Life Process

Nutrition in Plants and Animals – Life Processes Class 10 Notes

 Nutrition: The process by which an organism takes food and utilizes it, is
called nutrition.
 Need for Nutrition: Organisms need the energy to perform various
activities. The energy is supplied by the nutrients. Organisms need various
raw materials for growth and repair. These raw materials are provided by
nutrients.
 Nutrients: Materials which provide nutrition to organisms are called
nutrients. Carbohydrates, proteins and fats are the main nutrients and are
called macronutrients. Minerals and vitamins are required in small
amounts and hence are called micronutrients.
 Modes of Nutrition
1. Autotrophic Nutrition.
2. Heterotrophic Nutrition.
Autotrophic Nutrition – Life Processes Class 10 Notes
The mode of nutrition in which an organism prepares its own food is called
autotrophic nutrition. Green plants and blue-green algae follow the autotrophic
mode of nutrition.
 The organisms which carry out autotrophic nutrition are called autotrophs
(green plants).
Autotrophic nutrition is fulfilled by the process, by which autotrophs
intake CO2 and H2O, and convert these into carbohydrates in the presence
of chlorophyll, sunlight is called photosynthesis.
 Equation

Nutrition in Plants: Green plants prepare their own food. They make food in
the presence of sunlight. Sunlight provides energy’, carbon dioxide and water
are the raw materials and chloroplast is the site where food is made.
What is Photosynthesis in biology class 10?
Photosynthesis: The process by which green plants prepare food is called
photosynthesis.
 During this process, the solar energy is converted into chemical energy and
carbohydrates are formed.
 Green leaves are the main site of photosynthesis.
 The green portion of the plant contains a pigment chloroplast, chlorophyll
(green pigment).
  The whole process of photosynthesis can be shown by the following
equation:

Raw Materials for Photosynthesis:

 Sunlight
 Chlorophyll: Sunlight absorbed by chloroplast
 CO2: Enters through stomata, and oxygen (O2) is released as a byproduct
through stomata on the leaf.
 Water: Water + dissolved minerals like nitrogen, phosphorous etc., are
taken up by the roots from the soil.
How do raw materials for photosynthesis become available to the plant?
 Water comes from the soil, through the xylem tissue in roots and stems.
 Carbon dioxide comes in the leaves through stomata.
Site of Photosynthesis: Chloroplast in the leaf. Chloroplast contains
chlorophyll (green pigment)
Main Events of Photosynthesis:
 Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
 Conversion of light energy into chemical energy + splitting (breaking) of
water into hydrogen and oxygen.
 Reduction of CO2 to carbohydrates.
 Sunlight activates chlorophyll, which leads to splitting of the water
molecule.
 The hydrogen, released by the splitting of a water molecule is utilized for
the reduction of carbon dioxide to produce carbohydrates.
 Oxygen is the by-product of photosynthesis.
 Carbohydrate is subsequently converted into starch and is stored in leaves
and other storage parts.
 The splitting of water molecules is a part of the light reaction.
Other steps are part of the dark reaction during photosynthesis.
Stomata – Life Processes Class 10 Notes
 Stomata: These are tiny pores present in the epidermis of leaf or stem
through which gaseous exchange and transpiration occur.
Functions of stomata
 Exchange of gases, O2 and CO2.
 Loses a large amount of water (water vapour) during transpiration.

Opening and closing of stomatal pores:

 The opening and closing of stomatal pores are controlled by the turgidity of
guard cells.
 When guard cells uptake water from surrounding cells, they swell to
become a turgid body, which enlarges the pore in between (Stomatal
Opening).
 While, when water is released, they become flaccid shrinking to close the
pore (Stomatal Closing).

Significance of Photosynthesis:
 Photosynthesis is the main way through which solar energy is made
available for different living beings.
 Green plants are the main producers of food in the ecosystem. All other
organisms directly or indirectly depend on green plants for food.
 The process of photosynthesis also helps in maintaining the balance of
carbon dioxide and oxygen in the air.
Heterotrophic Nutrition – Life Processes Class 10 Notes
The mode of nutrition in which an organism takes food from another organism
is called heterotrophic nutrition. Organisms, other than green plants and blue-
green algae follow the heterotrophic mode of nutrition. Heterotrophic nutrition
can be further divided into three types, viz. saprophytic nutrition, holozoic
nutrition, and parasitic.
 Saprophytic Nutrition: In saprophytic nutrition, the organism secretes the
digestive juices on the food. The food is digested while it is still to be
ingested. The digested food is then ingested by the organism. All the
decomposers follow saprophytic nutrition. Some insects, like houseflies,
also follow this mode of nutrition.
 Holozoic Nutrition: In holozoic nutrition, the digestion happens inside the
body of the organism. i.e., after the food is ingested. Most of the animals
follow this mode of nutrition.
 Parasitic Nutrition: The organism which lives inside or outside another
organism (host) and derives nutrition from it is known as parasites and
this type of mode of nutrition is called parasitic nutrition. For example
Cuscuta, tick etc.
Nutrition in Amoeba
 Amoeba is a unicellular animal which follows the holozoic mode of
nutrition.
 In holozoic nutrition, the digestion of food follows after the ingestion of
food. Thus, digestion takes place inside the body of the organism.
 Holozoic nutrition happens in five steps, viz. ingestion, digestion,
absorption, assimilation and egestion.

Steps of Holozoic Nutrition:

 Ingestion: The process of taking in the food is called ingestion.
 Digestion: The process of breaking complex food substances into simple
molecules is called digestion. Simple molecules, thus obtained, can be
absorbed by the body.
 Absorption: The process of absorption of digested food is called absorption.
 Assimilation: The process of utilization of digested food, for energy and for
growth and repair is called assimilation.
  Egestion: The process of removing undigested food from the body is called
egestion.
Amoeba is a unicellular animal which follows the holozoic mode of nutrition.
The cell membrane of amoeba keeps on protruding into pseudopodia. Amoeba
surrounds a food particle with pseudopodia and makes a food vacuole. The food
vacuole contains food particle and water. Digestive enzymes are secreted in the
food vacuole and digestion takes place. After that, digested food is absorbed
from the food vacuole. Finally, the food vacuole moves near the cell membrane
and undigested food is expelled out.
Nutrition in Human Beings – Life Processes Class 10 Notes
Human beings are complex animals, which have a complex digestive system.
The human digestive system is composed of an alimentary canal and some
accessory glands. The alimentary canal is divided into several parts, like
oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus.
Salivary gland, liver and pancreas are the accessory glands which lie outside
the alimentary canal.
Structure of the Human Digestive System:
The human digestive system comprises of the alimentary canal and associated
digestive glands.
 Alimentary Canal: It comprises of mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small
intestine and large intestine.
 Associated Glands: Main associated glands are
 Salivary gland
 Gastric Glands
 Liver
 Pancreas
Mouth or Buccal Cavity:
 The mouth has teeth and tongue. Salivary glands are also present in the
mouth.
 The tongue has gustatory receptors which perceive the sense of taste.
 The tongue helps in turning over the food so that saliva can be properly
mixed in it.
 Teeth help in breaking down the food into smaller particles so that,
swallowing of food becomes easier.
 There are four types of teeth in human beings. The incisor teeth are used
for cutting the food.
 The canine teeth are used for tearing the food and for cracking hard
substances.
  The premolars are used for the coarse grinding of food. The molars are
used for fine grinding of food.

Salivary glands secrete saliva: Saliva makes the food slippery which makes it
easy to swallow the food. Saliva also contains the enzyme salivary amylase or
ptyalin. Salivary amylase digests starch and converts it into sucrose, (maltose).

Oesophagus: Taking food from mouth to stomach by Peristaltic movement.

Peristaltic movement: Rhythmic contraction of muscles of the lining of the
alimentary canal to push the food forward.
Stomach
 Stomach is a bag-like organ. Highly muscular walls of the stomach help in
churning the food.
 The walls of the stomach secrete hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid kills
the germs which may be present in food.
 Moreover, it makes the medium inside the stomach as acidic. The acidic
medium is necessary for gastric enzymes to work.
 The enzyme pepsin, secreted in the stomach, does partial digestion of
protein.
  The mucus, secreted by the walls of the stomach saves the inner lining of
the stomach from getting damaged from hydrochloric acid.

Small Intestine: It is a highly coiled tube-like structure. The small intestine is

longer than the large intestine but its lumen is smaller than that of the large
intestine. The small intestine is divided into three parts, like duodenum,
jejunum and ileum.
Liver: Liver is the largest organ in the human body. The liver manufactures
bile, which gets stored in the gall bladder. From the gall bladder, bile is released
as and when required.
Pancreas: Pancreas is situated below the stomach. It secretes pancreatic juice
which contains many digestive enzymes.

Bile and pancreatic juice go to the duodenum through a hepatopancreatic duct.

Bile breaks down fat into smaller particles. This process is called emulsification
of fat. After that, the enzyme lipase digests fat into fatty acids and glycerol.
Trypsin and chymotrypsin are enzymes which digest protein into amino acids.
Complex carbohydrates are digested into glucose. The major part of digestion
takes place in the duodenum.
No digestion takes place in the jejunum: The inner wall in the ileum is
projected into numerous finger-like structures, called villi. Villi increase the
surface area inside the ileum so that optimum absorption can take place.
Moreover, villi also reduce the lumen of the ileum so that food can stay for a
longer duration in it, for optimum absorption. Digested food is absorbed by villi.
Large Intestine:
 Large intestine is smaller than the small intestine.
 Undigested food goes into the large intestine.
 Some water and salt are absorbed by the walls of the large intestine. After
that, the undigested food goes to the rectum, from where it is expelled out
through the anus.
 Large Intestine bbsorb excess of water. The rest of the material is removed
from the body via the anus. (Egestion).
Respiration – Life Processes Class 10 Notes
Types of respiration, aerobic and anaerobic respiration, human respiratory
system, respiration in plants.
Respiration: The process by which a living being utilises the food to get energy,
is called respiration. Respiration is an oxidation reaction in which carbohydrate
is oxidized to produce energy. Mitochondria is the site of respiration and the
energy released is stored in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). ATP is
stored in mitochondria and is released as per need.
Steps of respiration:
 Breaking down of glucose into pyruvate: This step happens in the
cytoplasm. Glucose molecule is broken down into pyruvic acid. Glucose
molecule is composed of 6 carbon atoms, while pyruvic acid is composed of
3 carbon atoms.
 Fate of Pyruvic Acid: Further breaking down of pyruvic acid takes place
in mitochondria and the molecules formed depend on the type of
respiration in a particular organism. Respiration is of two types, viz.
aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.
 Respiration involves
 Gaseous exchange: Intake of oxygen from the atmosphere and release
of CO2 → Breathing.
 Breakdown of simple food in order to release energy inside the cell →
Cellular respiration
Types of Respiration – Life Processes Class 10 Notes
 Aerobic respiration: This type of respiration happens in the presence of
oxygen. Pyruvic acid is converted into carbon dioxide. Energy is released
and water molecule is also formed at the end of this process.
 Anaerobic respiration: This type of respiration happens in the absence of
oxygen. Pyruvic acid is either converted into ethyl alcohol or lactic acid.
Ethyl alcohol is usually formed in case of anaerobic respiration in
 microbes, like yeast or bacteria. Lactic acid is formed in some microbes as
well as in the muscle cells.
 Glucose (6 carbon molecule) → Pyruvate (3 carbon molecules) + Energy
 Pyruvate (In yeast, lack of O2) → Ethyl alcohol + Carbon dioxide +
Energy
 Pyruvate (In muscles, lack of O2) → Lactic Acid + Energy
 Pyruvate (In mitochondria; the presence of O2) → Carbon dioxide +
Water + Energy
The equations for the above reactions can be written as follows:
Pain in leg muscles while running:
 When someone runs too fast, he may experience throbbing pain in the leg
muscles. This happens because of anaerobic respiration taking place in the
muscles.
 During running, the energy demand from the muscle cells increases. This
is compensated by anaerobic respiration and lactic acid is formed in the
process.
 The deposition of lactic acid causes pain in the leg muscles. The pain
subsides after taking rest for some time.
Exchange of gases:
  For aerobic respiration, organisms need a continuous supply of oxygen,
and carbon dioxide produced during the process needs to be removed from
the body.
 Different organisms use different methods for the intake of oxygen and
expulsion of carbon dioxide.
 Diffusion is the method which is utilized by unicellular and some simple
organisms for this purpose.
 In plants also, diffusion is utilized for exchange of gases.
 In complex animals, respiratory system does the job of exchange of gases.
 Gills are the respiratory organs for fishes. Fishes take in oxygen which is
dissolved in water through gills.
 Since, availability of oxygen is less in the aquatic environment, so the
breathing rate of aquatic organisms is faster.
 Insects have a system of spiracles and trachease which is used for taking
in oxygen.
 Terrestrial organisms have developed lungs for exchange of gases.
 Availability of oxygen is not a problem in the terrestrial environment so
breathing rate is slower as compared to what it is in fishes.
Terrestrial organisms: Use atmospheric oxygen for respiration.
Aquatic organisms: Use dissolve oxygen for respiration.
Human respiratory system – Life Processes Class 10 Notes
The human respiratory system is composed of a pair of lungs. These are
attached to a system of tubes which open on the outside through the nostrils.
Following are the main structures in the human respiratory system:
1. Nostrils: There are two nostrils which converge to form a nasal passage.
The inner lining of the nostrils is lined by hair and remains wet due to
mucus secretion. The mucus and the hair help in filtering the dust
particles out from inhaled air. Further, air is warmed up when it enters the
nasal passage.
2. Pharynx: It is a tube-like structure which continues after the nasal
passage.
3. Larynx: This part comes after the pharynx. This is also called voice box.
4. Trachea: This is composed of rings of cartilage. Cartilaginous rings prevent
the collapse of trachea in the absence of air.
5. Bronchi: A pair of bronchi comes out from the trachea, with one bronchus
going to each lung.
6. Bronchioles: A bronchus divides into branches and sub-branches inside
the lung.
7. Alveoli: These are air sacs at the end of bronchioles. The alveolus is
composed of a very thin membrane and is the place where blood capillaries
open. This is alveolus, where the oxygen mixes with the blood and carbon
dioxide exits from the blood. The exchange of gases, in alveoli, takes place
due to the pressure differential.
Passage of air through the respiratory system in human beings:

Breathing Mechanism
 The breathing mechanism of lungs is controlled by the diaphragm and the
intercostalis muscles.
 The diaphragm is a membrane which separates the thoracic chamber from
the abdominal cavity.
 When the diaphragm moves down, the lungs expand and the air is inhaled.
 When the diaphragm moves up, the lungs contract and air are exhaled.
Transportation – Life Processes Class 10 Notes
Circulatory system of human being, transportation in plants. Human beings
like other multicellular organism need a regular supply of foods, oxygen etc.
This function is performed by a circulatory system or transport system.
Transportation in Human Beings: The circulatory system is responsible for
transport of various substances in human beings. It is composed of the heart,
arteries, veins and blood capillaries. Blood plays the role of the carrier of
substances.

1. Heart: Heart is a muscular organ, which is composed of cardiac muscles.

 It is so small that, it can fit inside an adult’s wrist. The heart is a pumping
organ which pumps the blood.
 The human heart is composed of four chambers, viz. right atrium, right
ventricle, left ventricle and left atrium.
 Systole: Contraction of cardiac muscles is called systole.
 Diastole: Relaxation of cardiac muscles is called diastole.
2. Arteries:
 These are thick-walled blood vessels which carry oxygenated blood from the
heart to different organs.
 Pulmonary arteries are exceptions because they carry deoxygenated blood
from the heart to lungs, where oxygenation of blood takes place.
3. Veins:
 These are thin-walled blood vessels which carry deoxygenated blood from
different organs to the heart, pulmonary veins are exceptions because they
carry oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart.
 Valves are present in veins to prevent back flow of blood.
4. Capillaries: These are the blood vessels which have single-celled walls.
Blood: Blood is a connective tissue which plays the role of the carrier for
various substances in the body. Blood is composed of 1. Plasma 2. Blood cells
3. Platelets.
 Blood plasma: Blood plasma is a pale coloured liquid which is mostly
composed of water. Blood plasma forms the matrix of blood.
 Bloods cells: There are two types of blood cells, viz. Red Blood Cells (RBCs)
and White Blood Cells (WBCs).
(a) Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCs): These are of red colour because of the
presence of haemoglobin which is a pigment. Haemoglobin readily
combines with oxygen and carbon dioxide. The transport of oxygen
happens through haemoglobin. Some part of carbon dioxide is also
transported through haemoglobin.
(b) White Blood Corpuscles (WBCs): These are of pale white colour. They
play important role in the immunity.
 Platelets: Platelets are responsible for blood coagulation. Blood coagulation
is a defense mechanism which prevents excess loss of blood, in case of an
injury.
Lymph:
 Lymph is similar to blood but RBCs are absent in lymph.
 Lymph is formed from the fluid which leaks from blood capillaries and goes
to the intercellular space in the tissues. This fluid is collected through
lymph vessels and finally return to the blood capillaries.
  Lymph also plays an important role in the immune system.
 Lymph a yellowish fluids escape from the blood capillaries into the
intercellular spaces contain less proteins than blood.
 Lymph flows from the tissues to the heart assisting in transportation and
destroying germs.
Double circulation: In the human heart, blood passes through the heart twice
in one cardiac cycle. This type of circulation is called double circulation. One
complete heartbeat in which all the chambers of the heart contract and relax
once is called cardiac cycle. The heart beats about 72 times per minute in a
normal adult. In one cardiac cycle, the heart pumps out 70 mL blood and thus,
about 4900 mL blood in a minute. Double circulation ensures complete
segregation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood which is necessary for
optimum energy production in warm-blooded animals.

Transportation in plants: Plants have specialized vascular tissues for

transportation of substances. There are two types of vascular tissues in plants.
 Xylem: Xylem is responsible for transportation of water and minerals. It is
composed of trachids, xylem vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem fibre.
Tracheids and xylem vessels are the conducting elements. The xylem
makes a continuous tube in plants which runs from roots to stem and
right up to the veins of leaves.
 Carry water and minerals from the leaves to the other part of the plant.
 Phloem: Phloem is responsible for transportation of food. Phloem is
composed of sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem parenchyma and bast
fibers. Sieve tubes are the conducting elements in phloem.
 Carries product of photosynthesis from roots to other part of the plant.
Transportation in plants
Ascent of sap: The upward movement of water and minerals from roots to
different plant parts is called ascent of sap. Many factors are at play in ascent
of sap and it takes place in many steps. They are explained as follows :
 Root pressure: The walls of cells of root hairs are very thin. Water from soil
enters the root hairs because of osmosis. Root pressure is responsible for
movement of water up to the base of the stem.
 Capillary action: A very fine tube is called capillaiy, water, or any liquid,
rises in the capillary because of physical forces and this phenomenon is
called capillary action. Water, in stem, rises up to some height because of
capillaiy action.
 Adhesion-cohesion of water molecules: Water molecules make a continuous
column in the xylem because of forces of adhesion and cohesion among the
molecules.
 Transpiration pull: Loss of water vapour through stomata and lenticels, in
plants, is called transpiration. Transpiration through stomata creates
vacuum which creates a suction, called transpiration pull. The
transpiration pull sucks the water column from the xylem tubes and thus,
water is able to rise to great heights in even the tallest plants.
 Transport of food: Transport of food in plants happens because of
utilization of energy. Thus, unlike the transport through xylem, it is a form
of active transport. Moreover, the flow of substances through phloem takes
place in both directions, i.e., it is a two-way traffic in phloem.
Transpiration is the process of loss of water as vapour from aerial parts of
the plant.
Functions
 Absorption and upward movement of water and minerals by creating pull.
 Helps in temperature regulation in plant.
Transport of food from leaves (food factory) to different parts of the plant is
called Translocation.
Excretion – Life Processes Class 10 Notes
Human excretory system, excretion in plants.
Excretion in human beings:
 Removal of harmful waste from the body is called excretion.
 Many wastes are produced during various metabolic activities.
 These need to be removed in time because their accumulation in the body
can be harmful and even lethal for an organism.
Human Excretory System:
 The human excretory system is composed of a pair of kidneys.
 A tube, called ureter, comes out of each kidney and goes to the urinary
bladder.
 Urine is collected in the urinary bladder, from where it is expelled out
through urethra as and when required.
Excretory system of human beings includes :
 A pair of kidneys.
 A urinary bladder.
 A pair of the ureter.
 A urethra.
Kidney:
 Kidney is a bean-shaped organ which lies near the vertebral column in the
abdominal cavity.
 The kidney is composed of many filtering units, called nephrons.
 Nephron is called the functional unit of kidney.
Nephron
 It is composed of a tangled mess of tubes and a filtering part, called
glomerulus.
 The glomerulus is a network of blood capillaries to which renal artery is
attached.
 The artery which takes blood to the glomerulus is called afferent arteriole
and the one receiving blood from the glomerulus is called efferent arteriole.
 The glomerulus is enclosed in a capsule like portion, called bowman’s
capsule. The bowman’s capsule extends into a fine tube which is highly
coiled.
 Tubes from various nephrons converge into collecting duct, which finally
goes to the ureter.

Urine formation in the kidney: The urine formation involves three steps:
  Glomerular filtration: Nitrogenous wastes, glucose, water, amino acid filter
from the blood into bowman’s capsule of the nephron.
 Tubular reabsorption: Now, useful substances from the filtrate are
reabsorbed back by capillaries surrounding the nephron.
 Secretion: Extra water, salts are secreted into the tubule which opens up
into the collecting duct and then into the ureter.
Urine produced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into the urinary
bladder where it is stored until it is released through the urethra.
The purpose of making urine is to filter out waste product from the blood i.e.,
urea which is produced in the liver.
Haemodialysis: The process of purifying blood by an artificial kidney. It is
meant for kidney failure patient.
Excretion in Plants

 Other wastes may be stored in leaves, bark etc. which fall off from the
plant.
 Plants excrete some waste into the soil around them.
 Gums, resin → In old xylem
 Some metabolic wastes in the form of crystals of calcium oxalates in the
leaves of colocasia and stem of Zamikand.
Nutrition in Plants and Animals
Nutrition: Process of obtaining and utilizing of food is known as nutrition.
Mode of nutrition:
 Autotrophic Nutrition (All green plants)
 Heterotrophic Nutrition (Animals, Man, Non-green plants)
 Saprotrophic nutrition
 Parasitic nutrition
 Holozoic nutrition
Autotrophs: It is a mode of nutrition in which organisms can make their own
food from simple raw material. Example, all green plants.
Heterotrophs: It is a mode of nutrition in which organisms cannot prepare
their food on their own and depend on others. Example, animals.
Saprotrophic Nutrition: It is the process by which the organism feeds on dead
and decaying matter. Example, Rhizopus, Mucor, yeast.
Photosynthesis: It is the process by which green plants prepare their own food.
Raw materials for photosynthesis:
 Water and Minerals: These are absorbed by the roots from the soil.
 Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide enters the leaves through tiny pores called
stomata.
 Sunlight: Energy from the sun is called solar energy.
 Chlorophyll: Chlorophyll pigment helps leaves to capture solar energy.
Products of Photosynthesis: Carbohydrate-glucose- It is converted to starch.
Symbiotic relationship: Two organisms live in a close association and develop
a relationship that is beneficial to both this is called a symbiotic relationship.
Example, Lichen is a living partnership between a fungus an alga. Fungus
absorbs water and provides shelter and alga prepare food by photosynthesis
Insectivores: Plants feed on insects for their nitrogen requirements.
Holozoic nutrition: It means feeding on solid food. Organism takes complex
organic food into the body. Example, man, amoeba, dog, etc.
 Herbivores: Animals which feed on plants only. Example, deer, cow.
 Carnivores: Animals which feed on flesh or meat. Example, tiger.
 Omnivores: Animals which feed on both plant and flesh. Example, man,
dog.
Steps of Holozoic nutrition:
 Ingestion: Taking food into the mouth.
 Digestion: Break down of large insoluble food into small water-soluble
molecules by enzymes.
 Absorption: Digested food absorbed through the intestinal wall into the
blood.
 Assimilation: Absorbed food is taken by body cells for releasing energy,
growth and repair.
 Egestion: Eliminating undigested food from the body.
Digestive organs of human beings: Mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small
intestine and large intestine with glands like salivary gland, liver, pancreas.
Teeth: An organ which breaks down the complex food and helps in chewing the
food.
 Milk teeth: The first set of 20 small teeth when the baby is 6-7 months
old.
 Permanent teeth: The second set of 32 larger teeth, when a child is 6-7
years old and comes by replacing milk teeth.
Enamel: A white, strong, shining, protective material covering on teeth.
Tongue: A muscular organ attached to the floor of the buccal cavity which
helps in tasting and mixing the food with saliva for digestion.
Transportation in Plants and Animals
 Vascular tissue: A plant tissue which helps in transportation.
 Xylem tissue: It helps in transporting water and minerals in plants.
 Phloem: It helps in transporting food in plants.
 Translocation: The process of transporting food from leaves to other parts
of plants.
 Transpiration: A loss of water from stomata in leaves.
 Blood: A red colour fluid which circulates in the body of animals.
 Plasma: Fluid part of the blood which consists of nutrients, hormones, and
waste products.
 Blood vessel: Tube-like structure present in the body for carrying blood
inside the body.
 Artery: It carries oxygenated blood from the heart to body parts.
 Vein: It carries deoxygenated blood from body parts to the heart.
  Capillary: A thin-walled narrow tube which connects artery and vein.
 Heart: A muscular organ present in the thoracic cavity and helps in
pumping blood in the body.
 Double circulation: A circulatory system in which blood travels twice
through the heart in one complete cycle.
 Heartbeat: One complete contraction and relaxation of the heart (72 times
in a minute).
 Stethoscope: Instrument which measures heartbeat.
 Systolic pressure: Maximum pressure at which blood flows during
contraction of the heart. (120 mm Hg)
 Diastolic pressure: Minimum pressure at which blood flows during
relaxation of the heart. (80 mm Hg)
 Sphygmomanometer: Instrument which measures blood pressure.
 Lymph: A light yellow liquid flowing from body tissue to the blood
circulatory system and provides immunity.
Excretion in Plants and Animals
 Excretion: It is the process of removing waste products from the body.
 Excretory products of plants: CO2, O2, water vapour, peel of bark, fruits,
leaves, gum, raisin, etc.
 Excretory products of humans: Carbon dioxide, urea, etc.
 Kidney: Organ which removes the toxic substance urea from blood and
filters it.
 Urine: A yellowish liquid which contains water and urea.
 Dialysis: The procedure used for cleaning the blood of a person in case of
kidney failure.
 Nephron: Functional unit of excretory system present in the kidney for
filtering blood.
 Renal Artery: Blood vessels which bring blood from heart to kidney.
 Renal Vein: Blood vessel which brings blood from kidney to heart.

Chapter 7
Control and Co-ordination in Animals: Nervous system and endocrine system.
In animals, the nervous system and hormonal system are responsible for control and co¬ordination.
Receptors: Receptors are the specialized tips of the nerve fibres that collect the information to be
conducted by the nerves.
Receptors are in the sense organs of the animals.
These are classified as follows :
 Phono-receptors: These are present in inner ear.
Functions: The main functions are hearing and balance of the body.
 Photo-receptors: These are present in the eye.
Function: These are responsible for visual stimulus.
 Thermo-receptors: These are present in skin.
Functions: These receptors are responsible for pain, touch and heat stimuli.
These receptors are also known as thermoreceptors.
 Olfactory-receptors: These are present in nose.
Functions: These receptors receive smell.
 Gustatory-receptors: These are present in the tongue.
Functions: These helps in taste detection.
Nervous System: The nervous system is composed of specialized tissues, called nervous tissue. The
nerve cell or neuron is the functional unit of the nervous system. It is the nervous system which is
mainly responsible for control and coordination in complex animals.
Functions of the nervous system
 Nervous system receives information from the environment.
 To receive the information from the various body.
 To act according to through muscles and glands.
A neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system.
Neuron: Neuron is a highly specialized cell which is responsible for the transmission of nerve impulses.
The neuron consists of the following parts
(i) Cyton or cell body: The cell body or cyton is somewhat star-shaped, with many hair like structures
protruding out of the margin. These hair-like structures are called dendrites. Dendrites receive the
nerve impulses.
(ii) Axon: This is the tail of the neuron. It ends in several hair-like structures, called axon terminals. The
axon terminals relay nerve impulses.
(iii) Myelin sheath: There is an insulator cover around the axon. This is called myelin sheath. The
myelin sheath insulates the axon against nerve impulse from the surroundings.

Types of neuron
 Sensory neuron: These neurons receive signals from a sense organ.
 Motor neuron: These neurons send signals to a muscle or a gland.
 Association or relay neuron: These neurons relay the signals between sensory neuron and motor
neuron.
Synapse: The point contact between the terminal branches of axon of one neuron with the dendrite of
another neuron is called synapse.
Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ): NMJ is the point where a muscle fibre comes in contact with a motor
neuron carrying nerve impulse from the control nervous system.
Transmission of nerve impulse: Nerve impulses travel in the following manner from one neutron to
the next :
Dendrites → cell body → axon → nerve endings at the tip of axon → synapse → dendrite of next
neuron.
Chemical released from axon tip of one neuron, cross the synapse or neuromuscular junction to reach
the next cell.
Human Nervous System: The nervous system in humans can be divided into three main parts
1. Central Nervous System: The central nervous system is composed of the brain and the spinal cord.
The brain controls all the functions in the human body. The spinal cord works as the relay channel for
signals between the brain and the peripheral nervous system.
2. Peripheral Nervous System: The peripheral nervous system is composed of the cranial nerves and
spinal nerves. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves. The cranial nerves come our of the brain and go to
the organs in the head region. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves. The spinal nerves come out of the
spinal cord and go to the organs which are below the head region.
3. Autonomous Nervous System: The autonomous nervous system is composed of a chain of nerve
ganglion which runs along the spinal cord. It controls all the involuntary actions in the human body. The
autonomous nervous system can be divided into two parts :
 Sympathetic nervous system.
 Parasympathetic nervous system.
Sympathetic Nervous System: This part of the autonomous nervous system heightens the activity of
an organ as per the need. For example, during running, there is an increased demand for oxygen by
the body. This is fulfilled by an increased breathing rate and increased heart rate. The sympathetic
nervous system works to increase the breathing rate the heart rate, in this case.
Parasympathetic Nervous System: This part of the autonomous nervous system slows the down the
activity of an organ and thus has a calming effect. During sleep, the breathing rate slows down and so
does the heart rate. This is facilitated by the parasympathetic nervous system. It can be said that the
parasympathetic nervous system helps in the conservation of energy.

Human Brain: Human brain is a highly complex organ, which is mainly composed of nervous tissue.
The tissues are highly folded to accommodate a large surface area in less space. The brain is covered
by a three-layered system of membranes, called meninges. Cerebrospinal fluid is filled between the
meninges. The CSF providers cushion the brain against mechanical shocks. Furthermore, protection.
The human brain can be divided into three regions, viz. forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.

Parts of Human Brain :

 Fore-brain: It is composed of the cerebrum.
 Mid-brain: It is composed of the hypothalamus.
 Hind-brain: It is composed of the cerebellum, pons, medulla, oblongata.
Some main structures of the human brain are explained below :
Cerebrum: The cerebrum is the largest part in the human brains. It is divided into two hemispheres
called cerebral hemispheres.
Functions of cerebrum
 The cerebrum controls voluntary motor actions.
 It is the site of sensory perceptions, like tactile and auditory perceptions.
 It is the seat of learning and memory.
Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus lies at the base of the cerebrum. It controls sleep and wake cycle
(circadian rhythm) of the body. It also controls the urges for eating and drinking.
Cerebellum: Cerebellum lies below the cerebrum and at the back of the whole structure. It coordinates
the motor functions. When you are riding your bicycle, the perfect coordination between your pedalling
and steering control is achieved by the cerebellum.
 It controls posture and balance.
 It controls the precision of voluntary action.
Medulla: Medulla forms the brain stem, along with the pons. It lies at the base of the brain and
continues into the spinal cord. The medulla controls various involuntary functions, like hear beat
respiration, etc.
It controls involuntary actions.
Example: Blood pressure, salivation, vomiting.
Pons: It relays impulses between the lower cerebellum and spinal cord, and higher parts of the brain
like the cerebrum and midbrain, also regulates respiration.
Spinal cord: Spinal cord controls the reflex actions and conducts massages between different parts of
the body and brain.
Reflex Action: Reflex action is a special case of involuntary movement involuntary organs. When a
voluntary organ is in the vicinity of sudden danger, it is immediately pulled away from the danger to
save itself. For example, when your hand touches a very hot electric iron, you move away your hand in
a jerk. All of this happens in flash and your hand is saved from the imminent injury. This is an example
of reflex action.
Reflex Arc: The path through which nerves signals, involved in a reflex action, travel is called the reflex
arc. The following flow chart shows the flow of signal in a reflex arc.
Receptor → Sensory neuron → Relay neuron → Motor neuron → Effector (muscle)
The receptor is the organ which comes in the danger zone. The sensory neurons pick signals from the
receptor and send them to the relay neuron. The relay neuron is present in the spinal cord. The spinal
cord sends signals to the effector via the motor neuron. The effector comes in action, moves the
receptor away from the danger.
The reflex arc passes at the level of the spinal cord and the signals involved in reflex action do not
travel up to the brain. This is important because sending signals to the brain would involve more time.
Although every action is ultimately controlled by the brain, the reflex action is mainly controlled at the
level of spinal cord.
Protection of brain and spinal cord
Brain is protected by a fluid filled balloon which acts as shocks absorber and enclosed in cranium
(Brain box)
Spinal chord is enclosed in vertebral column.
Muscular Movements and Nervous Control: Muscle tissues have special filaments, called actin and
myosin. When a muscle receives a nerve signal, a series of events is triggered in the muscle. Calcium
ions enter the muscle cells. It result in actin and myosin filaments sliding towards each other and that is
how a muscle contracts. Contraction in a muscle brings movement in the related organ.

Endocrine System: The endocrine system is composed of several endocrine glands. A ductless gland
is called endocrine gland. Endocrine gland secretes its product directly into the bloodstream. Hormones
are produced in the endocrine glands. Hormone is mainly composed of protein. Hormones assist the
nervous system in control and co-ordination. Nervous do not react to every nook and corner of the body
and hence hormones are needed to affect control and coordination in those parts. Moreover, unlike
nervous control, hormonal control is somewhat slower.
Hormones: These are the chemical messengers secreted in very small amounts by specialised tissues
called ductless glands. They act on target tissues/organs usually away from their source. Endocrine
System helps in control and coordination through chemical compounds called hormones.
Endocrine Gland: A ductless gland that secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream.

Endocrine Gland Location Hormones Produced Functions

Growth hormone (GH). GH stimulates growth.
Pituitary gland Thyroid stimulating TSH stimulates the functioning of the
At the base of the
(also known as the hormone (TSH). Follicle thyroid gland.
brain
master gland) stimulating hormone FSH stimulates the follicles during
(FSH) ovulation.
Controls general metabolism and
Thyroid Gland Neck Thyroxine
growth in the body.
Prepares the body for emergency
Adrenal gland Above kidneys Adrenalin situations and hence is also called
‘Fight and flight’ hormone.
Pancreas Near stomach Insulin Controls blood sugar level
Sperm production, development of
Testis (male) In Scrotum Testosterone secondary sexual characters during
puberty.
Egg production, development of
Ovary (female) Near uterus Oestrogen secondary sexual characters during
puberty.
Iodised salt is necessary because: Iodine mineral is essential part of thyronine hormone so it is
important that we must consume iodised salt as in turn it is essential for thyroid gland as it controls
carbohydrate, proteins and fat metabolism for best balance of growth deficiency of iodine might cause
disease called goitre.
Diabetes: Cause : It is due to deficiency of insulin hormone secreted by pancreas that is responsible to
lower/control the blood sugar levels.
Treatment : Patients have to internally administer injections of insulin hormone which helps in
regulating blood-sugar level.
In case of flight or fight reaction to an emergency situation, Adrenal glands → release adrenaline into
blood → which acts on heart and other tissues → causes faster heart beat → more oxygen to muscles
→ reduced blood supply to digestive system and skin → diversion of blood to skeletal muscles →
increase in breathing rate.
Feedback mechanism: A type of self-regulating mechanism in which the level of one substance in body
influences the level of another.

Control and Co-ordination in Plants: Movements in plants and plant harmones.

Co-ordination in Plants: Unlike animals, plants do not have a nervous system. Plants use chemical
means for control and co-ordination. Many plant hormones are responsible for various kinds of
movements in plants. Movements in plants can be divided into two main types :
1. Tropic movement
2. Nastic movement
1. Tropic Movement: The movements which are in a particular direction in relation to the stimulus are
called tropic movements. Tropic movements happen as a result of growth of a plant part in a particular
direction. There are four types of tropic movements.
(i) Geotropic movement: The growth in a plant part in response to the gravity is called geotropic
movement. Roots usually show positive geotropic movement, i.e. they grow in the direction of the
gravity. Stems usually show negative geotropic movement.
(ii) Phototropic Movement: The growth in a plant part in response to light is called phototropic
movement. Stems usually show positive phototropic movement, while roots usually show negative
phototropic movement. If a plant is kept in a container in which no sunlight reaches and a hole in the
container allows some sunlight; the stem finally grows in the direction of the sunlight. This happens
because of a higher rate of cell division in the part of stem which is away from the sunlight. As a result,
the stem bends towards the light. The heightened rate of cell division is attained by increased secretion
of the plant hormone auxin in the which is away from sunlight.

(iii) Hydrotropic Movement: When roots grow in the soil, they usually grow towards the nearest
source of water. This shows a positive hydrotropic movement.
(iv) Thigmotropism Movement: The growth in a plant part in response to touch is called
thigmotropism movement. Such movements are seen in tendrils of climbers. The tendril grows in a way
so as it can coil around a support. The differential rate of cell division in different parts of the tendril
happens due to action of auxin.
2. Nastic Movement: The movement which do not depend on the direction from the stimulus acts are
called nastic movement. For example, when someone touches the leaves of mimosa, the leaves droop.
The drooping is independent of the direction from which the leaves are touched. Such movements
usually happen because of changing water balance in the cells. When leaves of mimosa are touched,
the cells in the leaves lose- water and become flaccid, resulting in drooping of leaves.

Plant hormones: Plant hormones are chemical which help to co-ordinate growth, development and
responses to the environment.
Type of plant hormones: Main plant hormones are
 Auxin: (Synthesized at shoot tip).
Function: Helps in growth.
Phototropism: more growth of cells towards the light.
 Gibberellin: Helps in the growth of the stem.
 Cytokinins: Promotes cell division.
 Abscisic acid: Inhibits growth, cause wilting of leaves. (Stress hormone)
Control and Coordination in Plants
 Stimuli: The change in the environment to which an organism responds.
 Co-ordination: Working together of various organs of an organism in a systematic manner to
produce a proper response.
 Phyto-hormones: These are plant hormones.
 Auxin: It is a plant hormone which promotes cell enlargement and growth in plants.
 Gibberellins: A plant hormone which promotes cell differentiation and breaking dormancy of
seeds and buds.
 Cytokinin: A plant hormone which promotes cell division and the opening of stomata.
 Abscisic Acid: It helps in inhibiting the growth of the plant and promotes wilting and falling of
leaves and food.
 Tropism: A growth movement of a plant which determines direction with the stimulus.
 Nastism: A growth movement of a plant which does not determine direction with a stimulus.
 Phototropism: Movement of plants towards a light.
 Geotropism: Movement of plants towards the gravity of earth.
 Chemotropism: Movement of plants towards chemicals.
 Hydrotropism: Movement of plants towards the water.
 Thigmotropism: Movement of plants towards a response to the touch of an object.
Control and Coordination in Animals
 Stimuli: The change in the environment to which the organism responds.
  Co-ordination: Working together of various organs of an organism in a systematic manner to
produce a proper response.
 Neuron: Functional unit of the nervous system.
 Synapse: A microscopic gap between a pair of adjacent neurons.
 Receptor: A cell in a sense organ which is sensitive to stimuli.
 Motor nerves: It carries the message from the brain to body parts for action.
 Sensory nerves: It carries the message from body to brain.
 Olfactory receptor: It detects smell by the nose.
 Gustatory receptor: It detects taste by a tongue.
 Thermoreceptor: It detects heat and cold by a skin.
 Photoreceptor: It detects light by eye.
 Reflex action: Sudden movement or response to the stimulus which occurs in a very short
duration of time and does not involve any will or thinking of the brain.
 Brain: An organ present in the skull which controls and regulates the activity of the whole body
and is known as president of the body.
 Cerebrum: Main thinking part of brain present in the forebrain area which controls all voluntary
actions.
 Cerebellum: It is present in the hindbrain area and helps in maintaining posture and balance of
the body.
 Medulla: It is present in the hindbrain area and helps in controlling voluntary actions of the brain.
 Spinal cord: It is a cylindrical structure of nerve fibres enclosed in the vertebral column which
helps in the conduction of nerve impulses to and from the brain
Chapter 8 How do Organisms Reproduce
Asexual Reproduction
 It involves only one parent.
 There is no formation and fusion of gametes.
 The young ones formed are almost identical to each other as well as to the parent cell.
 Asexual reproduction generally occurs during favourable environmental conditions and when
there is an abundance of food.
 It is a faster method of reproduction.
Types of Asexual Reproduction is Unicellular Organism
(i) Binary Fission: Seen in bacteria, protozoa like Amoeba, Paramecium. (In these first pseudopodia
withdrawn (karyokinesis) the nucleus of the parent cell divides and then the cytoplasm divides
(cytokinesis) resulting in the formation of two daughter cells). It occurs during highly favourable
conditions. The cell division can occur in any plane as in case of Amoeba. However, organisms like
Leishmania. (cause Kala-azar), which have a whip like flagella at one end, binary fission occurs in a
definite orientation in relation to the flagellum.

Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm.

Karyokinesis: Division of Nucleus.
(ii) Multiple Fission: Seen in Plasmodium, (a malarial parasite). In this during unfavourable conditions,
the parent cell develops a thick resistant wall around itself forming a cyst. Within the wall, the cytoplasm
divides many times to form many plasmodia. When conditions become favourable, the cyst wall breaks
and the Plasmodium are released.

(iii) Budding: Seen in Yeast (a fungus). The parent yeast cell develops a protrusion or an outgrowth at
its upper end. The nucleus of the parent cell divides and one of them moves into the outgrowth which
grows bigger and finally separates from the parent cell to lead an independent existence. Very often if
the conditions are highly favourable, a chain of buds is formed.

Types of Asexual Reproduction in Multicellular Organisms :

(i) Fragmentation: Seen in multicellular organisms which have a relatively simple body organisation
like Spirogyra. Spirogyra has a filamentous body. (If it breaks into smaller pieces or fragments). Each
fragment has the capacity to form a new individual.
However, all multicellular organisms cannot show cell-by-cell division as cells from tissues which form
organs. These organs are placed at definite positions in the body. Hence, they need to use more
complex methods of reproduction.

(ii) Regeneration: It is the ability of organisms to develop their lost parts. Some organisms show have
high regenerative capacity it is also a means of reproduction for example; Planaria. (Regeneration is
carried out by specialized cells which redivide to form a mass of cells from which different cells undergo
changes to become different cell types and tissues. These changes occur in an organized sequence
known as development).

(iii) Budding: Seen in Hydra. Parent Hydra develops a bud at its lower end. This grows in size and
finally breaks off to live independently.

(iv) Spore Formation: Seen in Rhizopus (a fungus). Rhizopus body is made up of thread-like
structures called hyphae. The erect hyphae bear sporangia inside which reproductive structures called
spores are formed. Spores are asexually reproducing bodies having a thick protective wall. They are
produced during unfavourable times and help to tide over the unfavourable environmental conditions.
When the spores fall on a suitable medium, each one forms a new individual.

(v) Vegetative Propagation: Method by which plants reproduce by their vegetative parts such as
roots, stems, and leaves.
Types of Vegetative Propagation: It is two types
 Natural vegetative propagation.
 Artificial vegetative propagation (Tissue culture).
Mint reproduces naturally by roots. Sugarcane, jasmine by stems and Biyophyllum by leaves. In
biyophyllum buds are produced in the notches along the leaf margins and when they fall on the soil,
they develop into new plants.

Importance of Vegetative Propagation

 Plants can bear flowers and fruits earlier.
 Plants which have lost the ability to produce viable seeds can also reproduce by vegetative
propagation.
 All plants are genetically almost similar to the parent plant.
 Seedless varieties can be obtained.
 The property of vegetative propagation is used by horticulturists in developing methods like
layering, grafting to grow many plants like sugarcane, roses, or grapes.
Tissue Culture: The technique of developing new plants from a cell or tissue in a nutrient medium
under aseptic conditions. The cell or tissue is placed in a nutrient medium where it forms a mass of
cells called callus. This callus is then transferred to another nutrient medium where it differentiates and
forms a new plant.
Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction in plants, Sexual reproduction in human beings. The mode
of reproduction that takes place with the involvement of two individuals of two different sexes i.e. male
and female.
During sexual reproduction, male organism having male sex organs produces male gametes i.e.
sperms which are small and motile and the female organism having female sex organs produces ova
which are generally large and store food. Male and female gametes fuse to form a zygote that grows
into a new organism.
Significance of Sexual Reproduction :
 Sexual reproduction involves DNA as well as cellular apparatus of two different organisms which
promotes diversity of characters in the offspring.
 Since gametes are derived from two different organisms, it results in a new combination of genes
which increases the chances of genetic variations.
 Sexual reproduction results in the origin of. new species.
 Sexual reproduction involves division in the sex organs that reduces the DNA matter to half so
that the zygote formed after fusion has the same amount of DNA as the parents it maintains DNA
in a species.
Limitation of Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction involves the process of combining DNA from
two different organisms which may bring some undesirable features also.
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants
 The reproductive parts are present in the flower.
 The parts of the flower are sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.
 Sepals are green structures that protect the inner parts when the flower is in bud stage.
 Petals are colourful and attract the insects for pollination.
 Stamens are male reproductive parts and produce pollen grains that contain male gametes. Each
stamen has two parts—
 Filament i.e. stalk and Anther i.e. swollen top part which has large number of pollen grains.

The carpel is the female reproductive part and produces ovules that contain female gametes. It has
three parts—Stigma which is top sticky part and receives pollen grains during pollination. Style which is
the middle long part and ovary which is the swollen part and contains ovules. Each ovule has an egg
cell i.e. female gamete.

The flowers may be bisexual i.e. having both stamens and carpels for example; Mustard China Rose
(Hibiscus).
The flower may be unisexual i.e. paving either stamens or carpels for example; Papaya, Watermelon.
Pollination: The process of transfer of pollen grains from an anther to the stigma of the flower is
pollination. Two types of pollination are:
(i) Self-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or
another flower of the same plant.
(ii) Cross-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another flower or
another flower of a different plant of the same species. It generally takes place with the help of some
agents like insects, birds, wind and water.
Fertilization: Fertilization is the process of fusion of male and female gamete to form a zygote during
sexual reproduction. Pollination is followed by fertilisation in plants. The events are
Pollen grains land on the stigma of the ovary.
Pollen tubes grow out of the pollen grains, travel through the style and reach the ovary, through micro
pyle.
Pollen tube has two male germ cells. Each ovule has two polar nuclei and a female germ cell (egg).
Pollen tube releases two male germ cells inside the ovule, one of them fuses with female germ cell and
forms a zygote which grows into the baby plant i.e. embryo, the fusion is known as syngamy. The other
male germ cell fuses with two polar nuclei, the process is known as triple fusion. So in flowering plants
two fusions take place during fertilisation. It is called double fertilisation.

Post-fertilisation changes: After fertilisation the following changes takes place in the flower.
Zygote divides several times and forms an embryo inside the ovule.
 The ovule develops a tough coat and changes into the seed.
 The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
 Petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma shrivel and fall off.
Seed and its parts: The advantage of seed is that it protects the future plant i.e. embryo.
Seed has two parts: Cotyledons and Embryo Cotyledons store food for the future plant.
Embryo has two parts: plumule and radicle. Plumule develops into shoot and radicle develops into
root.
The process of development of a seedling from the embryo under appropriate conditions is known as
germination.

Reproduction in Human Being: Human beings show sexual reproduction. Male parent produces male
gametes called sperms. Female parent produces female gametes called ova. Sperms have tail and are
therefore, motile. They are produced in large numbers in the testes. Ovum is bigger, non-motile and
only one ovary produces one ovum in one month. There is no food stored in the sperms whereas ova
contain stored food. Both the gametes are microscopic unicellular and have half the number of
chromosomes as compared to the body cells.
Human beings become reproductively active from the onset of puberty. Puberty is the period during
adolescence when the rate of general body growth begins to slow down and reproductive tissues begin
to mature. Onset of puberty in human males is between 11 to 13 yrs of age, while in human females is
between 10 to 12 yrs. of age. Puberty is associated with many physical, mental, emotional and
psychological changes in boys and girls which occur slowly over a period of time. These are called
secondary sexual characters. For instance thick dark hair start growing in new parts of the body such
as arm pits and genital area between the thighs. Thinner hair appear on legs, arms and face. Skin
becomes oily and pimples may appear on the face. Individuals become more conscious of their bodies
become more independent, more aggressive etc.
In case of boys beard and mustache start appearing, voice begins to crack, reproductive organs
develop and start producing releasing sperms.
In case of girls, breast size begins to increase, skin of the nipples darkens, menstruation starts.
The act of mating between the male and female partner is termed as copulation.
Male Reproductive System: Male reproductive system consists of the following components

 1 pair of testes
 A system of ducts
 Epididymis
 Vas deferens or the sperm duct
 Urethra
A system of glands
 Seminal vesicles
 Prostrate gland
  Cowper’s gland
A copulatory organ called a penis.
One pair of testes are present in a bag-like structure called scrotum which lies outside the abdominal
cavity, hence they are extra abdominal in position. This is so because the testes have to be maintained
at 1-3 degree lesser temperature than the body in order to produce functional sperms.
Functions of testes
 To produce male gametes i.e. the sperms.
 To produce a male reproductive hormone called testosterone which is responsible for producing
sperms as well as secondary sexual characteristics in males.
Attached to each testis is a highly coiled tube called epididymis. The sperms are stored here and they
mature in the epididymis.
Each epididymis leads into the sperm duct or the vas-deferens. Each vas-deferens rises up and enters
into the abdominal cavity. It unites with the duct coming from the urinary bladder to form a common
duct called urethra which passes through the penis and opens to the outside. Along the way the ducts
of the three glands also open and pour their secretions into the vas deferens.
Function of the vas-deferens: It is meant for the passage of the sperms in the male body.
Functions of the glands: They produce different secretions which provide nutrition as well as medium
for locomotion to the sperms.
The secretions of the three glands along with the sperms is known as semen.
Function of the urethra: It is the common passage for both semen and urine from the body to. the
outside.
Penis: It is the organ which is used to introduce semen into the female body. It is richly supplied with
blood vessels.
Female Reproductive System: It consists of the following components

 1 pair of ovaries
 1 pair of fallopian tubes or oviducts
 A uterus/womb
 A vagina/birth canal.
Each ovary is almond shaped and present inside the abdominal cavity. At the time of birth each girl
child already contains thousands of immature ova. These ova start maturing only from the time of
puberty. Only one ovum is produced by one ovary in one month and each ovary releases an ovum in
alternate months. The release of an ovum from the ovary into the abdominal cavity is known as
ovulation.
Functions of ovary
 To produce and release ova
 To produce female reproductive hormones: estrogen and progesterone.
There are two fallopian tubes. The end lying close to the ovary has finger like structures called fimbriae.
The two fallopian tubes unite to form an elastic bag like structure called uterus.
Function of the fallopian tubes: It is the site of fertilization between the male and the female gametes
and formation of the zygote early embryo.
The inner lining of the uterus is richly supplied with blood vessels and is known as endometrium. The
narrow end of the uterus is called cervix.
Function of the uterus: The embryo formed in the fallopian tube comes down and gets attached to the
endometrium (implantation) and develops for the next nine months till the baby is delivered.
Vagina: The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix. The vagina is a muscular tube through
which the baby is delivered at the end of nine months. It also serves as the canal for receiving the
semen at the time of copulation.
The semen is discharged into the vaginal tract during copulation. The sperms travel upwards and reach
the fallopian tube where one sperm fuses with the ovum to form the zygote. The zygote divides and
redivides as it descends into the uterus and the embryo gets implanted in the endometrium. The
endometrium thickens so as to receive the embryo.
The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue called placenta,
which is a disk-like structure embeded in the uterine wall. It contains finger-like villi on the embryo side,
while on the mother’s side blood spaces surround the villi. Villi provides a large surface area for
glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother to the developing embryo and the wastes to pass from the
embryo to the mother through the placenta. When the embryo starts resembling a human is formed, it
is termed as a foetus. The foetus continues
to develop inside the uterus for almost nine months after which the baby is delivered as a result of
rhythmic contractions of the uterine muscles.
Menstruation: It is the loss of blood, mucous along with the unfertilized ovum and the ruptured cells
and tissues of the endometrium through the vagina of the female. It is a 28-day cycle which occurs in
every reproductively active female (from puberty). The flow of blood continues for 2 to 8 days. If the
ovum does not get fertilized, then the endometrium starts sloughing off and there is loss of blood and
mucous etc. through the vagina. In case the ovum gets fertilized, then the endometrium becomes thick
and spongy for nourishing the embryo and hence menstruation does not occur. A lady with a
developing embryo in her womb is termed as pregnant. The beginning of menstruation at puberty is
known as menarche. The stopage of menstruation when the woman is 45-55 yrs of age is called
menopause.
Reproductive Health: Sexually transmitted diseases and birth control.
A number of diseases occur as a result of sexual intercourse if one of the partners is infected. These
are known as sexually transmitted diseases (STD’s). They can be caused by bacteria for example;
syphilis, gonorrhoea; or caused by a virus for example; HIV-AIDS, warts etc. The transmission of these
diseases can be avoided by using birth control measures such as wearing a condom during the sexual
act.
Birth control measures: They can be mechanical, chemical and surgical.
Mechanical methods: These are used to prevent the passage of semen to the follopian tube :
(i) Use of condoms: Condoms are thin rubber tubes worn over the penis before sexual intercourse. The
semen gets collected in this and is not discharged into the vagina.
(ii) Diaphragm: It is a thin rubber fixed over a flexible metal ring which is fitted over the cervix in a
woman’s body by a doctor.
(iii) Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) or loop: It is inserted in the uterus and its insertion
causes certain secretion which prevents the implantation of the embryo in the uterine wall.
Both methods (ii) and (iii) cause side effects.
Chemical methods
 Use of spermicides: These are strong sperm-killing chemicals available in the form of creams,
jellies etc. which are injected into the vagina just before copulation.
 Oral contraceptive pills: These are hormonal pills which prevent ovulation but do not stop
menstruation.
Surgical methods
 Vasectomy: It involves cutting and ligating the vas deferens in males.
 Tubectomy: It involves cutting and ligating Reproductive organs the fallopian tubes in females.
 Medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) or abortions is carried out to eliminate the developing
embryo. This practice can, however, be misused to carry out female foeticide which involves the
killing of the female foetus. It should be avoided at all cost as it disturbs the male-female ratio in a
population.
Reproduction: It is the process by which living organisms produce new individuals similar to
themselves.
 Reproduction ensured continuity of life on earth.
 It is a bridge to hereditary transmission.
 It involves a continuation of characters from the parents to daughter cells by copying of DNA
(Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) molecules present in the chromosomes of the cell.
 Copying of DNAs is also not a foolproof exercise, even minute changes bring about variation in
the blue print of the offsprings.
 The useful variations are retained while the harmful ones do not go beyond.
 Actually, variations help the species to withstand drastic environmental changes, thus save the
species from becoming extinct and promotes its survival for a longer time.
 This inbuilt tendency of variation is the “basis” for Evolution.
Asexual Reproduction: It is extremely useful as a means of rapid multiplication. It is common in lower
plants and animals.
Different forms of Asexual Reproduction:
 Fission: The parent cell divides/splits into two daughter cells —Binary fission and splits into many
cells —Multiple fission.
 Budding: A new organism is produced as an outgrowth of the parent body part.
 Spore Formation: Spores are small, the bulb-like structure which develops at the top of the erect
hyphae of the fungus-plant, when released into the air germinate, into new individuals after
landing into food or soil.
 Fragmentation: It is the accidental process when the broken pieces of an organism (fragments)
grows into a complete organism. Example, fragmentation in Spirogyra.
 Regeneration: When simple animals like a hydra, planaria develop a new individual from their
broken older part it is known as regeneration. It is carried out by specialised cells which grow
large numbers of cells.
Vegetative Propagation: A mode of reproduction in which parts like the stem, root, leaves develop
into new plants under favourable conditions.
Benefits:
 Plants can bear flowers, fruits more quickly than those produced from seeds.
 Growing banana, orange, rose, jasmine that have lost the capacity to produce seeds.
 The genetical similarity is maintained in the plants. Example, sugarcane, rose, grapes by layering
or grafting.
Sexual Reproduction: When reproduction takes place as a result of the fusion between two gametes,
one from each parent, it is called sexual reproduction.
 This process of fusion between two gametes is called fertilization.
 The formation of gametes involves an exchange of chromosomal (genetic) fragments between
homologous chromosomes causing genetic recombination which leads to variation.
Sexual Reproduction in Plants: It occurs mostly in flowering plants.’ In fact, flowers are the
reproductive organ of plants.
  Pollen grains of a flower transfer to the stigma of the carpel of the same flower (Self-Pollination)
or to the carpel of another flower (Cross-Pollination).
 This transfer of pollens is achieved by agents like wind, water or animals. After pollination, the
pollen grains reach the egg cell in the form of a pollen tube.
 Fertilization. The fusion between the pollen grain and female egg cell. It occurs inside the ovary.
The zygote is produced in this process.
 The zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule. The ovule develops a rough
coat and is converted into a seed.
 Ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form fruit, while the seed contains the future plant or embryo
which develops into a seedling under suitable conditions. This process is known as Germination.
Reproduction in Human Beings:
 Humans use a sexual mode of reproduction.
 It needs sexual maturation which includes the creation of the germ cells, i.e., egg (ova) in the
female and sperm in the male partner and this period of sexual maturation is called Puberty.
 Human beings have a well-developed male and female reproductive system.
 The formation of the male germ cell (sperms) takes place in the testes (male reproductive organ).
Actually, a pair of testes are located inside scrotum situated outside the abdominal cavity. It is
meant to keep a relatively low temperature needed for the production of sperms by testes. Testes
release a male sex hormone called testosterone whose function is to:
 regulate the production of sperms;
 brings about changes in appearance seen in boys at the time of puberty; and
 the sperms along with the secretion of the prostate gland and seminal vesicle, together
constitute semen, which is released and made to enter into the female genital tract during
Copulation.
Female Reproduction System:
 The female germ cells or eggs are made in the ovaries, a pair of which is located in both sides of
the abdomen.
 When a girl is bom, the ovaries already contain thousands of immature eggs. At the time of
puberty, some of these eggs start maturing. One egg is produced every month by one of the
ovaries.
 The egg is carried from the ovary to the womb through a fallopian tube. These two fallopian tubes
unite into an elastic bag like structure known as the uterus.
 The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix.
 Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube of the female genital tract.
 The fertilized egg also called zygote gets implanted in the lining of the uterus, and starts dividing.
The uterus is richly supplied with blood to nourish the growing embryo.
 If the zygote is not formed, the inner wall of uterus breaks which causes bleeding through vagina.
This process is called Menstruation. It occurs at a regular interval of 28 days.
 The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue called
Placenta.
 Placenta provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother to the
embryo. Similarly the wastes from developing embryo are removed to mother’s blood through
placenta.
 The child is bom as a result of rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the uterus after nine
months (36 weeks) of development inside the mother’s womb, called Gestation Period.
 The sexual cycle in a woman continues upto the age of 45 to 50 years. After that the ovaries do
not release eggs. This stage is called Menopause. It also marks the end of menstruation in the
woman.
Reproductive Health: Reproductive health means total well-being in all aspects of reproduction, z.e.,
physical, emotional, social and behavioural.
Contraception: It is the avoidance of pregnancy through different methods—Natural methods, Barrier
method, Oral contraceptives, Surgical methods.
Advantages of contraception: Help in birth control, prevent sexually transmitted diseases, prevent
unwanted pregnancies, keep population explosion in check.
1. Reproduction is the process by which a living organism is able to produce new individuals of its own
kind. Unlike other life processes such as nutrition, respiration, etc., it is not essential to, maintain the life
of an individual organism. But it is important for the existence and continuity of the species.
2. Reproduction involves the creation of DNA copy and additional cellular apparatus by the cell involved
in the process.
3. The process of DNA copying leads to variations. This inbuilt tendency for variations during
reproduction is the basis for evolution.
4. Living organisms’ reproduce mainly through :
 Asexual reproduction
 Sexual reproduction
5. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
(a) Single ceiled organisms reproduce through following ways:

(ii) Budding (also by multicellular organisms)

(iii) Spore formation (also by multicellular organisms)
(b) Asexual reproduction by multicellular organisms:
(i) Fragmentation and Regeneration

6. Fission: In unicellular organisms when cell becomes fully mature, it splits into two or more parts. It is
called the fission. In organisms such as Amoeba, splitting can take place in any plane. But in organisms
like Leishmania, having whip like structure at one end of the cell, binary fission occurs in a definite
orientation in relation to these structures.
7. Regeneration : It is the ability to give rise to new organism. When the individual is cut or broken up
into many pieces. It can be seen in Hydra and Planaria and is known as regeneration.
Regeneration is carried out by specialised cells. These cells proliferate and rqgkeJarge numbers of
cells. From this mass of cells, different cells undergo changes to become various cell types and tissues.
These changes take place in an organised sequence referred to as ” development. However,
regeneration is not the same as reproduction, since most organisms would not normally depend on
being cut up to be able to reproduce.

8. Budding: Organisms such as Hydra use regenerative cells for reproduction in the process of
budding. In Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one specific site.
These buds develop into tiny individuals and when fully mature, detach from the parent body and
become new independent individuals.

9. Spore Formation (Sporulation): Some bacteria and lower organisms make spores. During spore
formation, knob like structure called sporangium develops from the fungal hypha. Sporangia contain
spores that eventually develop into new individual. The spores are covered by thick walls that protect
them until they come in contact with moist surface or substratum and can begin to grow.

10. Fragmentation : It can be seen in Spirogyra. During this process filament of spirogyra simply
breaks up into smaller pieces upon maturation. These pieces or fragments grow into new individuals.
This process occurs under favourable conditions of moisture, temperature, light and nutrient availability.
11. Vegetative propagation: It is the simplest method of reproduction in some higher plants in which
new plant is produced from any vegetative part of the plant such as root, stem, leaf, etc.
Advantages of vegetative propagation : Vegetative propagation is useful for plants those have lost
the capacity to produce seeds, e.g. banana, rose, jasmine. Moreover, all plants produced are
genetically similar to the parent plant.
Natural Vegetative Propagation: In some plants like guava, sweet potato, dahlia, roots sprout and
grow into new plants during favourable conditions. In some other,stems grow horizontally and develop
root below and leaves above the ground. Many other common examples of vegetatively propagating
plants are onion, banana, garlic, ginger, turmeric, bryophyllum and water hyacinth.
12. Vegetative propagation in Bryophyllum: Bryophyllum reproduces by the vegetative propagation
method. During this method, buds produced in the notches along the leaf margin of bryophyllum fall on
the soil and develop into new plants.
13. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION :
Sexual reproduction involves two individuals for producing a new individual. Sexual reproduction begins
with fertilization, which is defined as the union of two different gametes. The motile germ-cell fptrUeh or
sperm) is called the male gamete and germ-cell containing stored food (egg or ovum) is called the
female gamete. The process of fusion of two gametes is called fertilization. After fertilization, a zygote
is formed , which develops into a new organism.

14. Sexual reproduction in Plants : The flowering plants or angiosperms bear special reproductive
parts located in the flower. Various parts of flower are; sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.
Most flowers have both male and female reproductive organs. The flower may be unisexual (papaya,
watermelon) when it contains either stamen or carpel or bisexual (Hibiscus, Mustard) when it contains
both stamens and carpels. It has male reproductive part cal led stamen and a female reproductive part
called carpel. Carpel is made of three parts. The swollen bottom part is the ovary, middle elongated
part is the style and the terminal part which may be sticky is the stigma.
The ovary contains ovules and each ovule has an egg cell. Each stamen consists of stalk called
filament, and a flattened fertile top called anther. The anthers produce the pollen grains. The pollen
grains produce male gametes which fuse with (egg cel I) female gamete present in the ovule. This
fusion of the germ-cells or fertilization gives zygote which grows into a new plant. Pollination: It is the
process of transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of flower. If this transfer of pollen
occurs in the same flower, it is referred to as self-pollination, whereas if the pollen is transferred from
one flower to another, it is known as cross-pollination. This transfer is carried out by different agencies
like wind, water, insects or animals.
Fertilization: A tube grows out of pollen grain and travels through the style to reach the female germ-
cells present in ovule in the ovary. Out of two male gametes present in pollen tube one fuses with egg
to form zygote. This fusion is called fertilization. After fertilization, the zygote divides several times to
form an embryo within the ovule. The ovule develops a tough coat and gradually turns into a seed. The
ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit. Meanwhile the petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma
may shrivel and fall off.
15. Reproduction in human beings : The reproductive organs of human beings are called gonads.
These are testes in male and ovaries in female. The male gonad produces sperms and female gonad
produces ova (eggs) at the age of puberty (after attainment of sexual maturity). Various changes occur
in girls and boys at this age.
16. Male Reproductive System consists of the following organs:
Testes: A pair of testes are situated in scrotum that lie outside the abdominal cavity and behind the
penis. Testes produce sperms and hormone, Testosterone hormone. Testosterone brings about
changes in appearance of boys at the time of puberty.

VAS deferens: From each testis, a duct arises which is known as vas deferens which unites with a
tube coming from urinary bladder. It brings sperms from testis.
Urethra: Vas deferens tube opens into a common tube called urethra. It runs through a muscular organ
called Penis. Penis is male copulatory organ.
Accessory Glands: Glands like prostate and seminal vesicles and Cowper’s gland add their
secretions which make transport of sperms easier and this fluid also provides nutrition.
17. Female Reproductive System: It consists of the following organs:

Ovaries: Paired ovaries are located in the abdominal cavity near the kidney. Ovaries produce female
gamete (ovum or egg) and secrete female hormones (estrogen and progesterone). One egg is
produced every month alternately by one of the ovaries.
Fallopian Tube: The egg is carried from the ovary to womb/uterus through a thin oviduct or fallopian
tube.
Uterus: The two oviducts unite into an elastic bag like structure known as the uterus.
Vagina: Uterus opens into the vagina. It is a female copulatory organ.
18. Sexual Cycle in female: After puberty, only one egg is produced alternately from one ovary after a
period of 28 days. Egg in fallopian tube encounter sperms which enter through the vaginal passage
during sexual intercourse. This fertilized egg (zygote) gets implanted in the lining of uterus which later
forms embryo. Embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of special tissue called
placenta.
If the egg is not fertilized, if lives for about one day since the ovary releases one egg every month, the
uterus prepares itself every month to receive the fertilized egg. Thus, its lining becomes thick and
spongy. If it does not get zygote, the developed lining slowly breaks down and comes out through the
vagina as blood and mucus. This cycle takes place roughly every month and is known as menstruation.
It usually lasts for about 2-5 days.
19. Reproductive Flealth: Reproductive organs need a lot of care and hygiene. Otherwise, they are
susceptible to many infections or diseases. The diseases which spread through sexual routes are
known as sexually transmitted diseases e.g., bacterial infections like syphilis, gonorrhoea and viral
infections such as warts and HIV- AIDS. A condom helps to prevent transmission of many of these
infections to some extent.
Frequent pregnancy causes many health problems and also adds to an already exploding population.
Many ways have been devised to avoid pregnancy. Contraception can be achieved by:
 Mechanical barrier method (use of condoms).
 Chemical methods (use of pills).
 Use of contraceptive devices (copper-T).
 Surgical methods (vasectomy in males and tubectomy in females)

Chapter 9 Heredity and Evolution

Heredity and Inherited Traits: Mendel’s Experiment; Sex determination.
Heredity refers to the transmission of characters from parents to offsprings. An inherited trait is a
particular genetically determined feature that distinguishes a person from the others for example;
attached or free ear lobes in human beings.
Rules for the inheritance of traits:
Mendel’s contribution: The rules for inheritance of traits in human beings are related to the fact that
both mother and father contribute an equal amount of genetic material i.e. DNA to their offspring. So an
offspring will get two versions of that trait from the two parents. Mendel worked out rules for inheritance
of these traits. Gregor Johann Mendel regarded as the ‘Father of Genetics’ performed his experiments
with garden peas (Pisum sativum) in the garden behind his monastery. He observed a number of
contrasting characters in garden peas and observed their inheritance.
Some important terms
1. Chromosomes are long thread-like structures present in the nucleus of a cell which contain
hereditary information of the cell in the form of genes.
2. DNA is a chemical in the chromosome which carries the traits in a coded form.
3. Gene is the part of a chromosome which controls a specific biological function.
4. Contrasting characters: A pair of visible charactes such as tall and dwarf, white and violet flowers,
round and wrinkled seeds, green and yellow seeds etc.
5. Dominant trait: The character which expresses itself in a (Ft) generation is dominant trait. Example :
Tallness is a dominant character in pea plant.
6. Recessive trait: The character which does not express itself but is present in a generation is
recessive trait. Ex. dwarfism in the pea plant.
7. Homozygous: A condition in which both the genes of same type are present for example; an
organism has both the genes for tallness it is expressed as TT and genes for dwarfness are written as
tt.
8. Heterozygous: A condition in which both the genes are of different types for example; an organism
has genes Tt it means it has a gene for tallness and the other for dwarfness only tall character is
expressed.
9. Genotype: It is genetic make up of an individual for example; A pure tall plant is expressed as TT
and hybrid tall as Tt.
10. Phenotype: It is external appearance of the organism for example; a plant having Tt composition
will appear tall although it has gene for dwarfness.
11. Homologous pair of characters are those in which one member is contributed by the father and the
other member by the mother and both have genes for the same character at the same position.
Mendel’s Experiment: Mendel started his experiment on the pea plants. He conducted first
monohybrid and then dihybrid crosses.
Monohybrid Cross: The cross in which Mendel showed inheritance of dominant and recessive
characters is monohybrid cross. To observe inheritance of single pair of contrasting characters

he took pure tall (genotype TT) and pure dwarf (genotype tt) pea plants and cross pollinated them to
obtain first generation or first filial generation. In this figuration (F1 generation) he obtained only tall
plants. This meant that only one of the parental traits was seen, not the mixture of the two. The plants
of F generation or progeny are then self pollinated to obtain F2 generation or progeny. Now all plants
were not tall. He obtained 75% tall plants and 25% dwarf plants i.e. the phenotypic ratio was 3:1. This
indicates that in the F, generation both tall and dwarf traits were inherited but tallness expressed it self.
Tallness is a dominant trait and dwarfness is a recessive trait. F2 generation has a genotypic ratio of 1 :
2 : 1 of three types of plants represented by TT, Tt and tt as shown in the cross.
Conclusion: Phenotypic ratio—Tall : Dwarf 3 : 1
Genotype ratio—Pure Tall : Hybrid Tall : Pure Dwarf 1 : 2 : 1
Law of Dominance: When parents having pure contrasting characters are crossed then only one
character expresses itself in the Ft generation. This character is the dominant character and the
character/factor which cannot express itself is called the recessive character.
Dihybrid Cross: Mendel also carried out experiments to observe inheritance of two pairs of contrasting
characters, which is called dihybrid cross. He cross breed pea plants bearing round green seed with
plants bearing wrinkled and yellow seeds. In the Fx generation he obtained all round and yellow seeds
it means round and yellow traits of seeds are dominant features while wrinkled and green are
recessive. He self-pollinated the plants of F: generation to obtain F2 generation, he obtained four
different types of seeds round yellow, round green, wrinkled yellow and wrinkled green in the ratio of 9 :
3 : 3 : 1. He concluded that traits are independently inherited
Conclusion
 Round and yellow seeds-9.
 Round and green seeds-3.
 Wrinkled and yellow seeds-3.
 Wrinkled and green seeds-1.
How do traits get expressed?
Cellular DNA is the information source for making proteins in the cell.
A part of DNA that provides information for one particular protein is called a gene for that protein for
example; the height of a plant depends upon the growth hormone which is in turn controlled by the
gene. If the gene is efficient and more growth hormone is secreted the plant will grow tall. If the gene
for that particular protein gets altered and less of it is secreted when the plant will remain short. Both
the parents contribute equally to the DNA of next generation during sexual reproduction. They actually
contribute a copy of the same gene for example; when tall plant is crossed with short plant the gametes
will have single gene either for tallness or for shortness. F1 generation will get one gene for tallness
and other for shortness also.

How do germ cells i.e. gametes get single set of genes from parents who have two copies in them ?
Each gene set is present, not as a single long thread of DNA, but as separate independent pieces each
called a chromosome. Each cell gets two copies of the chromosome, one from each parent. Each germ
cell or gamete has one copy of it because there is reductional division in the sex organs at the time of
formation of gametes. When fertilization takes place normal number of chromosomes is restored in the
progeny ensuring the stability of DNA of the species.
How is the sex of a newborn individual determined?
It is the process by which sex of a newborn can be determined.
Different species use different strategies for this :
 In some animals the temperature at which fertilized eggs are kept determines whether the
developing animals will be males or females.
 Some animals like snails can change sex indicating that sex is not genetically determined.
 In human beings sex of the individual is determined genetically; means genes inherited from the
parents decide the sex of the offspring.
Sex determination in human beings: In human beings, all chromosomes are not paired. 22
chromosomes are paired but one pair called sex chromosome is odd in not having a perfect pair in
males. Females have a perfect pair both represented by XX. On the other hand males have a normal
sized X but the other is short called Y so it is shown as XY. All gametes or ova formed by the
homogenetic female are similar i.e. have X chromosome. Males heterogenetic form two types of
sperms i.e. half with X chromosome and the other half with Y chromosome. Sex of the baby will depend
on fertilization. There are two possibilities :

Autosomes: Those chromosomes which do not play any role in sex determination.
Sex chromosomes: Those chromosomes which play a role in determining sex of the newborn.
 If the sperm having X chromosome fertilizes with ovum with X chromosome then the baby will
have XX chromosome and it will be female.
 If the sperm having Y chromosome fertilizes with ovum with X chromosome then the baby will
have XY chromosomes and it will be male.
1. Heredity : It refers to the transmission of characters or traits from the parents to their offspring.
Heredity is the continuity of features from one generation to another which are present in fertilised egg
or zygote. The zygote develops into an organism of a particular type only.
2. Genetics : It is the branch of biology which deals with heredity and variation. Genetics is to help our
understanding of heredity by knowing how offspring inherit characteristics from their parents.
3. Variation : It means the differences in the characters or traits among the individuals of a species.
Variations occur during reproduction both because of error in DNA copying and as a result of sexual
reproduction. Variations contribute to evolution.
Causes of variations:
 Different combinations of genetic material.
 Some positive gene mutations.
 Interaction of genes with environmental changes (adaptations).
Importance of variations:
 It forms, the. basis of heredity.
 It causes adaptations due to which organism can easily adjust to its changing environment.
 Accumulation of variations forms the basis of evolution.
Remember!
Variations are produced both in sexual and asexual reproduction but amount of variations produced in
asexual reproduction are subtle (so little) that they are hardly noticeable as compared to variations
caused due to sexual reproduction.
4. Genotype : The genetic constitution of an organism e.g., Genotype of human male is 44 + XY and
genotype of human female is 44 + XX
5. Phenotype : The appearance of the organism, i.e., the way in which genotype is expressed.
Phenotype is the result of interaction of genes with the environment.
e.g., Red colour may be controlled by a pair of genes RR. Now if genotype is RR phenotype will be red
only but if genotype is Rr then also phenotype will be red since R is a dominant gene.
6. Gene : It is the basic unit of inheritance by which characters are transferred from parents to their
offspring. Gene consists of a specific length of DNA on a chromosome. A specific Segment of DNA that
provides the information for one protein is called gene for that protein.
According to Mendel, both parents must contribute equally to the DNA of the progeny during sexual
reproduction. As both parents determine the trait in the progeny, so both parents must be contributing a
copy of the same gene.
7. Chromosomes : These are the long threads present in the nucleus of every cell. Chromosomes are
made- up of DNA and protein. Each chromosome contains very long molecule of DNA.
Remember!
Each gene set is present as separate independent pieces each called a chromosome. Each cell have
two copies of each chromosome, one each from male and female parents. Every germ cell will take
one chromosome from each pair and these may be of either maternal or paternal origin. When two
germ cells combine, they will restore the normal number of chromosomes in the progeny, ensuring the
stability of the DNA of the species. Such mechanism of inheritance is used by all sexually and
asexually reproducing organisms.
8. Allele: It is an alternative form of a gene occupying the same position on a chromosome and
affecting the same characters but in two alternative ways, e.g., the free and attached ear lobe are the
alleles of ear lobe character.
Expressing allele of a gene :
 Homozygous dominant in capital letters, e.g., tallness(TT)
 Homozygous recessive in smalMetters, e.g., shortness or dwarfness (tt)
 Heterozygous (Tt)-lt will be called hybrid tall.
9. Dominant allele: An allele that affects the phenotype of an organism both in heterozygous and
homozygous condition. It is denoted by a capital letter, e.g., tallness in pea plant is denoted by ‘T.
10. Recessive allele: An allele that affects the phenotype of the organism in absence of a dominant
allele, i.e., in homozygous recessive individuals. It is denoted by a small alphabet, e.g., dwarfness in
pea plant is denoted by’t’.
11. Homozygous: When both alleles of a particular gene are the same, e.g., TT
12. Heterozygous : When both alleles of a particular gene are different, e.g., Tt
13. Diploid : Cells or organism containing two sets of genes, e.g., human body cells. Diploid cells have
genetic constitution of 2n.
14. Haploid : Cells or organism containing one set of genes, e.g., human reproductive cells (sperms
and ova). Haploid cells have genetic constitution of n.
15. Monohybrid cross : A cross between two parents taking the alternative traits of one single
character, e.g., A cross between tall and dwarf pea plants.
Monohybrid Ratio :
 In F1 generation : 100% hybrid
 In F2 generation : phenotypic ratio is 3 : 1 and genotypic ratio is 1 : 2 : 1
16. Dihybrid cross: A cross between two parents taking into consideration alternative traits of two
different characters, e.g., A cross between two pea plants one having round, green seeds and the other
having wrinkled, yellow seeds.
Dihybrid Ratio :
 F1 ratio is 100% Hybrid type.
 F2 ratio : Phenotypic is 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 and Genotypic . ratio is very complex.
17. Human Blood Groups: There are four types of blood groups A, B, AB or O. These are controlled
by a gene which is denoted by symbols IA, IB and IO (sometimes also denoted as i). The genes IA and
IB show no dominance over each other (they are codominant, i.e., both expresses themselves
independently). But these both genes are dominant over the gene I O. Therefore, blood group of a
person depends on the type of genes present, e.g., (i) Blood group A has the following gene types :
18. Determining sex of a newborn individual genetically:
 In human beings the sex of the individual is ” determined genetically.
 There are 23 pairs of chromosomes of which 22 are similar in male and female and are known as
autosomes.
 The remaining one is sex chromosome which is XY in males and XX in females.
 Males produce two types of sperms X and Y, while female produces one type of egg X.
  If a X type of sperm fertilizers the egg then the sex of baby will be female (XX).
 If Y type of sperm fertilizers the egg then the sex of the baby will be male (XY).

19. Mendel’s experiment to show that traits may be dominant or recessive:

 Mendel conducted breeding experiments in garden pea.
 selected pure plant of a tall/short plant.
 produced first generation plants by crossing them.
 found that all plants were tall.
 produced the second generation by self-fertilization of hybrids.
 found that three-quarter of the plants was tall and one quarter was short.
20. Homologous chromosomes: A pair of corresponding chromosomes of the same shape and size,
one from each parent.
21. Autosomes and Sex chromosomes : The identical » chromosome pairs are called autosomes.
The
chromosome pair which is different are called sex chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs of
chromosomes. 1-22 pairs are autosomes while 23rd pair (XX in females and XY in males) which are
designated as X and Y are sex chromosomes.

Chapter 15 Our Environment

Biodegradable and Non-biodegradable Wastes, Ecosystem, Components of Ecosystem. The
environment includes our physical surroundings like air (or atmosphere), water bodies, soil (land and all
the organisms such as plants, animals, human beings and micro-organisms like bacteria and fungi
(called decomposers). The waste materials produced by the various activities of man £nd animals are
poisonous to some extent and can be divided into two main groups
1. Biodegradable Wastes: Substances that are broken down by the biological processes are said to
be biodegradable. These substances are decomposed through the actions of fungi, bacteria, and other
living organisms. Temperature and sunlight also play an important role in the decomposition of
biodegradable substances.
For Examples: Food waste, trees leaves, urine and fecal matter, sewage agricultural residue, paper,
wood, cloth, cow-dung etc.
2. Non-Biodegradable Wastes: Substances that are not broken down by biological
processes. These substances may be in solid, liquid or gaseous form. These substances are inert and
simply persist in the environment for a long time or may harm the various members of the ecosystem.
For Examples: These includes DDT (Di-chloro-di phenyl trichloro ethane-in-pheneyle the cheoro
ethane), insecticides, pesticides, mercury, lead, arsenic aluminum, plastics, polythene bags, glass,
radioactive wastes. These non-biodegradable wastes are major pollutants of the environment.
Harmful effects of biodegradable and Non-Biodegradable Substance
1. The waste destroys the natural beauty and our surroundings become dirty.
2. Decomposition of these wastes results in the production of foul smell, which spreads to the
surrounding areas.
 3. These wastes may also block the drains creating pools of waste, which becomes the breeding
sites of mosquitoes. The latter is carriers of diseases like malaria and dengue.
Difference between Biodegradable and Non-Biodegradable wastes
Biodegradable wastes Non-Biodegradable wastes
1. The wastes that are broken down naturally by 1. The wastes that are not broken down by the
microbial action. microbes.
2. Biodegradation forms harmless and non-
2. No such action is possible.
poisonous products.
3. They release raw materials back to nature. 3. They do not release raw materials.
4. They pollute the environment only when they are
4. Non-biodegradable wastes pollute the
produced in quantity beyond the capacity of the
environment even in small quantity.
environment to degrade them.
5. Bioconcentration or biomagnifications occurs
5. Bioconcentration does not occur.
when wastes enter food chains.
6. Recycling is possible both naturally or through
6. Recycling is possible only through human efforts.
human efforts.
Ecosystem: An ecosystem is a self-contained unit of living things (plants, animals and decomposers),
and their non-living environment (soil, air and water). For example; a forest, a pond, a lake, a green
land etc.
In an ecosystem, energy and matter are continuously exchanged between living and non¬living
components.
An ecosystem can be both natural or man-made. Some examples of natural ecosystems are grass
land, forest, sea, river, desert, mountain, pond, lake etc.
The desert, grass land and mountains represent the terrestrial ecosystem (land-based ecosystem).
The ponds, rivers, lakes and sea represent the aquatic ecosystem (water-based ecosystem). Man-
made artificial ecosystems are garden, crop fields, park, aquarium, etc.

Components of Ecosystem: There are two components of an ecosystem : (i) biotic component and
(ii) abiotic component.
1. Biotic component: It includes three types of organisms :
(a) Producers: All green plants, blue green algae can produce their food (Sugar and starch) from
inorganic substance using light energy (Photosynthesis). Therefore, all green plants are called
producers. They are also called autotrophs.
Planktons are very minute or microscopic organisms freely floating on the surface of water in a pond,
lake, river or ocean. Planktons are of two types : Phytoplanktons and Zooplanktons.
The microscopic aquatic plants freely floating on the surface of water are called phytoplanktons.
The microscopic aquatic animals freely floating on water are called zooplanktons. The freely floating
protozoa are an example of zooplankton.
(b) Consumers: They are organisms which consume other organisms or their products as their food.
All animals belong to this category. The consumers depend upon producers for their food directly or
indirectly. They get their food by eating other organisms or their products. For example, man, goat,
deer, fish, lion, cow, buffalo, etc., are common consumers.
The consumers can be classified into the following types :
  Herbivores.
 Carnivores.
 Parasite.
 Omnivores.

(i) Herbivores: These are organisms (animals) which get their food by eating the producers (or plant)
directly. Herbivores are also called first order consumers. Some common examples of herbivores are :
deer, rabbit, rat, squirrel, goat, cattle, etc.
(ii) Carnivores: These are organisms (animals) which consume other animals. Therefore, carnivores
feed on the flesh of herbivores. These are also called primary carnivores or second order consumers.
Some common examples are snake, wild cat, jackal, frog, some birds, fishes, etc.
There are animals which prey upon primary carnivores. They are called second order consumers or
third order consumers. For example, owl, peacock, tiger, lion, etc., are some second order carnivores
and may be eaten by third order carnivores. The carnivores which are not preyed upon further are
called top carnivores. For example, lion is a top carnivore.
(iii) Omnivores: The organisms which feed on both plants and animals are called omnivores. Human
beings are common example of omnivores because they eat both plants (For example; pulses, grams,
oilseeds, fruit, etc.) and animal products (milk, meat, egg, etc.).
(c) Decomposers: Fungi and bacteria which break down (decompose) the dead plants, animals
complex compounds into the simpler one. The decomposers help in the replenishment of natural
resources. These are also known as microorganism or saprotrophs. These are also called reducers.
Importance of Decomposers
 Decomposers help in disposing of the wastes and dead bodies of plants and animals. Therefore,
they clean the environment and create space for a living of newer generations of organisms.
 The decomposers release minerals and other raw materials trapped in organic matter. These are
picked up by plants. This also helps to maintain the fertility of soil.
 The decomposers produce some acids which are useful in solubilization of some minerals.
 Decomposers help in recycling the materials in the biosphere so that, the process of life may go
on and on like an unending chain.
2. Abiotic Components: These are non-living components of an ecosystem. These include the
physical environment.
 Edaphic factors like soil texture, topography, water, and air.
 Inorganic substances like carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, water, phosphorus, sodium,
potassium, and calcium. These are involved in the cyclic of materials in the ecosystem.
 Organic compounds like proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. These largely form the living body
and link the abiotic and biotic components.
Climatic factors: These are sunlight temperature, pressure humidity, moisture, rainfall, etc. these
factors affect the distribution of the organisms.
Functions of an Ecosystem
 Ecosystem indicates available solar energy and the efficiency of an ecosystem to trap the same.
 It gives information about the available essential minerals and their recycling periods.
 It provides knowledge about the web of interactions and inter-relationship among the various
population as well as between the population and the abiotic environment.
 It helps human beings to know about conservation of resources, protection from pollution and
inputs required for maximizing productivity.
 In the ecosystem, two processes of energy flow and biogeochemical cycles (nutrients movement)
proceed side by side. The energy flow is unidirectional while the movement of nutrients is cyclic.
Food chain, Food web, Trophic levels. Flow of energy ten percent law, Depletion of the ozone layer,
Biological magnification. Mode of waste disposal.
Food Chain: The sequence of living organisms in a community in which one organism consumes
another organism to transfer food energy, is called a food chain.
A food chain is unidirection where transfer of energy takes place in only one direction.
OR
Food chain is sequential process which represents “who eats whom”.
OR
Food chain refers to an arrangement of different biotic groups in a sequence of energy transfer. These
biotic groups are producer herbivores, carnivores.
For example, T1(Grass) → T2(Deer) → T3(Lion)
Examples of Food Chains: Simple food chain operating in a grass land or forest
Grass(Producer) → Deer(Herbivore) → Lion(Carnivore)
In this food chain, grass represent the producers (first tropic level). Grass synthesize their own food by
the process of photosynthesis. Grass is eaten up by deer, which represents the herbivores or the
primary consumers. Deer in turn is consumed by lion, the carnivores or the secondary consumers.
A food chain in grassland which has four steps is :
Grass(Producers) → Insect(Herbivores) → Frog(Carnivores) → Eagle(Secondary Carnivore)
Significance of Food Chains
 The study of food chains helps in understanding food relationships and interactions among the
various organisms in an ecosystem. The food chains, transfer energy and materials between
various living components of an ecosystem.
 The food chains transfer energy and materials between various living components in an
ecosystem or biosphere.
 The food chains give dynamicity to an ecosystem or biosphere.
 The movement of toxic substances like pesticides, weedicides, etc., through food chains, can
prove very harmful.
Food Web: The inter-connected food chains operating in an ecosystem which establish a network of
relationship between various species, are called a food web.
In a food web, one organism may occupy a position in more than one food chain. An organism can
obtain its food from different sources and in turn, may be eaten up by different types of organisms.

Trophic Levels: The various steps in the food chain at which the transfer of food (or energy) takes
place is called trophic levels.
There is a gradual decrease in the amount of energy transfer from one trophic level to the next trophic
level in a food chain.

So only 10% of energy is transferred to next trophic level while 90% of energy is used by present
trophic level in its life processes.
The various trophic levels are given below :
 The plant or the producers constitute the first trophic level.
 The herbivores or primary consumers form the second trophic level.
 Carnivores or secondary consumers make up the third trophic level.
 Large carnivores or the tertiary consumers which feed upon the small carnivores constitute the
fourth trophic level.
Flow Open Energy
Energy is used and conveyed from one trophic level to another in a food chain. This is called flow of
energy. Green plants capture about 1% of the solar energy incident on the Earth through the
biochemical process of photosynthesis. A part of this trapped energy is used by plants in performing
their metabolic activities and some energy is released as heat into the atmosphere. The remaining
energy is chemical energy stored in the plants as ‘carbohydrates’. When plants are eaten up by
herbivores, the chemical energy stored in the plants is transferred to these animals. These animals
(herbivores) utilize some of this energy for metabolic activities, some energy is “released as heat and
the remaining energy is stored. The process of energy transferred is similarly repeated with carnivores
and so on.
Ten percent law: Ten percent law states that only 10 percent of the energy entering a particular
trophic level of organisms is available for transfer to the next higher trophic level.

For example, Suppose 1000 J of solar energy is received by green plants, then only 1% of solar energy
available on earth is utilized by plants. So only 10 J (1% of 1000 J) is trapped by plants and the rest
990 J of energy is lost to the environment. So, plants utilizes only 10 J of energy. Next, only 10% of the
10 J energy of plant, that is, 1 J, is available to the herbivore animal while 9 J is lost to the environment.
Again, just 10% of the 1 J of energy of herbivore animals is utilized by carnivore animals. Thus,
carnivore animals have only 0.1 J of energy while 0.9 J is lost to the environment.
Environmental Problems: Changes in the environment affect us and our activities change the
environment around us. This led to the slow degradation of the environment that arose many
environmental problems. For Example; depletion of the Ozone Layer and waste disposal.
Depletion of Ozone Layer: Ozone (O3) layer is largely found in the stratosphere which is a part of our
atmosphere from 12 km -50 km above sea level. This region is called ozonosphere. Ozone is deadly
poisonous at the ground level.
Ozone is formed as a result of the following photochemical reaction.

Ozone layer is a protective blanket around earth which absorbs most of the harmful U.V. (Ultraviolet)
radiation of the Sun, thus, protecting the living beings of the Earth from health hazards like skin cancer,
cataract in eyes, weaken immune system, destruction of plants etc. The decline of Ozone layer
thickness in Antarctica was first discovered in 1985 and was termed as OZONE HOLE.
Steps taken to limit damage of ozone layer: Excessive use of CFCs (Chloro Flouro Carbon) a synthetic,
inert chemical. For example; Freon which are used as refrigerants and also in fire extinguishers caused
Ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere. A single chlorine atom can destroys 1,00,000 Ozone
molecules. U.N.E.P. (United Nation Environment Programme) did an excellent job in forging an
agreement to freeze CFC production at 1986 levels (KYOTO Protocol) by all countries.
Biological Magnification: The increase in concentration of harmful chemical substances like pesticides
in the body of living organisms at each trophic level of a food chain is called biological magnification.
Example:

Maximum concentration of such chemicals gets accumulated in human bodies.

Garbage Disposal: Industrialization and rise in demand of consumer goods have created a major
problem in the form of wastes/garbage accumulation and its disposal especially in urban areas.
The disposal of waste should be done in a scientific way. There are different methods of waste
disposal. The method to be used depends on the nature of the waste. Some of the important modes of
waste disposal are :
 Incineration: Burning of waste on high temperature to form ash is called incineration. This
process is carried out in an incinerator. Incineration is used to destroy household, chemical and
biological wastes.
 Open dumping: A conventional method in which solid waste are dumped in selected areas of a
town. It actually cause pollution
 Land fillings: Wastes are dumped in low living areas and are compacted by rolling with
bulldozers
 Composting: Organic wastes are filled into a compost pit (2m × 1m × 1m). It is then covered with
a thin layer of soil. After about three months the same garbage filled inside the pit changes into
organic manure.
 Recycling: The solid wastes is broken down into its constituent simpler materials. These
materials are then used to make new items. Even non-bio degradable solid wastes like plastic,
metal can be recycled.
 Reuse: A very simple conventional technique of using an item again and again. For example;
paper can be reused for making envelops, etc…
Environment: The combination of all the physical and biological conditions affecting the responses of
living organisms is called environment.
Biodegradable wastes: The wastes which are broken down by the activity of micro¬organisms and
enter into the biogeochemical cycle are known as biodegradable wastes.
Non-biodegradable wastes: The wastes which cannot be broken down by the enzymes produced by
microorganisms into simpler and harmless products in nature are called non- biodegradable wastes.
Garbage: Domestic wastes including the kitchen waste are termed as garbage.
Incineration: Destruction of waste materials by burning at high temperature is called incineration.
Biotic Community: A group of various populations of organisms living in a region is called the biotic
community.
Ecosystems: The self-contained and distinct functional unit capable of independent existence made
by the interaction of living and non-living components is called an ecosystem.
Ecosystem component consists of two components- Abiotic and biotic
 Abiotic: Components consist of inorganic and organic substances and climatic factors.
 Biotic: Components consist of a living organism.
Autotrophs: Those organisms which can produce their own food are called autotrophs or producers.
All green plants are producers.
Consumers: Those organisms which are unable to synthesise their food themselves and consume the
food produced by producers or eat other organisms as food, are known as consumers.
Decomposers: Bacteria and fungi which break down the complex organic compounds present in the
dead plants and animals and their products into simpler substances are known as decomposers.
Food Chain: A series of organisms in a community in which one organism consumes another
organism to transfer food energy is called a food chain.
Characteristics:
 A food chain helps in understanding the food relationship and interactions among various
organisms in an ecosystem.
 There is a progressive decline in the amount of energy available as we move from one trophic
level to another in a food chain.
Trophic levels: Each step of the food chain is known as a trophic level. 10% of food taken by one
trophic level is available for the next trophic level.
Food Web: The web formed by the interconnection of food-chains of the various trophic levels is called
a food web.
Biomagnification: The increase in the concentration of the harmful chemicals in the body of an
organism per unit its mass at each successive trophic level in a food chain is known as
biomagnification.
Ozone Depletion: The thinning of the ozone layer is called ozone depletion.
Ozone-depleting substances: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), oxides of nitrogen, methane, carbon
tetrachloride and chlorine are the ozone-depleting substances.
Four practices which can help in the protection of our environment:
 Disposal of wastes after separating them into biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste
material.
 Use of unleaded petrol and alternate sources of energy, and keeping the engine properly tuned
and serviced and the tyres inflated to the right pressure so that the vehicle runs efficiently.
 The use of gunny bags and paper bags in place of polythene/plastic bags.
 Activities such as gardening, rain-water harvesting and use of compost in place of fertilizers will
help protect our environment from further damage.
Harmful effects of agricultural practices on the environment.
 Excessive use of fertilisers changes the chemistry of soil and kills useful microbes.
 Excessive use of non-biodegradable chemical pesticides leads to biological magnification.
 Extensive cropping causes loss of soil fertility.
 Excess use of groundwater for agriculture lowers the water table.
 Agricultural practices lead to some amount of damage to the natural ecosystem/habitat.
1. Environment: The physical, chemical and ‘ biological conditions of the region in which an organism
lives is called its Environment. It includes air, light, soil, temperature, water and the presence or
absence of other organisms, i.e., the conditions for development or growth.
The environment has three main components, viz :
 Physical surroundings [soil, air and water bodies]
 Living organisms [plants, animals, decomposers (bacteria and fungi)]
 Meteorological factors (or climatic factors) . [sunlight, temperature, rainfall, humidity, pressure
and wind speed].
2. Physical environment: It is also called a abiotic or non-living environment. It includes :
 Soil, water bodies and air on the surface of the earth.
 Meteorological factors.
The physical environment is essential for :
 Supply of nutrient elements to the living beings.
 Providing space to the organisms for living.
 Controlling weather of a place.
3. Biotic (or biological) environment: It includes :
 Plants.
 Animals (including human beings).
 Decomposers (bacteria and.fungi).
Other important constituents of the biotic environment includes Kites and vultures as they feed on dead
organisms and act as scavengers (cleansing agents) of the environment.
4. Ecosystem: A community of organisms, interacting with each other, plus the environment in which
they
live and with which they also interact. The examples of the ecosystem are a pond; a desert; a forest; a
lake; a river; a mountain; the sea.
All the above ecosystems are made up of two main components.

5. Autotrophs (Producers) and Heterotrophs (consumers):

6. Food chain: The sequence of living organisms in a . community in which one organism.e^ts other
and is
itself eaten by another organism to transfer energy is called a food chain. It is also defined as, “chain of
organisms, existing in any natural community, through which energy is transferred”.
7. Ozone layer : Ozone (O3) is a molecule formed by three atoms of oxygen unlike oxygen which is
required for respiration by aerobic forms, ozone is a deadly poison. However, at the higher levels of the
atmosphere,
ozone performs an essential function. It shields the surface of the earth from ultraviolet (UV) radiation
from the Sun. This radiation is highly damaging to organisms, for example, it is known to cause skin
cancer in human beings.
Ozone at the higher levels of the atmosphere is a product of UV radiation, acting on oxygen (O2)
molecule. The higher energy UV radiations split apart some molecular
oxygen (O2) into free oxygen (O) atoms. These atoms then combine with the molecular oxygen to form
ozone as shown:
Depletion of ozone layer: Ozone layer gets depleted – due to the use of chemicals called aerosol,
spray propellants like chlorofluorocarbons. Depletion of ‘ ozone layer would cause skin cancer in men
and animals and severe damage to the plants.
8. Biological magnification: It means accumulation of non-biodegradable chemicals (like pesticides)
in the living organisms (like plants, animals, including man) in a food chain. “The increase in the
concentration of harmful chemicals in the body of living organisms at each trophic level of a food chain
is called biological magnification”.
9. Biodegradable wastes and Non-biodegradable wastes:

10. A generalised food chain:

11. Food web: A food web is a network of food chains which establish a network of relationships
between various species. Food web showing 8 interlinked food chains.

13. The flow of energy between various components of the environment:

 Green plants capture about 1 % of the energy and convert it into food energy.
 About f % of the food eaten is turned into the body of an organism and made available for the
next level of consumers.
 About 10% of organic matter is present at each step and reaches the next level of consumers.
 Since so little energy is available for the next level of consumers, food chains generally consist of
only three or four steps. The loss of energy at each step is so great that very little usable energy
remains after four trophic levels.
 There are generally a greater number of individuals at the lower trophic levels of an ecosystem,
the greatest number is of the producers.