Republic of the Philippines

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY

College of Technology
Architectural Drafting Technology
Sorsogon City Campus
Magsaysay St., Sorsogon City
E-mail Add.: ____________

BUILDING MATERIALS CONSTRUCTION

SPECIFICATION MATERIALS

this section the basic materials used in building construction and discusses their common
application. As the world’s population increases and consumes more of the natural resources, it
incumbent upon the civil engineer to use building materials that contribute sustaining
development instead of satisfying only the short-term need.
CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS
4.1 Types of Cementitious Materials / 4.1
Cements come in various varieties and can be classified based on their chemical constituents. Modern
cements include silicate and aluminate cements, which use calcium silicates and aluminates for setting.
Limes, which harden through hydroxide conversion, are used to plasticize cements and add resilience to
mortars and stuccoes. Calcined gypsum is used for interior plaster and board fabrication, but its
solubility limits its use in dry climates.

4.2 Portland Cements / 4.2

• It consists of four major compounds (lime, iron, silica, and alumina) and two minor compounds
(gypsum and magnesia).
• The process involves mining, grinding, and heating the materials in a rotary kiln. The resulting
cement clinker is chemically fused together, and it is then ground to a fineness.
• The material is sold in bags containing 94 lb of cement. Portland cement is commonly used in
concrete due to its strength and durability, which can be measured directly.

4.3 Aluminous Cements / 4.5

• Aluminous cements are prepared by fusing a mixture of aluminous and calcareous materials,
such as bauxite and limestone, and grinding to a powder.
• These cements have rapid-hardening properties and high strength developed at early ages. They
are more resistant to sulfate waters and water containing aggressive carbon dioxide or weak
mineral acids than silicate cements.
 • They are used in concretes with high early strength or sulfate resistance, and in combination
with refractory concrete.

4.4 Natural Cements / 4.6

• Natural cements are formed by calcining a naturally occurring mixture of calcareous and
argillaceous substances at a temperature below sintering. They vary in composition and
properties, primarily used in masonry mortars and Portland-cement concretes.

4.5 Limes / 4.6

• These are made principally of calcium oxide (CaO), occurring naturally in limestone, marble,
chalk, coral, and shell. For building purposes, they are used in mortars.

4.6 Low-Temperature Gypsum Derivatives / 4.8

• Gypsum rock, also known as plaster of paris, is a white powder that sets under water but does
not gain strength and disintegrates on prolonged exposure. It is used as molding plaster, gaging
plaster, and gypsum block, tile, and gypsumboard.
• Hardwall plaster, mixed with water and sand, is used for base-coat plastering. Special effects can
be achieved by combining it with the correct aggregate, such as perlite or vermiculite aggregate.
• Gypsum plasters have a strong set, excellent resistance, and are not well adapted for use under
continuous damp or intermittent wet conditions.

4.8 Masonry Cements / 4.9

• Masonry cements, also known as mortar cements, are used to set unit masonry like brick, tile,
and stone.
• They can be hydraulic cements or mixtures of them. Commercial masonry cements are often
mixtures of portland cement and pulverized limestone.
• They are sold in bags weighing 70-80 lb, with prices typically lower than portland cement.

4.9 Fly Ashes / 4.9

• Fly ash, produced by coal combustion in electrical generating stations, is used as a cementitious
material and admixture in Portland cement concrete. It has pozzolanic properties, allowing it to
react with calcium hydroxide to form cementitious compounds.
• Type F ashes, resulting from burning anthracite or bituminous coals, provide increased sulfate
resistance and reduce alkali-aggregate expansions. Type C ashes, resulting from burning lignite
or subbituminous coals, have some cementitious properties but may reduce concrete durability.

4.10 Silica Fume (Microsilica) / 4.10

• Silica fume, or microsilica, is a condensed gas produced by electric arc furnaces. It is used in
concrete with a design strength exceeding 12,000 psi, providing increased long-term strength,
sulfate resistance, and reduced permeability.
• The Canadian standard limits amorphous SiO2 to 85% and oversize to 10%. MS has an average
diameter of 0.1 to 0.2 m and is supplied in densified, slurry, or pelletized forms.
AGGREGATES
Aggregate is a broad encompassing boulder, cobbles, crushed stone, gravel, air-cooled blast furnace
slag, native and manufactured sands, and manufactured and natural lightweight aggregates. Aggregates
may be further described by their respective sizes.

4.11 Normal-Weight Aggregates / 4.11

1. Definition and Composition:

• Normal-weight aggregates are commonly used in most concrete

applications. They consist of naturally occurring gravels from land or marine
sources, as well as crushed rocks such as limestone, granite, or basalt .
• These aggregates contribute to the overall density and strength of concrete.

2. Properties:

• Unit Weight: Normal-weight aggregates typically have a specific gravity

between 2.5 to 2.7. Concrete made with these aggregates has a unit weight
ranging from 23 to 26 kN/m.
• Crushing Strength: The 28-day compressive strength of normal-weight concrete
lies between 15 to 40 MPa .

3. Gradation and Fine Material:

• The distribution of aggregate sizes in a concrete mix is crucial. Fine material

passing through the No. 200 sieve (such as clay or silt) affects workability and
durability.
• Coarse-aggregate hardness also plays a role in concrete performance .

4. Applications:
o Normal-weight concrete finds use in various nonstructural and structural
applications:
▪ Nonstructural Insulating Material
▪ Masonry Units
▪ Structural Concrete
▪ Radiation Shielding (for heavyweight concrete)
4.12 Heavyweight and Lightweight Aggregates / 4.14
1. Lightweight Aggregates:
o Definition: Lightweight aggregates are materials used in concrete that have a
lower density than normal-weight aggregates.
o Typical Unit Weight: Lightweight aggregates weigh less than 1,100 kg/m³ (or
approximately 131 pounds per cubic foot).
o Characteristics:
▪ Porosity: Lightweight aggregates have a high internal porous
microstructure, contributing to their low bulk specific gravity.
▪ Absorption: They exhibit high absorption values, which affects concrete
proportioning. Prewetting the aggregate before batching can mitigate
slump loss due to absorption.
▪ Materials: Common lightweight aggregates include expanded clay, shale,
slate, vermiculite, and perlite.
o Applications:
▪ Structural Lightweight Concrete: Used in nonstructural insulating
materials, masonry units, and lightweight structural elements.
▪ Properties: Lightweight concrete has lower strength but offers
advantages in reduced dead load and thermal insulation.
2. Heavyweight Aggregates:
o Definition: Heavyweight aggregates are materials with a density greater
than 2,080 kg/m³ (up to 4,485 kg/m³).
o Applications:
▪ Radiation Shielding: Heavyweight concrete is commonly used for
shielding nuclear reactors.
▪ Counterweights: Used in applications where a high mass-to-volume ratio
is desired.
o Materials: Examples of heavyweight aggregates include magnetite, barite,
limonite, ferrophosphorus, and steel shot.
o Properties: Heavyweight concrete provides enhanced radiation protection and
stability.

* Lightweight aggregates are suitable for insulating materials and lightweight structures, while
heavyweight aggregates find use in specialized applications requiring high density and
mass. Both types contribute to the versatility of concrete formulations
ADMIXTURES FOR CONCRETE
are components added to concrete (other than water, aggregates, or cement) to alter and enhance its
properties. They can improve workability, reduce permeability, increase strength, and influence other
concrete characteristics.

4.13 Chemical and Mineral Admixtures / 4.14

1. Chemical Admixtures: These modify concrete during mixing, placing, and curing. Examples
include:
o Water Reducers: Enhance workability by reducing water content.
o Retarding Admixtures: Delay concrete setting time.
o Accelerators: Speed up early strength development.
o Superplasticizers: Improve flowability without increasing water content.
o Specialty Admixtures: Address specific needs (e.g., corrosion inhibitors, shrinkage
control agents).
2. Mineral Admixtures: These impact hardened concrete through hydraulic or pozzolanic activity.
Common types include:
o Fly Ash: A byproduct from coal combustion.
o Silica Fume: Ultrafine particles.
o Slag: From iron and steel production.
o Metakaolin: Calcined clay.

4.14 Fibers for Concrete Mixes / 4.18

These tiny reinforcements add strength and durability to concrete mixes.

1. Steel Fibers:
o Purpose: Enhance tensile strength and control cracking.
o Shape: Typically hooked or straight.
o Application: Used in industrial floors, tunnel linings, and shotcrete.
2. Polypropylene Fibers:
o Purpose: Improve impact resistance and reduce shrinkage cracks.
o Shape: Fine, synthetic fibers.
o Application: Suitable for residential and commercial concrete.
3. Glass Fibers:
o Purpose: Enhance flexural strength and prevent surface cracks.
o Shape: Thin, glass strands.
o Application: Precast elements, architectural panels.
4. Basalt Fibers:
o Purpose: Provide corrosion resistance and fire resistance.
o Shape: Derived from volcanic rock.
o Application: Marine structures, bridges.

4.15 Miscellaneous Admixtures / 4.19

add versatility and uniqueness to concrete mixes.
E.g.

• Pumping aids- are used to decrease the viscosity of harsh or marginally pumpable mixes.
• Damp proofing- admixtures include soaps, stearates, and other petroleum products.
• Permeability of concrete can be decreased by the use of y ash and silica fume as admixtures
• Gas-forming admixtures are used to form lightweight concrete. They are also used in masonry
grout where it is desirable for the grout to expand and bond to the concrete masonry unit.

MORTARS AND CONCRETES

4.16 Mortars / 4.19
Mortars are composed of a cementitious material, -ne aggregate, sand, and water. They are used for
bedding unit masonry, for plasters and stuccoes, and with the addition of coarse aggregate, for
concrete. Here consideration is given primarily to those mortars used for unit masonry and plasters.

Property of mortar:

• Workability
• Water retention
• Strength
• Volume change
• Coefficients of thermal expansion

4.17 Portland-Cement Concrete / 4.21

• Portland-cement concrete is a mixture of Portland cement, water, coarse and -ne aggregates,
and admixtures proportioned to form a plastic mass capable of being cast, placed, or molded
into forms that will harden to a solid mass.

4.18 Polymer Concretes / 4.26

• Polymer concretes are composite materials where polymer resins replace the traditional
cement binder. These specialized concretes exhibit improved chemical resistance, durability,
and flexibility, making them suitable for applications in marine structures, repair work,
and corrosive environments.

4.19 Concrete Masonry Units / 4.27

• Concrete Masonry Units (CMUs), commonly known as cinder blocks or concrete blocks, are
prefabricated building components made from concrete. These blocks have hollow cores and
are used for constructing walls, partitions, and load-bearing structures in buildings. Their
versatility, fire resistance, and cost-effectiveness make them a popular choice in construction.
BURNED-CLAY UNITS
Use of burned-clay structural units dates from prehistoric times. Hence durability of well-burned units
has been adequately established through centuries of exposure in all types of climates.

Modern burned-clay units are made in a wide variety of sizes, shapes, colors, and textures to suit the
requirements of modern architecture.

4.20 Brick-Clay or Shale / 4.28

• Brick-Clay: These bricks are made from fired clay and are commonly used for structural and
facing components in masonry construction.
• Shale: Shale is another type of sedimentary rock that can be used to create fired bricks.

4.21 Structural Clay Tile / 4.30

Structural clay tiles are hollow, burned-clay masonry units with parallel cells used in various
constructions, including facing, load-bearing, partition, repair, furring, floor, and header tiles. They
provide protection against fire, line interior walls, and provide recesses for header units.

4.22 Ceramic Tiles / 4.32

Ceramic tile is a burned-clay product used primarily for decorative and sanitary effects. It is composed of
a clay body on which is superimposed a decorative glaze.

4.23 Architectural Terra Cotta / 4.32

• The term terra cotta has been applied for centuries to decorative molded-clay objects whose
properties are similar to brick. The molded shapes are -red in a manner similar to brick.
• Terra cotta is frequently glazed to produce a desired color or furnish.

BUILDING STONES
Building stones in the US include limestones, marbles, granites, and sandstones, with serpentine and
quartzite used less. Stones are excellent building materials if selected wisely, but can be expensive.
Designers have limited choice in properties and color. Stone producers should avoid quarrying beds with
poor strength or durability.

4.24 Properties of Building Stones / 4.32

4.25 Freezing and Thawing of Stone / 4.35
understanding the effects of freezing and thawing on natural stone helps engineers, architects, and
builders make informed decisions about erosion control, stability, and the long-term performance of
rock structures.

GYPSUM PRODUCTS
4.26 Gypsumboard / 4.35

• Gypsumboard is a product made of set gypsum with paper bonded to it, suitable for walls,
ceilings, or partitions without plaster. It's commonly used in drywall construction and can be
covered with aluminum or woodgrain patterns.

4.27 Gypsum Lath / 4.37

• Gypsum lath is a core of set gypsum surfaced with paper, similar to gypsumboard but designed
for plaster bonding.

4.28 Gypsum Sheathing Board / 4.37

• Gypsum sheathing boards, similar to gypsumboard, feature a water-repellent paper surface and
are typically 3-4 in thick, 6-12 ft long, and conform to ASTM C79 with square or V tongue-and-
groove edges.

4.29 Gypsum Partition Tile or Block / 4.37

• Gypsum tiles or blocks are used for non-load-bearing partition walls and for protection of
columns, elevator shafts, etc., against -re. They have been essentially replaced by dry-wall
systems.

4.30 Gypsum Plank / 4.37

• Precast gypsum roof construction products consist of a plank core with wire-fabric
reinforcement and metal edges, available in 2-in and 3-in thicknesses, as per ASTM C377.
GLASS AND GLASS BLOCK
Glass is extensively used in modern construction for decorative and utilitarian purposes. It comes in
various thicknesses, strengths, double layers, safety glass, and ornamental work in various textures,
colors, finishes, and shapes.

4.31 Window Glass / 4.38

Clear Window Glass is widely used in all building classes and comes in grades A and B, with A for better
buildings and B for industrial buildings. It is classified as single-strength, double-strength, and heavy-
sheet, with maximum sizes of 40-50 in. Single-strength and double-strength should not be used in areas
exceeding 12 ft2.

• Plate and Float Glass. These have, in general, the same performance characteristics. They are of
superior quality, more expensive, and have better appearance, with no distortion of vision at
any angle.
• Processed Glass and Rolled Figured Sheet. These are general classifications of obscure glass.
• Laminated Glass. This consists of two or more layers of glass laminated together by one or more
coatings or a transparent plastic. This construction adds strength.
• Bullet-Resisting Glass. This is made of three or more layers of plate glass laminated under heat
and pressure. Thicknesses of this glass vary from 3/4 to 3 in.
• Tempered Glass. This is produced by a process of reheating and sudden cooling that greatly
increases strength. All cutting and fabricating must be done before tempering.
• Tinted and Coated Glasses. These are available in several types and for varied uses. As well as
decor, these uses can provide for light and heat reaction, lower light transmission, greater
safety, sound reduction, reduced glare, and increased privacy

4.32 Glass Block / 4.40

WOOD
Wood, a natural polymer from trees, is a building material with long, thin tubes with tapered ends,
cellulose crystals, and a complex lignin wall. Its properties are oriented vertically.

4.33 Mechanical Properties of Wood / 4.44

• Wood's mechanical properties indicate its ability to withstand external forces, influenced by the
application method, density, and moisture content.
• Strength characteristics vary in axial direction and transverse direction. These include tension,
compression, shear, cleavage, hardness, static bending, and shock. Tests determine stresses per
unit of loaded area, toughness, rupture modulus, and modulus of elasticity, typically using small,
transparent specimens.

4.34 Effects of Hygroscopic Properties of Wood / 4.44

 • Wood can absorb moisture in two ways:
o Liquid Absorption: When in direct contact with water.
o Vapor Absorption: From the surrounding atmosphere.
• Moisture content in wood impacts various properties, but only moisture within cell walls is
significant; moisture in cell cavities merely adds weight.
• The fiber saturation point marks the stage where cell walls are fully saturated, and cell cavities
remain empty. Beyond this point, moisture fills the cavities, leading to maximum moisture
content.

Effects on Properties:

• Weight Increase: High moisture content significantly raises wood weight, affecting
transportation costs.
• Dimensional Changes: Variation in moisture causes wood to shrink or swell, altering its
dimensions.
• Decay and Insect Resistance: Moisture content plays a crucial role.
• Working and Finishing: Moisture affects wood’s workability and finishing.

4.35 Commercial Grades of Wood / 4.46

Lumber is graded by the various associations of lumber manufacturers having jurisdiction over various
species. Two principal sets of grading rules are employed: for softwoods, and for hardwoods.

• Softwood: Softwoods. Softwood lumber is classified as dry, moisture content 19% or less; and
green, moisture content above 19%. Derived from coniferous trees (e.g., pine, spruce, cedar).
Not strictly an indicator of hardness.

e.g. Yard Lumber, Structural Lumber, Dressed (Surfaced) Lumber, Matched Lumber.

• Hardwood: Hardwood grading rules are based on the proportion of a piece that can be cut into
smaller pieces, clear on one or both sides, and not less than a specified size. From deciduous
trees (e.g., oak, maple, cherry). Again, not solely about hardness

4.36 Destroyers and Preservatives / 4.48

1. Wood Destroyers:
o These are agents that cause deterioration, decay, or damage to wood. Some common
wood destroyers include:
▪ Termites: These voracious insects feed on wood, causing structural damage.
▪ Carpenter Ants: They excavate wood to create nests, weakening its integrity.
▪ Wood-Boring Beetles: These beetles lay eggs in wood, and their larvae tunnel
through it.
▪ Fungi (Rot): Certain fungi break down wood fibers, leading to decay.
▪ Moisture and Weathering: Exposure to moisture, rain, and sunlight can degrade
wood over time.
2. Wood Preservatives:
 o These substances protect wood from decay, insect infestations, and environmental
factors. Here are some common types:
▪ Copper Naphthenate: An oil-based preservative used for end cuts on pressure-
treated lumber.
▪ Borate-Based Preservatives: Water-based treatments suitable for interior
framing.

4.37 Glues and Adhesives for Wood / 4.50

1. Polyvinyl Acetate (PVA) Glue:
o PVA glue is the most common type. It’s versatile and offers a strong bond.
o Ideal for general-purpose woodworking.
o Comes in two main variants:
▪ White PVA: Used for craft and school projects.
▪ Yellow PVA: Specifically designed for woodworking.
2. Hide Glue:
o Made from animal hides, this traditional wood glue offers reversibility.
o Historically used in fine woodworking and instrument making.
3. Polyurethane Glue:
o Known for its waterproof properties.
o Suitable for both indoor and outdoor projects.
o Provides a strong bond and can be sanded without softening the joint.
4. Epoxy:
o A versatile adhesive that works well on wood.
o Often used for bonding dissimilar materials or filling gaps.
o Provides excellent strength and durability

4.38 Plywood and Other Fabricated Wood Boards / 4.51

Plywood is a type of wood used in construction, consisting of thin sheets or veneers glued together. Its
main advantages include equal strength properties in length and width, greater resistance to checking,
reduced shrinkage and swelling, and resistance to splitting.

• Particle board, also known as chipboard, is an engineered wood product made from wood
particles such as wood chips, sawmill shavings, or sawdust. These particles are combined with
synthetic resin or a suitable binder, then pressed and extruded to form sheets or panels.
• Hardboard, also known as high-density fiberboard (HDF), is a versatile engineered wood
product. It is made by compressing wood fibers and resin under high pressure and heat,
resulting in a dense and sturdy panel.

STEEL AND STEEL ALLOYS

Iron and its alloys are generally referred to as ferrous metals. Even small amounts of alloy change the
properties of ferrous metals significantly. Also, the properties can be changed considerably by changing
the atomic structure of these metals by heating and cooling
4.40 Types of Irons and Steels / 4.52
1.
o Pure Iron: Silvery-white and malleable, pure iron is easy to shape and cut. It conducts
electricity and heat efficiently and is readily magnetized. However, we rarely encounter
pure iron due to its tendency to react with oxygen, forming the reddish-brown oxide
known as rust.
o Alloys of Iron:
▪ Pig Iron: Chunky molded blocks produced in special molds; pig iron serves as the
basic raw iron.
▪ Cast Iron: Recognizable by its brittleness and high carbon content, cast iron is
used for applications like engine blocks and cookware.
▪ Wrought Iron: A more refined form, wrought iron is malleable and resistant to
corrosion. It was historically used for gates, railings, and decorative elements.

2. Steel:
o Carbon Steels: The most common type, carbon steels contain varying amounts of
carbon. They are versatile and widely used in construction, machinery, and tools.
o Alloy Steels: These steels incorporate additional elements (such as chromium, copper,
or nickel) to enhance specific properties. Alloy steels find applications in aerospace,
automotive, and structural engineering.
o Stainless Steels: Known for their corrosion resistance, stainless steels contain chromium
and nickel. They are prevalent in kitchen utensils, medical instruments, and architectural
features.
o Tool Steels: Designed for cutting, shaping, and forming tools, these steels have high
hardness and wear resistance. They are crucial for drills, saw blades, and dies.

4.41 Properties of Structural Steels / 4.58

1. Tensile Properties:
o Tensile strength refers to a material’s ability to withstand stretching without
deformation. Structural steel exhibits higher tensile properties compared to other
materials, making it a preferred choice in construction projects.
o Shear properties are also essential. The shear strength of a steel structure is
approximately 0.57 times its yield stress.
o Hardness measures a structural steel’s ability to withstand non-elastic deformation. It
affects wear resistance, toughness, and formability.
2. Relaxation:
o Structural steel experiences relaxation over time due to stress relief. Understanding this
property helps ensure long-term stability and safety in structures.

4.42 Heat Treatment and Hardening of Steels / 4.61

enhancing the mechanical properties of steel, making it stronger, more durable, and better
suited for various applications.
Heat Treatment:

• Adjusting Carbon Content: The simplest way to alter steel’s mechanical properties is by
adjusting its carbon content. However, additional changes are achievable through heat
treatment.
• Austenite-to-Ferrite Transformation: Heat treatment involves accelerating the cooling rate
through the austenite-to-ferrite transformation point.
• Martensite Formation: Quenching steel at high rates (around 1,000°C per minute) suppresses
carbide formation and generates a new microstructure called martensite.
• Tempering: To balance hardness and brittleness, martensitic steel is tempered by raising its
temperature (e.g., to 400°C) and holding it. This process produces strong and tough steel

Steel Hardening:

• Carburizing: In case hardening, steel is exposed to carbon, infusing the surface and
strengthening it. Carburizing creates a hard outer layer while maintaining a softer core.
• Gas Nitriding: Another case-hardening technique involves exposing hot steel to nitrogen or
ammonia gas. This reaction hardens the surface.

4.43 Effects of Grain Size / 4.62

Low-carbon steel can grow coarse grains when heated above the A3 temperature line, allowing deep
hardening and higher load-carrying capacity. However, fine grains enhance steel properties like notch
toughness, bendability, and ductility.

Heat-treated steels have higher yield strengths, less distortion, less quench cracking, and smaller
internal stresses. Grain growth can be inhibited by nonmetallic inclusions or carbides, such as aluminum
deoxidation. Fine grains can also be produced by hot working rolled or forged products.

4.44 Steel Alloys / 4.62

o Alloy Steel: Alloy steel is steel that contains a variety of elements deliberately added to
enhance its properties. These alloying elements can include chromium, cobalt,
columbium, molybdenum, manganese, nickel, titanium, tungsten, silicon, and
vanadium .
o While every steel is technically an alloy (since it contains iron and carbon), the term
“alloy steel” specifically refers to steels with additional alloying elements beyond
carbon.

Types of Alloy Steels:

o Low-Alloy Steels: These contain alloying elements in smaller amounts (typically less
than 8% by weight). Low-alloy steels offer improved properties without significant cost
increases.
o High-Alloy Steels: These steels have higher alloying element content (up to 50% by
weight). They exhibit exceptional properties but are often more expensive to produce.

Common Alloying Elements:

 o Manganese (Mn): Enhances strength and hardenability.
o Nickel (Ni): Improves toughness and corrosion resistance.
o Chromium (Cr): Provides excellent corrosion resistance and high-temperature strength.
o Molybdenum (Mo): Enhances hardness and high-temperature strength.
o Vanadium (V): Increases strength and wear resistance.
o Silicon (Si): Improves strength and heat resistance.
o Boron (B): Enhances hardenability.

Improved Properties: Alloy steels exhibit a range of improved properties compared to plain
carbon steels:

o Strength
o Hardness
o Toughness
o Wear Resistance
o Corrosion Resistance
o Hardenability
o Hot Hardness

4.49 Corrosion of Iron and Steel / 4.74

Corrosion of ferrous metals occurs when iron dissolves in water, displacing hydrogen and forming more
water. This process requires liquid water and oxygen.

Painting: Applying paint acts as a protective barrier, shielding steel from environmental exposure. The
choice of paint specifications depends on the structure’s location and purpose. Different specifications
apply to marine structures versus those away from the sea

ALUMINUM AND ALUMINUM-BASED ALLOYS

Aluminum is a lightweight metal known for its excellent strength-to-weight ratio and resistance to
corrosion. It finds widespread use in various industries, including consumer electronics, automotive, and
aerospace.

Aluminum based alloys

• Aluminum alloys are combinations of aluminum and other elements

like copper, magnesium, silicon, zinc, and manganese.
• These alloying elements are added in specific proportions to achieve desired
mechanical and physical properties.
• For instance, combining aluminum with magnesium creates a strong yet lightweight
alloy suitable for aerospace and automotive applications.

4.51 Aluminum-Alloy Designations / 4.75

 • Aluminum alloys can be classified as cast and wrought, and heat-treatable or non-heat-
treatable. Wrought alloys can be mechanically worked through processes like rolling, extruding,
drawing, or forging.
• Heat-treatable alloys can age spontaneously, produce stable tempers, or undergo cold working
or strain hardening.

4.56 Prevention of Corrosion of Aluminum / 4.79

• Aluminum is highly corrosion resistant due to its tough, transparent, and tenacious oxide film. It
is recommended for building applications due to its resistance to exposures, including industrial
and seacoast atmospheres.
• Pure aluminum is the most corrosion-resistant, while alloys containing magnesium, manganese,
chromium, or magnesium and silicon are highly resistant.
• Aluminum should be protected from contact with wet concrete, mortar, and plaster, and
insulated from direct contact by asphalts, bitumens, felts, or other means. Electrolytic action
between aluminum and less active metals should be avoided, and drainage from copper-alloy
surfaces should be avoided.

COPPER AND COPPER-BASED ALLOYS

• Copper and its alloys are extensively utilized in the building industry for various purposes,
including corrosion resistance, high electrical conductivity, strength, ductility, impact resistance,
fatigue resistance, and their ability to form complex shapes.

4.58 Copper / 4.80

• Copper's excellent corrosion resistance makes it suitable for various applications, including
rooving, ashing, cornices, gutters, and downspouts.

4.59 Brass / 4.81

• Brasses are versatile metals with high ductility and malleability, suitable for deep drawing,
bending, and swaging operations. They come in various colors and are generally less expensive
than high-copper alloys. The grain size affects mechanical properties, with large sizes needed for
heavy working and small ones for polished surfaces. Hardness is influenced by alloy
composition, grain size, and form.

4.60 Nickel Silvers / 4.82

• Nickel silvers are alloys of copper, nickel, and zinc, ranging in color from faint to blue. They are
easily hot-worked and can be fabricated into intricate shapes like plumbing fixtures, stair rails,
and escalator parts.

4.62 Bronze / 4.83

 • Bronzes, originally copper and tin alloys, are now engineering metals with high mechanical
properties. Commercial wrought bronzes typically contain less than 10% tin. Phosphor bronzes,
with phosphorus added, provide sound castings. Both have excellent cold-working properties.

LEAD AND LEAD-BASED ALLOYS

4.64 Applications of Lead / 4.84

• Lead is used primarily for its corrosion resistance. Lead roofs 2000 years old are still intact.

NICKEL AND NICKEL-BASED ALLOYS

• Nickel is primarily used as an alloying element with other metals, but also as an electroplate or
cladding metal, with Monel and Inconel being the principal high-nickel alloys.

4.66 Properties of Nickel and Its Alloys / 4.85

• Nickel is resistant to alkaline corrosion but can be corroded by oxidizing acids and salts. Monel is
used in kitchen equipment and handles various chlorides.
• Inconel is almost completely resistant to corrosion by food products, pharmaceuticals,
biologicals, and dilute organic acids. It resists oxidizing acid salts but not ferric, cupric, or
mercuric chlorides.