Agni College of Technology

Thalambur, Chennai 600 130

Office of Examcell
Question Bank For Internal Test -1
Sub Name: Power Electronics Department: MHT
Sub Code : EE6503 Year & Sec : III

PART – A
1.What are the different methods to turn on the thyristor?
a. Forward voltage triggering
b. Gate triggering
c. dv/dt triggering
d. Temperature triggering
e. Light triggering

2.Define latching current.

The latching current is defined as the minimum value of anode current which it must
attain during turn on process to maintain conduction when gate signal is removed.

3.What are the advantages of GTO over SCR?

a.Elimination of commutation of commutating components in forced commutation,
resulting in reduction in cost, weight and volume.
b. Reduction in acoustic noise and electromagnetic noise due to elimination of
commutation chokes.
c. Faster turn-off, permitting high switching frequencies.
d. Improved efficiency of the converters.

4.What is meant by current commutation of SCR?

The transfer of current from one path to another is called current commutation. In
case of d.c circuits, for switching off the thyristors, the forward current should be
forced to be zero by means of some external circuits. The process is called forced
commutation.

5. Define holding current

The holding current is defined as the minimum value of anode current below which it
must fall to for turning off the thyristor

6.Why IGBT is very popular nowadays?

a. Lower hate requirements
b. Lower switching losses
c. Smaller snubbed circuit requirements

7.Comparison of MOSFET and BJT.

8. What are the advantages of single phase bridge converter over single phase mid-point
converter?
a. SCRs are subjected to a peak-inverse voltage of 2Vm in a fully controlled bridge
rectifier. Hence for same voltage and current ratings of SCRs, power handled by mid-
point configuration is about
b. In mid-point converter, each secondary winding should be able to supply the load
power. As such, the transformer rating in mid-point converter is double the load rating

9.Define circuit turn off time.

It is defined as the time during which a reverse voltage is applied across the thyristor
during its commutation process.

10.What is the function of freewheeling diodes in controlled rectifier?

It serves two process.
a. It prevents the output voltage from becoming negative.
b. The load current is transferred from the main thyristors to the freewheeling diode,
thereby allowing all of its thyristors to regain their blocking states.

11.What is a snubber circuit?

It consists of a series combination of a resistor and a capacitor in parallel with the
thyristors. It is mainly used for dv / dt protection.

12.What is meant by phase control?

Phase control (PFC), also called phase cutting, is a method for power limiting,
applied to AC voltages. It works by modulating a thyristor, SCR, triac, thyratron, or other
such gated diode-like devices into and out of conduction at a predetermined phase of the
applied waveform.

12.Draw the V-I characteristics of a Thyristor

13.Draw the basic structure of a Power MOSFET

14. Draw the V-I characteristics of a TRIAC

15.Define forward breakovervoltage .
When anode is positive with respect to cathode with gate current open, the junction J1
& J3 are forward biased but J2 is reverse biased. When the forward voltage is increased
junction J2 will have an avalanche breakdown and starts conducting at a particular voltage.
This voltage is called forward breakover voltage.

16. Mention some of the applications of controlled rectifier.

a. Steel rolling mills, printing press, textile mills and paper mills employing dc
motor drives.
b. DC traction
c. Electro chemical and electro-metallurgical process
d. Portable hand tool drives
e. Magnet power supplies
f. HVDC transmission system
17. What are the losses occurring in a thyristor during working conditions?
a. Forward conduction losses
b. Loss due to leakage current during forward and reverse blocking.
c. Switching losses at turn-on and turn-off.
d. Gate triggering loss.
18. What is meant by delay angle?
Delay angle is defined as the angle between the zero crossing of the input voltage
and the instant the thyristors is fired.

19. What is commutation angle or overlap angle?

The angle for which both devices share conduction is known as overlap angle.

20.What are the difference between current controlled devices and voltage controlled
devices?
IGBT is a voltage controlled device because the controlling parameter is gate emitter
voltage VGE. SimilarlyPower MOSFET is a voltage controlled device because the output
current can controlled by gate source voltage VGS.While in a BJT which is a Current
controlled device ,
the input is current and the output parameters are controlled by input current. The parameters
can be anything like current , voltage , etc.
 PART – B
1.WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT METHODS FOR TURNING ON AN SCR?
And oz ,respectively as shown in figure.The curve marked Ig= 0 is actually for
gae current less than oa.In practice , the magnitude of gate current is more than
the minimum gate current required to turn on the SCR. Typical gate current
magnitude are of the order of 20 to 200mA.
C)Temperature triggering:- During forward blocking ,most of the applied
voltage appears across reverse biased junction J2.This voltage across junction
J2 associated with leakage current may raise the temperature of this junction
.With increase in temperature ,leakage current through junction J2 further
increases. This cumulative process may turn on the thyristor at some high
temperature.

2. EXPLAIN THE SWITCHING PERFORMANCE OF BJT WITH RELEVANT

WAVEFORMS INDICATING CLEARLY THE TURN ON, TURN OFF TIMES AND
THEIR COMPONENTS.
3. DISCUSS THE OPERATION OF POWER MOSFET AND EXPLAIN THE
TRANSFER, OUTPUT AND SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER
MOSFET.
Turn –on time is defined as the sum of turn-on delay time and rise time of the device
4.EXPLAIN WITH DIAGRAM THE VARIOUS MODES OF WORKING OF TRIAC.
5.DISCUSS THE SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF IGBT.
6.(i)DESCRIBE ABOUT THE DIFFERENT FORCEDCOMMUTATION
TECHNIQUES
Forced Commutation Techniques:

The six distinct classes by which the SCR can be turned off are:
Class A Self commutated by a resonating load
Class B Self commutated by an L-C circuit
Class C C or L-C switched by another load carrying SCR
Class D C or L-C switched by an auxiliary SCR
Class E An external pulse source for commutation
Class F AC line commutation
These examples show the classes as choppers. The commutation classes may be used in
practice in configurations other than choppers.
Class A, Self commutated by resonating the load:

When the SCR is triggered, anode current flows and charges up C with the dot as
positive. The L-C-R forms a second order under-damped circuit. The current through the
SCR builds up and completes a half cycle. The inductor current will then attempt to flow
through the SCR in the reverse direction and the SCR will be turned off.

The current may be expressed as

The capacitor voltage is at its peak when the SCR turns off and the capacitor discharges into
the resistance in an exponential manner. The SCR is reverse-biased till the capacitor voltages
returns to the level of the supply voltage V.

Class B, Self commutated by an L-C circuit:

The Capacitor C charges up in the dot as positive before a gate pulse is applied to the
SCR. When SCR is triggered, the resulting current has two components.

The constant load current Iload flows through R - L load. This is ensured by the large reactance

in series with the load and the freewheeling diode clamping it. A sinusoidal current flows
through the resonant L-C circuit to charge-up C with the dot as negative at the end of the half
cycle. This current will then reverse and flow through the SCR in opposition to the load
current for a small fraction of the negative swing till the total current through the SCR
becomes zero. The SCR will turn off when the resonant–circuit (reverse) current is just
greater than the load current.

The SCR is turned off if the SCR remains reversed biased for tq > toff, and the rate of rise of

the reapplied voltage < the rated value.

Class C, C or L-C switched by another load–carrying SCR:

This configuration has two SCRs. One of them may be the main SCR and the other
auxiliary. Both may be load current carrying main SCRs. The configuration may have four
SCRs with the load across the capacitor, with the integral converter supplied from a current
source. Assume SCR2 is conducting. C then charges up in the polarity shown. When SCR1 is

triggered, C is switched across SCR2 via SCR1 and the discharge current of C opposes the

flow of load current in SCR2.

Class E – External pulse source for commutation:

The transformer is designed with sufficient iron and air gap so as not to saturate. It is
capable of carrying the load current with a small voltage drop compared with the supply
voltage.
When SCR1 is triggered, current flows through the load and pulse transformer. To
turn SCR1 off a positive pulse is applied to the cathode of the SCR from an external pulse

generator via the pulse transformer. The capacitor C is only charged to about 1 volt and for
the duration of the turn-off pulse it can be considered to have zero impedance. Thus the pulse
from the transformer reverses the voltage across the SCR, and it supplies the reverse recovery
current and holds the voltage negative for the required turn-off time.
Class F, AC line commutated :

If the supply is an alternating voltage, load current will flow during the positive half
cycle. With a highly inductive load, the current may remain continuous for some time till the
energy trapped in the load inductance is dissipated. During the negative half cycle, therefore,
the SCR will turn off when the load current becomes zero 'naturally'. The negative polarity of
the voltage appearing across the outgoing SCR turns it off if the voltage persists for the rated
turn-off period of the device. The duration of the half cycle must be definitely longer than the
turn-off time of the SCR.
The rectifier in Fig.3.6 is supplied from an single phase AC supply. The commutation process
involved here is representative of that in a three phase converter. The converter has an input
inductance Ls arising manly out of the leakage reactance of the supply transformer. Initially,

SCRs Th1 and Th1' are considered to be conducting. The triggering angle for the converter is
0
around 60 . The converter is operating in the continuous conduction mode aided by the
highly-inductive load.
When the incoming SCRs, Th2 and Th2' are triggered, the current through the incoming

devices cannot rise instantaneously to the load current level. A circulating current Iscbuilds up

in the short-circuited path including the supply voltage, Vs-Ls-Th1'- Th2 and Vs- Ls-Th2'-Th1
paths. This current can be described by: where α the triggering angle and Iscand Vs as shown

in Fig. 3.6. This expression is obtained with the simplifying assumption that the input
inductance contains no resistances. When the current rises in the incoming SCRs, which in
the outgoing cos(cos)90sin

Fig. 3.7 Class F, natural commutation by supply voltage

ones fall such that the total current remains constant at the load current level. When the
current in the incoming ones reach load current level, the turn-off process of the outgoing
ones is initiated. The reverse biasing voltage of these SCRs must continue till they reach their
forward blocking state. As is evident from the above expression, the overlap period is a
0
function of the triggering angle. It is lowest when α ~ 90 . These SCRs being 'Converter
grade', they have a larger turn-off time requirement of about 30-50 μsecs.
The period when both the devices conduct is known as the 'overlap period'. Since all SCRs
are in conduction, the output voltage for this period is zero. If the 'fully-controlled' converter
0
in Fig. 3.7 is used as an inverter with triggering angles > 90 , the converter triggering can be
delayed till the 'margin angle' which includes the overlap angle and the turn-off time of the
SCR - both dependent on the supply voltages.

(ii)DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR REVERSE RECOVERY CURRENT OF A

POWER DIODE.
7.EXPLAIN THE OPERATION OF SNUBBER CIRCUITS FOR POWER MOSFET.

SNUBBER CIRCUITS:

Transistors require certain turn-on and turn-off times. Neglecting the delay time t d and the
storage time ts , the typical voltage and current waveforms of a BJT switch is shown below.
 During turn-on, the collector rise and the di dt is

di I L I cs
  ...(1)
dt tr tr

During turn off, the collector emitter voltage must rise in relation to the fall of the
collector current, and is

dv Vs Vcc
  ...(2)
dt t f tf

The conditions di dt and dv dt in equation (1) and (2) are set by the transistor
switching characteristics and must be satisfied during turn on and turn off. Protection circuits
are normally required to keep the operating di dt and dv dt within the allowable limits of
transistor. A typical switch with di dt and dv dt protection is shown in figure (a), with
operating wave forms in figure (b). The RC network across the transistor is known as the
snubber circuit or snubber and limits the dv dt . The inductor LS , which limits the di dt , is
sometimes called series snubber.
Let us assume that under steady state conditions the load current I L is free wheeling through
diode Dm , which has negligible reverse reco`very time. When transistor Q1 is turned on, the
collector current rises and current of diode Dm falls, because Dm will behave as short
circuited. The equivalent circuit during turn on is shown in figure below

The turn on di dt is

di Vs
 ...(3)
dt Ls

Equating equations (1) and (3) gives the value of Ls

Vs tr
Ls  ...(4)
IL

During turn off, the capacitor Cs will charge by the load current and the equivalent
circuit is shown in figure (4). The capacitor voltage will appear across the transistor and the
dv dt is

dv I L
 ...(5)
dt Cs
 Equating equation (2) to equation (5) gives the required value of capacitance,

I Lt f
Cs  ...(6)
Vs

Once the capacitor is charge to Vs , the freewheeling diode will turn on. Due to the

energy stored in Ls , there will be damped resonant circuit as shown in figure (5). The RLC
circuit is normally made critically damped to avoid oscillations. For unity critical damping,

 R C
  1 , and equation    yields
0 2 L

Ls
Rs  2
Cs

The capacitor Cs has to discharge through the transistor and the increase the peak current
rating of the transistor. The discharge through the transistor can be avoided by placing
resistor Rs across Cs instead of placing Rs across Ds .The discharge current is shown in
figure below. When choosing the value of Rs , the discharge time, Rs Cs   s should also be
considered. A discharge time of one third the switching period, Ts is usually adequate.
1
3Rs Cs  Ts 
fs
1
Rs 
3 f s Cs

8.EXPLAINTHE STRUCTURE AND OPERATION OF TURN ON AND TURN OF

CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR.
Switching characteristics of thyristors

The time variation of voltage across the thyristor and current through it during turn
onand turn off process gives the dynamic or switching characteristic of SCR. Switching
characteristic during turn on

Turn on time

It is the time during which it changes from forward blocking state to ON state. Total
turnon time is divided into 3 intervals:
1. Delay time
2. Rise time
3. Spread time
Delay time

If and represent the final value of gate current and anode current. Then the

delaytimecan be explained as time during which the gate current attains 0.9 to the
instantanodecurrent reaches 0.1 or the anode current rises from forward leakage
current to 0.1 .

1. Gate current 0.9 to 0.1 .

2. Anode voltage falls from to 0.9 .
3. Anode current rises from forward leakage current to 0.1 .
Rise time ( )

Time during which

1. Anode current rises from 0.1 to 0.9

2. Forward blocking voltage falls from 0.9 to 0.1 . is the initial forward blocking
anode voltage.

Spread time ( )

1. Time taken by the anode current to rise from 0.9 to .

2. Time for the forward voltage to fall from 0.1 to on state voltage drop of 1 to
1.5V. During turn on, SCR is considered to be a charge controlled device. A
certain
amount of charge is injected in the gate region to begin conduction. So higher the

magnitude of gate current it requires less time to inject the charges. Thus turn on time

is reduced by using large magnitude of gate current.

Switching Characteristics During Turn Off

Thyristor turn off means it changed from ON to OFF state. Once thyristor is ON

there isno role of gate. As we know thyristor can be made turn OFF by reducing the
anodecurrent below the latching current. Here we assume the latching current to be
zeroampere. If a forward voltage is applied across the SCR at the moment it reaches
zero thenSCR will not be able to block this forward voltage. Because the charges
trapped in the 4-layer are still favourable for conduction and it may turn on the device.
So to avoid such acase, SCR is reverse biased for some time even if the anode current
has reached to zero.

So now the turn off time can be different as the instant anode current becomes zero to
theinstant when SCR regains its forward blocking capability.

= +

Where,

is the turn off time, is the reverse recovery time, is the gate recovery time

At 1 anode current is zero. Now anode current builds up in reverse direction with same
/dtslope. This is due to the presence of charge carriers in the four layers. The
reverserecovery current removes the excess carriers from 1 and 3 between the
instants

1 and 3 .At instant 3 the end junction 1 and 3 is recovered. But 2 still has trapped
charges whichdecay due to recombination only so the reverse voltage has to be
maintained for some

more time. The time taken for the recombination of charges between 3 and 4 is
calledgate recovery time . Junction 2 recovered and now a forward voltage can be
appliedacross SCR.
Junction 2 recovered and now a forward voltage can be appliedacross SCR.

The turn off time is affected by:

1. Junction temperature
2. Magnitude of forward current
Turn off time decreases with the increase of magnitude of reverse applied voltage
9.DESCRIBE THE OPERATION OF A SINGLE PHASE FULL- BRIDGE
CONVERTER USING 2 SCR’S AND 2 DIODE’S WITH RELEVANT WAVEFORMS
WITH RLE LOAD.

Fig 10.3 (a) shows the circuit diagram of a single phase fully controlled bridge
converter. It is one of the most popular converter circuits and is widely used in the
speed control of separately excited dc machines. Indeed, the R–L–E load shown in
this figure may represent the electrical equivalent circuit of a separately excited dc
motor.
The single phase fully controlled bridge converter is obtained by replacing all the
diode
of the corresponding uncontrolled converter by thyristors. Thyristors T1 and T2 are
fired together while T3 and T4 are fired 180º after T1 and T2. From the circuit
diagram of Fig 10.3(a) it is clear that for any load current to flow at least one thyristor
from the top group (T1, T3) and one thyristor from the bottom group (T2, T4) must
conduct. It can also be argued that neither T1T3nor T2T4 can conduct
simultaneously. For example whenever T3 and T4 are in the forward blocking state
and a gate pulse is applied to them, they turn ON and at the same time a negative
voltage is applied across T1 and T2 commutating them immediately. Similar
argument holds for T1 and T2.
For the same reason T1T4 or T2T3 can not conduct simultaneously. Therefore, the
only
possible conduction modes when the current i0 can flow are T1T2 and T3T4. Of
coarse it is possible that at a given moment none of the thyristors conduct. This
situation will typically occur when the load current becomes zero in between the
firings of T1T2 and T3T4. Once the load current becomes zero all thyristors remain
off. In this mode the load current remains zero. Consequently the converter is said to
be operating in the discontinuous conduction mode.
Fig 10.3(b) shows the voltage across different devices and the dc output voltage
during
each of these conduction modes. It is to be noted that whenever T1 and T2 conducts,
the voltage across T3 and T4 becomes –vi. Therefore T3 and T4 can be fired only
when vi is negative i.e, over the negative half cycle of the input supply voltage.
Similarly T1 and T2 can be fired only over the positive half cycle of the input supply.
The voltage across the devices when none of the thyristors conduct depends on the off
state impedance of each device. The values listed in Fig 10.3 (b) assume identical
devices. Under normal operating condition of the converter the load current may or
may not remain zero over some interval of the input voltage cycle. If i0 is always
greater than zero then the converter is said to be operating in the continuous
 conduction mode. In this mode of operation of the converter T1T2 and T3T4 conducts
for alternate half cycle of the input supply.

10.DESCRIBE THE OPERATION OF A SINGLE PHASE FULL-BRIDGE

CONVERTER AND EXPLAIN THE OPERATION IN CONTINUOUS AND
DISCONTINUOUS CONDUCTION MODE.

Operation in the continuous conduction mode

As has been explained earlier in the continuous conduction mode of operation i0
never becomes zero, therefore, either T1T2 or T3T4 conducts. Fig 10.4 shows the
waveforms of different variables in the steady state. The firing angle of the converter
is α. The angle θ is given by

It is assumed that at t = 0- T3T4 was conducting. As T1T2 are fired at ωt = α they

turn on
commutating T3T4 immediately. T3T4 are again fired at ωt = π + α. Till this point
T1T2
conducts.

The dc link voltage waveform shown next follows from this conduction diagram and
the
conduction table shown in Fig 10.3(b). It is observed that the emf source E is greater
than the dc link voltage till ωt = α. Therefore, the load current i0 continues to fall till
this point. However, as T1T2 are fired at this point v0 becomes greater than E and i0
starts increasing through R-L and E. At ωt = π – θ v0 again equals E. Depending upon
the load circuit parameters io reaches its maximum at around this point and starts
falling afterwards. Continuous conduction mode will be possible only if i0 remains
greater than zero till T3T4 are fired at ωt = π + α where upon the same process
repeats. The resulting i0 waveform is shown below v0. The input ac current waveform
iiis obtained from i0 by noting that whenever T1T2 conducts ii = i0 and ii = - i0
whenever T3T4conducts. The last waveform shows the typical voltage waveform
across the thyristor T1. It is to
be noted that when the thyristor turns off at ωt = π + α a negative voltage is applied
across it for a duration of π – α. The thyristor must turn off during this interval for
successful operation of the converter

Operation in the discontinuous conduction mode

So far we have assumed that the converter operates in continuous conduction mode
without paying attention to the load condition required for it. In figure 10.4 the
voltage across the R and L component of the load is negative in the region π - θ ≤ ωt ≤
π + α. Therefore i0 continues to decrease till a new pair of thyristor is fired at ωt = π +
α. Now if the value of R, L and E are such that i0 becomes zero before ωt = π + α the
conduction becomes discontinuous. Obviously then, at the boundary between
continuous and discontinuous conduction the minimum value of i0 which occurs atωt
= α and ωt = π + α will be zero. Putting this condition in (10.26) we obtain the
condition for continuous conduction as.
Fig 10.6 shows waveforms of different variables on the boundary between continuous
and discontinuous conduction modes and in the discontinuous conduction mode. It
should be stressed that on the boundary between continuous and discontinuous
conduction modes the load current is still continuous. Therefore, all the analysis of
continuous conduction mode applies to this case as well. However in the
discontinuous conduction mode i0 remains zero for certain interval. During this
interval none of the thyristors conduct. These intervals are shown by hatched lines in
the conduction diagram of Fig 10.6(b). In this conduction mode i0 starts rising from
zero as T1T2 are fired at ωt = α. The load current continues to increase till ωt = π – θ.
After this, the output voltage v0 falls below the emf E and i0 decreases till ωt = β
when it becomes zero. Since the
thyristors cannot conduct current in the reverse direction i0 remains at zero till ωt = π
+ α when T3 and T4 are fired. During the period β ≤ ωt ≤ π + α none of the thyristors
conduct. During this period v0 attains the value E.

11. THE EXPLAIN THE OPERATION OF SINGLE PHASE FULL BRIDGE

CONVERTER IN INVERTER MODE.
Inverter Mode of operation
expression for average dc voltage from a single phase fully controlled converter in
continuous conduction mode was

For α < π/2, Vd> 0. Since the thyristors conducts current only in one direction I0 > 0
always. Therefore power flowing to the dc side P = V0I0 > 0 for α < π/2. However for
α > π/2, V0 < 0.Hence P < 0. This may be interpreted as the load side giving power
back to the ac side and the converter in this case operate as a line commutated current
source inverter. So it may be tempting to conclude that the same converter circuit may
be operated as an inverter by just increasing α beyond π/2. This might have been true
had it been possible to maintain continuous conduction for α < π/2 without making
any modification to the converter or load connection. To supply power, the load EMF
source can be utilized. However the connection of this source in Fig 10.3 is such that
it can only absorb power but can not supply it. In fact, if an attempt is made to supply
power to the ac side (by making α > π/2) the energy stored in the load inductor will be
exhausted and the current will become discontinuous as shown in Fig 10.7 (a).
Fig 10.8 (a) and (b) below shows the waveforms of the inverter operating in
continuous
conduction mode and discontinuous conduction mode respectively. Analysis of the
converter remains unaltered from the rectifier mode of operation provided θ is defined
as shown.
.
12.WRITE SHORT NOTES ON GTO

GTO (Gate turn off thyristor)

A gate turn off thyristor is a pnpn device. In which it can be turned ON like an
ordinary SCR by a positive gate current. However it can be easily turned off by a
negative gate pulse of appropriate magnitude eexistence.

The salient features of GTO are:

1. GTO turned on like conventional SCR and is turned off by a negative gate signal of
sufficient magnitude.
2. It is a non latching device.
3. GTO reduces acoustic and electromagnetic noise.

It has high switching frequency and efficiency.A gate turn off thyristor can turn on like
an ordinary thyristor but it is turn off by negativegate pulse of appropriate magnitude.

Disadvantage

The negative gate current required to turn off a GTO is quite large that is 20% to 30 %
of anode current
Advantage

It is compact and cost less

Switching performance
 1. For turning ON a GTO first TR1is turned on.

2. This in turn switches on TR2 so that a positive gate current pulse is applied to
turn on theGTO.

3. Thyristor 1 is used to apply a high peak negative gate current pulse.

1.5.1 Gate turn-on and turn off characteristic

Gate turn-on

1. The gate turn on characteristics is similar to a thyristor. Total turn on time consists of
delay time, rise time, spread time.
2. The turn on time can be reduced by increasing its forward gate current.

Gate turn off

Turn off time is different for SCR.Turn off characteristics is divied into 3 pd

1. Storage time
2. Fall time

3. Tail time
Tq=ts+tf+tt

At normal operating condition gto carries a steady state current.The turn off process
starts as soon as negative currnt is applied after t
STORAGE TIME

During the storagepd the anode voltage and current remains constant.The gate
current risesdepending upon the gate circuit impedance and gate applied voltage.The
beginning of pd is as soonas negative gate current is applied.The end of storage pd is
marked by fall in anode current andrise in voltage,what we have to do is remove the
excess carriers.the excess carriers are removed bynegative carriers.

FALL TIME

After ts, anode current begins to fall rapidly and anode voltage starts rising.After
falling to a certainvalue,then anode current changes its rate to fall.this time is called fall
time

SPIKE IN VOLTAGE

During the time of storage and fall timethere is achange in voltage due to abrupt
current change.

TAIL TIME

During this time ,the anode current and voltage continues towards the turn off values.The
transient overshoot is due to the snubber parameter and voltage stabilizes to steady state
value