Chromatic Number

Definition 5.0.
1 (Chromatic Number)
The minimum number of colours, required to colour G is called the chromatic
number of G.
Definition 5.0.2 (Observation 1)

1 It is denoted by χ(G) (or) φ(G)
2 If χ(G) ≤ k, then G is said to be k-colourable.
3 If χ(G) = k, then G is said to be k-chromatic.
4 If H is any subgraph of G, then χ(H) ≤ χ(G).
5 Suppose G is a disconnected graph with connected components
G1 , G2 , · · · , Gn , whose chromatic numbers are χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χn . then the
chromatic number of G is χ = max{χi }, 1, 2, 3, · · · , n.
6 A graph consisting of only isolated vertices is 1-chromatic.
7 A graph with one or more edges is atleast 2-chromatic.
8 If G is a graph of n vertices, then χ(G) ≤ n.
Dr.A.Benevatho Jaison MAT1002 September 22, 2022 353 / 370

Definition 5.0.3 (Observation 2)
1 The chromatic number of the complete graph kn is n for all n ≥ 1.
2 If a graph G consists kn , as a subgraph, then χ(G) ≥ n.
3 A complete graph of n vertices is n-chromatic, as all its vertices are adja-
cent. Hence, a graph containing a complete graph of r vertices is atleast
r-chromatic. For instance, every graph having a triangle is atleast 3-
chromatic.
4 A graph consisting of simply one circuit with n ≥ 3, vertices is 2-
chromatic of n is even and 3-chromatic of n is odd.
5 Every tree with 2 or more vertices is 2-chromatic. Definition: k-chromatic
graph.
Definition 5.0.4 (k-chromatic graph)

A graph G that requires k different colours for its proper colouring and no less,
is called a k-chromatic graph, and the number k is called the chromatic number
of G.

Theorem 5.0.5
Every tree with two or more vertices is 2-chromatic.
Let T be a tree with two or more vertices.

Select any vertex v in T and paint colour 1.
Paint all vertices adjacent to v with colour 2.
Paint all the vertices adjacent to those vertices which have be used colour 2
using colour 1.
Continue this process, until every vertex of T has been painted.
Now, in T we find that all vertices at odd distances from v have colour 2, while
v and vertices at even distances from v have colour 1.
Since, there is one and only one path between any two vertices in a tree, no
two adjacent vertices will have the same colour.
Thus T has been properly coloured with two colours. One colour would not
have been enough.
Thus T is 2-chromatic.
The converse of the above theorem is not true.

Theorem 5.0.6
A graph with atleast one edge is 2-chromatic if and only if it has no circuits of
odd length. (Konig’s theorem)
Let G be a connected graph with circuits of even length only.

Let T be a spanning tree from G.
We know that, every tree with two or more vertices is 2-chromatic.
⇒ T is 2-chromatic.
Now add the edges (chords) to T one by one.
By adding the edges circuit of even length will be created.
Since G has no odd circuit, the end vertices of every edge will be coloured with
different colours.
Thus G can be properly coloured with 2 colours only.
So G is 2-chromatic.
Conversely, let G be a 2-chromatic graph. If G has a circuit of odd length then
it will require 3 colours. But G is 2-chromatic, so, it cannot have a circuit of
odd length.

Theorem 5.0.7
If ∆(G) is the maximum degree of the vertices in a graph G, chromatic number
of G ≤ 1 + ∆(G).
Prove that the chromatic number of a graph will not exceed by more than one
the maximum degree of the vertices in a graph.
Suppose χ > ∆ + 1
χ≥∆+2
χ−1≥∆+1
We know that, there are atleast χ vertices each of whose degree is atleast χ − 1.
Therefore, atleast there are χ vertices each of degree atleast ∆ + 1.
This is a contradiction for no vertex can be degree > ∆.
So our assumption χ > ∆ + 1 is wrong.
χ≤∆+1

Theorem 5.0.8
A graph 2-chromatic if and only if it is bipartite.
Let the chromatic number of the graph be 2. Therefore, the graph has a set
of non adjacent vertices which are coloured as 1 and there is a set of vertices
which are adjacent to previous set and are coloured with 2. Since, it is 2-
chromatic the graph does not have a circuit of odd length.
Hence, it is a bipartite graph.
Converse part:
If it is a bipartite graph, then it has no circuit of odd length and hence it has
chromatic number 2.

Definition 5.0.9 (Chromatic Polynomial)
A polynomial which gives the number of different ways the graph G can be
properly coloured using the minimum number of colours from λ is called chro-
matic polynomial of graph G and is denoted by Pn (λ).

Theorem 5.0.10
A graph is n vertices is a complete graph if and only if its chromatic polynomial
is
Pn (λ) = λ(λ − 1)(λ − 2) · · · (λ − n + 1)
Let G be a complete graph with n vertices.

Let λ be the number of colours.
1st vertex of G can be coloured in λ ways.
2nd vertex of G can be coloured in (λ − 1) ways.
3rd vertex of G can be coloured in (λ − 2) ways.
···
···
nth vertex of G can be coloured in λ − (n − 1) ways.
A complete graph G can be coloured in
λ(λ − 1)(λ − 2) · · · (λ − n + 1) ways.
Let Pn (λ) be the chromatic polynomial, then
Pn (λ) = λ(λ − 1)(λ − 2) · · · (λ − n + 1)
Theorem 5.0.11
An n-vertex graph is a tree if and only if its chromatic polynomial
Pn (λ) = λ(λ − 1)n−1
Given: n-vertex graph is a tree.

1st vertex can be coloured by λ way.
2nd vertex can be coloured by λ − 1 way.
3rd vertex can be coloured by λ − 1 way.
···
···
nth vertex can be coloured by λ − 1 way.
Hence, Pn (λ) = λ(λ − 1)n−1 , n ≥ 2.

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Definition 5.0.

Definition 5.0.2 (Observation 1)

Dr.A.Benevatho Jaison MAT1002 September 22, 2022 353 / 370

Definition 5.0.4 (k-chromatic graph)

Dr.A.Benevatho Jaison MAT1002 September 22, 2022 354 / 370

Let T be a tree with two or more vertices.

Dr.A.Benevatho Jaison MAT1002 September 22, 2022 355 / 370

Let G be a connected graph with circuits of even length only.

Dr.A.Benevatho Jaison MAT1002 September 22, 2022 356 / 370

Dr.A.Benevatho Jaison MAT1002 September 22, 2022 357 / 370

Dr.A.Benevatho Jaison MAT1002 September 22, 2022 358 / 370

Dr.A.Benevatho Jaison MAT1002 September 22, 2022 359 / 370

Let G be a complete graph with n vertices.

Pn (λ) = λ(λ − 1)n−1

Given: n-vertex graph is a tree.

Dr.A.Benevatho Jaison MAT1002 September 22, 2022 361 / 370

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