok’s Notes on Core Literature for Senior High Schools. E.M.

Print & Services. Accra, Ghana.

Kramer, L. (2021). Parts of Speech and Punctuation. http://www.grammarly.com

Lester, M. et al. (2009). The Big Book of English Verbs. McGraw Hill.

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