Part IA — Groups

Definitions

Based on lectures by J. Goedecke

Notes taken by Dexter Chua

Michaelmas 2014

These notes are not endorsed by the lecturers, and I have modified them (often
significantly) after lectures. They are nowhere near accurate representations of what
was actually lectured, and in particular, all errors are almost surely mine.

Examples of groups
Axioms for groups. Examples from geometry: symmetry groups of regular polygons,
cube, tetrahedron. Permutations on a set; the symmetric group. Subgroups and
homomorphisms. Symmetry groups as subgroups of general permutation groups. The
Möbius group; cross-ratios, preservation of circles, the point at infinity. Conjugation.
Fixed points of Möbius maps and iteration. [4]

Lagrange’s theorem
Cosets. Lagrange’s theorem. Groups of small order (up to order 8). Quaternions.
Fermat-Euler theorem from the group-theoretic point of view. [5]

Group actions
Group actions; orbits and stabilizers. Orbit-stabilizer theorem. Cayley’s theorem
(every group is isomorphic to a subgroup of a permutation group). Conjugacy classes.
Cauchy’s theorem. [4]

Quotient groups
Normal subgroups, quotient groups and the isomorphism theorem. [4]

Matrix groups
The general and special linear groups; relation with the Möbius group. The orthogonal
and special orthogonal groups. Proof (in R3 ) that every element of the orthogonal
group is the product of reflections and every rotation in R3 has an axis. Basis change
as an example of conjugation. [3]

Permutations
Permutations, cycles and transpositions. The sign of a permutation. Conjugacy in Sn
and in An . Simple groups; simplicity of A5 . [4]

1
Contents IA Groups (Definitions)

Contents
0 Introduction 4

1 Groups and homomorphisms 5

1.1 Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Cyclic groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Dihedral groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Direct products of groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 Symmetric group I 7
2.1 Symmetric groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Sign of permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3 Lagrange’s Theorem 8
3.1 Small groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2 Left and right cosets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4 Quotient groups 9
4.1 Normal subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.2 Quotient groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.3 The Isomorphism Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

5 Group actions 10
5.1 Group acting on sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.2 Orbits and Stabilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.3 Important actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

6 Symmetric groups II 11
6.1 Conjugacy classes in Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6.2 Conjugacy classes in An . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

7 Quaternions 12

8 Matrix groups 13
8.1 General and special linear groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
8.2 Actions of GLn (C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
8.3 Orthogonal groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
8.4 Rotations and reflections in R2 and R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
8.5 Unitary groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

9 More on regular polyhedra 14

9.1 Symmetries of the cube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
9.2 Symmetries of the tetrahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

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Contents IA Groups (Definitions)

10 Möbius group 15
10.1 Möbius maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
10.2 Fixed points of Möbius maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
10.3 Permutation properties of Möbius maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
10.4 Cross-ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

11 Projective line (non-examinable) 16

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0 Introduction IA Groups (Definitions)

0 Introduction

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1 Groups and homomorphisms IA Groups (Definitions)

1 Groups and homomorphisms

1.1 Groups
Definition (Binary operation). A (binary) operation is a way of combining two
elements to get a new element. Formally, it is a map ∗ : A × A → A.
Definition (Group). A group is a set G with a binary operation ∗ satisfying
the following axioms:
1. There is some e ∈ G such that for all a, we have

a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a. (identity)

2. For all a ∈ G, there is some a−1 ∈ G such that

a ∗ a−1 = a−1 ∗ a = e. (inverse)

3. For all a, b, c ∈ G, we have

(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c). (associativity)

Definition (Order of group). The order of the group, denoted by |G|, is the
number of elements in G. A group is a finite group if the order is finite.
Definition (Abelian group). A group is abelian if it satisfies

4. (∀a, b ∈ G) a ∗ b = b ∗ a. (commutativity)
Definition (Subgroup). A H is a subgroup of G, written H ≤ G, if H ⊆ G and
H with the restricted operation ∗ from G is also a group.

1.2 Homomorphisms
Definition (Function). Given two sets X, Y , a function f : X → Y sends each
x ∈ X to a particular f (x) ∈ Y . X is called the domain and Y is the co-domain.
Definition (Composition of functions). The composition of two functions is a
function you get by applying one after another. In particular, if f : X → Y and
G : Y → Z, then g ◦ f : X → Z with g ◦ f (x) = g(f (x)).
Definition (Injective functions). A function f is injective if it hits everything
at most once, i.e.
(∀x, y ∈ X) f (x) = f (y) ⇒ x = y.
Definition (Surjective functions). A function is surjective if it hits everything
at least once, i.e.
(∀y ∈ Y )(∃x ∈ X) f (x) = y.
Definition (Bijective functions). A function is bijective if it is both injective
and surjective. i.e. it hits everything exactly once. Note that a function has an
inverse iff it is bijective.

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1 Groups and homomorphisms IA Groups (Definitions)

Definition (Group homomorphism). Let (G, ∗) and (H, ×) be groups. A

function f : G → H is a group homomorphism iff

(∀g1 , g2 ∈ G) f (g1 ) × f (g2 ) = f (g1 ∗ g2 ),

Definition (Group isomorphism). Isomorphisms are bijective homomorphisms.

Two groups are isomorphic if there exists an isomorphism between them. We
write G ∼
= H.
Definition (Image of homomorphism). If f : G → H is a homomorphism, then
the image of f is
im f = f (G) = {f (g) : g ∈ G}.
Definition (Kernel of homomorphism). The kernel of f , written as

ker f = f −1 ({eH }) = {g ∈ G : f (g) = eH }.

1.3 Cyclic groups

Definition (Cyclic group Cn ). A group G is cyclic if

(∃a)(∀b)(∃n ∈ Z) b = an ,

i.e. every element is some power of a. Such an a is called a generator of G.

We write Cn for the cyclic group of order n.
Notation. Given a group G and a ∈ G, we write ⟨a⟩ for the cyclic group
generated by a, i.e. the subgroup of all powers of a. It is the smallest subgroup
containing a.
Definition (Order of element). The order of an element a is the smallest integer
n such that an = e. If n doesn’t exist, a has infinite order. Write ord(a) for the
order of a.
Definition (Exponent of group). The exponent of a group G is the smallest
integer n such that an = e for all a ∈ G.

1.4 Dihedral groups

Definition (Dihedral groups D2n ). Dihedral groups are the symmetries of a
regular n-gon. It contains n rotations (including the identity symmetry, i.e.
rotation by 0◦ ) and n reflections.
We write the group as D2n . Note that the subscript refers to the order of
the group, not the number of sides of the polygon.

1.5 Direct products of groups

Definition (Direct product of groups). Given two groups (G, ◦) and (H, •),
we can define a set G × H = {(g, h) : g ∈ G, h ∈ H} and an operation
(a1 , a2 ) ∗ (b1 , b2 ) = (a1 ◦ b1 , a2 • b2 ). This forms a group.

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2 Symmetric group I IA Groups (Definitions)

2 Symmetric group I
2.1 Symmetric groups
Definition (Permutation). A permutation of X is a bijection from a set X to
X itself. The set of all permutations on X is Sym X.
Definition (Symmetric group Sn ). If X is finite, say |X| = n (usually use
X = {1, 2, · · · , n}), we write Sym X = Sn . The is the symmetric group of degree
n.
Notation. (Two row notation) We write 1, 2, 3, · · · n on the top line and their
images below, e.g.
   
1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5
∈ S3 and ∈ S5
2 3 1 2 1 3 4 5

In general, if σ : X → X, we write
 
1 2 3 ··· n
σ(1) σ(2) σ(3) ··· σ(n)

Notation (Cycle notation). If a map sends 1 7→ 2, 2 7→ 3, 3 7→ 1, then we

write it as a cycle (1 2 3). Alternatively, we can write (2 3 1) or (3 1 2), but by
convention, we usually write the smallest number first. We leave out numbers
that don’t move. So we write (1 2) instead of (1 2)(3).
For more complicated maps, we can write them as products of cycles. For
example, in S4 , we can have things like (1 2)(3 4).
Definition (k-cycles and transpositions). We call (a1 a2 a3 · · · ak ) a k-cycle.
2-cycles are called transpositions. Two cycles are disjoint if no number appears
in both cycles.
Definition (Cycle type). Write a permutation σ ∈ Sn in disjoint cycle notation.
The cycle type is the list of cycle lengths. This is unique up to re-ordering. We
often (but not always) leave out singleton cycles.

2.2 Sign of permutations

Definition (Sign of permutation). Viewing σ ∈ Sn as a product of transpositions,
σ = τ1 · · · τl , we call sgn(σ) = (−1)l . If sgn(σ) = 1, we call σ an even permutation.
If sgn(σ) = −1, we call σ an odd permutation.
Definition (Alternating group An ). The alternating group An is the kernel of
sgn, i.e. the even permutations. Since An is a kernel of a group homomorphism,
An ≤ Sn .

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3 Lagrange’s Theorem IA Groups (Definitions)

3 Lagrange’s Theorem
Definition (Cosets). Let H ≤ G and a ∈ G. Then the set aH = {ah : h ∈ H}
is a left coset of H and Ha = {ha : h ∈ H} is a right coset of H.

Definition (Partition). Let X S be a set, and X1 , · · · Xn be subsets of X. The

Xi are called a partition of X if Xi = X and Xi ∩ Xj = ∅ for i ̸= j. i.e. every
element is in exactly one of Xi .
Definition (Index of a subgroup). The index of H in G, written |G : H|, is the
number of left cosets of H in G.

Definition (Equivalence relation). An equivalence relation ∼ is a relation that

is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. i.e.
(i) (∀x) x ∼ x (reflexivity)
(ii) (∀x, y) x ∼ y ⇒ y ∼ x (symmetry)

(iii) (∀x, y, z) [(x ∼ y) ∧ (y ∼ z) ⇒ x ∼ z] (transitivity)

Definition (Equivalence class). Given an equivalence relation ∼ on A, the
equivalence class of a is

[a]∼ = [a] = {b ∈ A : a ∼ b}

Definition (Euler totient function). (Euler totient function) ϕ(n) = |Un |.

3.1 Small groups

3.2 Left and right cosets

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4 Quotient groups IA Groups (Definitions)

4 Quotient groups
4.1 Normal subgroups
Definition (Normal subgroup). A subgroup K of G is a normal subgroup if

(∀a ∈ G)(∀k ∈ K) aka−1 ∈ K.

We write K ◁ G. This is equivalent to:

(i) (∀a ∈ G) aK = Ka, i.e. left coset = right coset
(ii) (∀a ∈ G) aKa−1 = K (cf. conjugacy classes)

4.2 Quotient groups

Definition (Quotient group). Given a group G and a normal subgroup K, the
quotient group or factor group of G by K, written as G/K, is the set of (left)
cosets of K in G under the operation aK ∗ bK = (ab)K.

4.3 The Isomorphism Theorem

Definition (Simple group). A group is simple if it has no non-trivial proper
normal subgroup, i.e. only {e} and G are normal subgroups.

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5 Group actions IA Groups (Definitions)

5 Group actions
5.1 Group acting on sets
Definition (Group action). Let X be a set and G be a group. An action of G
on X is a homomorphism φ : G → Sym X.
Definition (Kernel of action). The kernel of an action G on X is the kernel of
φ, i.e. all g such that φ(g) = 1X .
Definition (Faithful action). An action is faithful if the kernel is just {e}.

5.2 Orbits and Stabilizers

Definition (Orbit of action). Given an action G on X, the orbit of an element
x ∈ X is
orb(x) = G(x) = {y ∈ X : (∃g ∈ G) g(x) = y}.
Intuitively, it is the elements that x can possibly get mapped to.
Definition (Stabilizer of action). The stabilizer of x is
stab(x) = Gx = {g ∈ G : g(x) = x} ⊆ G.
Intuitively, it is the elements in G that do not change x.
Definition (Transitive action). An action G on X is transitive if (∀x) orb(x) =
X, i.e. you can reach any element from any element.

5.3 Important actions

Definition (Conjugation of element). The conjugation of a ∈ G by b ∈ G is
given by bab−1 ∈ G. Given any a, c, if there exists some b such that c = bab−1 ,
then we say a and c are conjugate.
Definition (Conjugacy classes and centralizers). The conjugacy classes are the
orbits of the conjugacy action.
ccl(a) = {b ∈ G : (∃g ∈ g) gag −1 = b}.
The centralizers are the stabilizers of this action, i.e. elements that commute
with a.
CG (a) = {g ∈ G : gag −1 = a} = {g ∈ G : ga = ag}.
Definition (Center of group). The center of G is the elements that commute
with all other elements.
Z(G) = {g ∈ G : (∀a) gag −1 = a} = {g ∈ G : (∀a) ga = ag}.
It is sometimes written as C(G) instead of Z(G).
Definition (Normalizer of subgroup). The normalizer of a subgroup is the
stabilizer of the (group) conjugation action.
NG (H) = {g ∈ G : gHg −1 = H}.

5.4 Applications

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6 Symmetric groups II IA Groups (Definitions)

6 Symmetric groups II
6.1 Conjugacy classes in Sn
6.2 Conjugacy classes in An
Definition (Splitting of conjugacy classes). When | cclAn (σ)| = 12 | cclSn (σ)|, we
say that the conjugacy class of σ splits in An .

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7 Quaternions IA Groups (Definitions)

7 Quaternions
Definition (Quaternions). The quaternions is the set of matrices
       
1 0 i 0 0 1 0 i
, , ,
0 1 0 −i −1 0 i 0
       
−1 0 −i 0 0 −1 0 −i
, , ,
0 −1 0 i 1 0 −i 0

which is a subgroup of GL2 (C).

Notation. We can also write the quaternions as

Q8 = ⟨a, b : a4 = e, b2 = a2 , bab−1 = a−1 ⟩

Even better, we can write

Q8 = {1, −1, i, −i, j, −j, k, −k}

with
(i) (−1)2 = 1

(ii) i2 = j 2 = k 2 = −1
(iii) (−1)i = −i etc.
(iv) ij = k, jk = i, ki = j

(v) ji = −k, kj = −i, ik = −j

We have
       
1 0 i 0 0 1 0 i
1= ,i = ,j = ,k =
0 1 0 −i −1 0 i 0
       
−1 0 −i 0 0 −1 0 −i
−1 = , −i = , −j = , −k =
0 −1 0 i 1 0 −i 0

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8 Matrix groups IA Groups (Definitions)

8 Matrix groups
8.1 General and special linear groups
Definition (General linear group GLn (F )).

GLn (F ) = {A ∈ Mn×n (F ) : A is invertible}

is the general linear group.

Definition (Special linear group SLn (F )). The special linear group SLn (F ) is
the kernel of the determinant, i.e.

SLn (F ) = {A ∈ GLn (F ) : det A = 1}.

8.2 Actions of GLn (C)

8.3 Orthogonal groups
Definition (Orthogonal group O(n)). The orthogonal group is

O(n) = On = On (R) = {A ∈ GLn (R) : AT A = I},

i.e. the group of orthogonal matrices.

Definition (Special orthogonal group SO(n)). The special orthogonal group is
the kernel of det : O(n) → {±1}.

SO(n) = SOn = SOn (R) = {A ∈ O(n) : det A = 1}.

8.4 Rotations and reflections in R2 and R3

8.5 Unitary groups
Definition (Unitary group U (n)). The unitary group is

U(n) = Un = {A ∈ GLn (C) : A† A = I}.

Definition (Special unitary group SU (n)). The special unitary group SU(n) =
SUn is the kernel of det U (n) → S 1 .

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9 More on regular polyhedra IA Groups (Definitions)

9 More on regular polyhedra

9.1 Symmetries of the cube
9.2 Symmetries of the tetrahedron

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10 Möbius group IA Groups (Definitions)

10 Möbius group
10.1 Möbius maps
Definition (Möbius map). A Möbius map is a map from C∞ → C∞ of the form

az + b
f (z) = ,
cz + d

where a, b, c, d ∈ C and ad − bc ̸= 0, with f (− dc ) = ∞ and f (∞) = a

c ̸ 0.
when c =
(if c = 0, then f (∞) = ∞)
Definition (Projective general linear group PGL2 (C)). (Non-examinable) The
projective general linear group is

PGL2 (C) = GL2 (C)/Z.

10.2 Fixed points of Möbius maps

Definition (Fixed point). A fixed point of f is a z such that f (z) = z.

10.3 Permutation properties of Möbius maps

Definition (Three-transitive action). An action of G on X is called three-
transitive if the induced action on {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) ∈ X 3 : xi pairwise disjoint},
given by g(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (g(x1 ), g(x2 ), g(x3 )), is transitive.
This means that for any two triples x1 , x2 , x3 and y1 , y2 , y3 of distinct elements
of X, there exists g ∈ G such that g(xi ) = yi .
If this g is always unique, then the action is called sharply three transitive

10.4 Cross-ratios
Definition (Cross-ratios). Given four distinct points z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ∈ C∞ , their
cross-ratio is [z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ] = g(z4 ), with g being the unique Möbius map that
maps z1 7→ ∞, z2 7→ 0, z3 7→ 1. So [∞, 0, 1, λ] = λ for any λ ̸= ∞, 0, 1. We have
z4 − z2 z3 − z1
[z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ] = ·
z4 − z1 z3 − z2
(with special cases as above).

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11 Projective line (non-examinable) IA Groups (Definitions)

11 Projective line (non-examinable)

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